Slaves of the State: Black incarceration from the chain gang to the penitentiary

Slaves of the State: Black Incarceration from the Chain Gang to the Penitentiary

Volumn , Issue , 2015, Pages 1-259

  Childs, Dennis ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

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EID: 84952057541     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: None     Document Type: Book

References (262)

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39. John Lomax and Alan Lomax, Negro Folk Songs as Sung by Lead Belly “King of the Twelve-String Guitar Players of the World/’ Long-time Convict in the Penitentiaries of Texas and Louisiana (New York: Macmillan, 1936)
40. Charles Wolfe and Kip Lornell, The Life and Legend of Leadbelly (New York: HarperCollins, 1992).
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48. Alex Lichtenstein, Twice the Work of Free Labor: The Political Economy of Convict Labor in the New South (London: Verso, 1996), 185.
49. David Oshin-sky, “Worse Than Slavery”: Parchman Farm and the Ordeal of Justice (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1996);
50. Milfred Fierce, Slavery Revisited: Blacks and the Convict Lease System, 1865-1933 (New York: City University of New York, 1994);
51. Walter Wilson, Forced Labor in the United States (New York: International Publishers, 1933), 80.
52. Dylan Rodriguez, Forced Passages: Imprisoned Radical Intellectuals and the U.S. Prison Regime (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2006), 223-56.
53. George Jackson, Soledad Brother: The Prison Letters of George Jackson (Chicago: Lawrence Hill Books, 1994), 233;
54. Melvin Farmer, The New Slave Ship (Los Angeles: Milligan Books, 1998).
55. Angela Y. Davis, Are Prisons Obsolete? (New York: Seven Stories Press, 2003), 94.
56. Bernard Bell, The Afro-American Novel and Its Tradition (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1987);
57. Ashraf Rushdy, Neo-slave Narratives: Studies in the Social Logic of a Literary Form (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999);
58. Caroline Rody, The Daughter’s Return: African-American and Caribbean Women’s Fictions of History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001);
59. Angelyn Mitchell, The Freedom to Remember: Narrative, Slavery, and Gender in Contemporary Black Women’s Fiction(New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 2002);
60. Arlene Keizer, Black Subjects: Identity Formation in the Contemporary Narrative of Slavery (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2004).
61. Joy James, “Democracy and Captivity,” Introduction to The New Abolitionists: (Neo)Slave Narratives and Contemporary Prison Writings (New York: State University of New York Press, 2005).
62. Toni Morrison, Beloved (New York: Plume, 1987), 210-11.
63. Daniel Mannix, Black Cargoes: A History of the Atlantic Slave Trade (New York: Viking, 1962), 106.
64. Joseph Inikori and Stanley Engerman, eds., The Atlantic Slave Trade: Effects on Economies, Societies, and Peoples in Africa, the Americas, and Europe (Durham: Duke University Press, 1992);
65. Walter Rodney, How Europe Underdeveloped Africa(Washington, D.C.: Howard University, 1982);
66. Saidiya Hartman, Scenes of Subjection: Terror; Slavery, and Self-Making in Nineteenth-Century America (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997), 225;
67. Stephanie Smallwood, Saltwater Slavery: A Middle Passage from Africa to American Diaspora (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2007), 150-51;
68. Colin Dayan, “Legal Slaves and Civil Bodies,” in Materializing Democracy ed. Russ Castronovo and Dana Nelson (Durham: Duke University Press, 2002), 69.
69. Sylvia Wynter, “On Disenchanting Discourse: ‘Minority’ Literary Criticism and Beyond,” in The Nature and Context of Minority Discourse, ed. Abdul JanMohamed and David Lloyd (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990), 439-48.
70. Michel Foucault, “Society Must be Defended”: Lectures at the College de France, 1975-1976 (New York: Picador, 2003), 77.
71. Louis Althusser, “Ideology and Ideological State Apparatus (Notes Towards an Investigation),” in Lenin and Philosophy (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1971).
72. David Lawrence, “Fleshy Ghosts and Ghostly Flesh: The Word and the Body in Beloved’,’ in Toni Morrison’s Fiction: Contemporary Criticism, ed. David Middleton (New York: Garland, 1996), 231-46.
73. Avery Gordon, Ghostly Matters: Haunting and the Sociological Imagination (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1996).
74. Walter Wilson, “Chain Gangs and Profit,” Harper’s, April 1933, 539-40.
75. Giorgio Agamben, Homo Sacer: Sovereign Power and Bare Life, trans. Daniel Heller-Roazen (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1998), 166.
76. Aime Cesaire, Discourse on Colonialism, trans. Joan Pinkham (London: Monthly Review Press, 1972)
77. Frantz Fanon, The Wretched of the Earth (New York: Grove Press, 1991)
78. Ward Churchill, A Little Matter of Genocide: Holocaust Denial in the Americas, 1492 to thePresent (San Francisco: City Lights, 1997);
79. Hannah Arendt, The Origins of Totalitarianism (New York: Harcourt Bracejovanovich, 1973)
80. Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish, trans. Alan Sheridan (New York: Vintage Books, 1979), 263.
81. Foucault F, Discipline and Punish, 263-64.
82. Robinson R, Black Marxism, 239.
83. Oshinsky O, “Worse Than Slavery” 46, 79.
84. Sterling Brown, “Folk Literature” (1941), in A Son’s Return: Selected Essays of Sterling A. Brown, ed. Mark A. Sanders (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1996), 221-22
85. Amiri Baraka [LeRoi Jones], Blues People (New York: Morrow Quill, 1963), 67-68.
86. Amilcar Cabral, “Tell No Lies, Claim No Easy Victories,” in Revolution in Guinea: Selected Texts (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1972), 86.
87. Sylvia Wynter, “On Disenchanting Discourse: ‘Minority’ Literary Criticism and Beyond,” in The Nature and Context of Minority Discourse, ed. Abdul JanMohamed and David Lloyd (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990), 443-57;
88. Lizabeth Paravisini-Gebert, “Colonial and Post-Colonial Gothic: The Caribbean,” in The Cambridge Companion to Gothic Fiction (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 248-53.
89. Joy James, “American ‘Prison Notebooks,’” Race & Class 45, no. 3 (2004): 35-44.
90. James J, Imprisoned Intellectuals: America’s Political Prisoners Write on Life, Liberation, and Rebellion (Lanham, Md.: Rowman and Littlefield, 2003);
91. Jacqueline Jones, Labor of Love, Labor of Sorrow: Black Women and the Family, from Slavery to the Present (New York: Vintage Books, 1985), 153.
92. Alex Lichtenstein, “Good Roads and Chain Gangs in the Progressive South: ‘The Negro Convict Is a Slave,”’ Journal of Southern History 59, no. 1 (February 1993): 85-110.
93. Rebecca McLennan, The Crisis of Imprisonment (New York: Cambridge University, 2008), 30-31.
94. Dayan D, The Law Is a White Dog, 62.
95. James Wright, The Free Negro in Maryland (New York: Columbia University Press, 1921), 36-37.
96. Leon Litwack, North of Slavery: The Negro in the Free States, 1790-1860 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1961), 64-112.
97. Oshinsky O, “Worse Than Slavery,” 40-41.
98. Carl Schurz, Report on the Condition of the South, 39th Cong., 1st sess., Senate Ex. Doc. No. 2, December 1865.
99. Dayan D, “Legal Slaves and Civil Bodies,” 70
100. Scott Howe’s brilliant work, “Slavery as Punishment: Original Public Meaning, Cruel and Unusual Punishment, and the Neglected Clause in the Thirteenth Amendment,” 51 Arizona Law Review 983 (2009).
101. Risa Goluboff, “The Thirteenth Amendment and the Lost Origins of Civil Rights,” 50 Duke Law Journal 1609 (2001): 1637-40
102. Benno Schmidt, “Principle and Prejudice: The Supreme Court and Race in the Progressive Era,” 82 Columbia Law Review 646 (1982)
103. Kamal Ghali, “No Slavery Except as Punishment for a Crime: The Punishment Clause and Sexual Slavery,” 55 UCLA Law Review607 (2008)
104. Raja Raghunath, “A Promise the Nation Cannot Keep: What Prevents the Application of the Thirteenth Amendment in Prison?” William and Mary Bill of Rights Journal 18 (2009): 395.
105. Kim Shayo Buchanan, “Impunity: Sexual Abuse in Women’s Prisons,” Harvard Civil Rights-Civil Liberties Law Review 42 (2007): 59.
106. Alexander Tsesis, The Thirteenth Amendment and American Freedom (New York: New York University Press, 2004);
107. Michael Voreberg, Final Freedom: The Civil War, the Abolition of Slavery, and the Thirteenth Amendment (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001);
108. George H. Hoemann, What God Hath Wrought: The Embodiment of Freedom in the Thirteenth Amendment (New York: Garland, 1987).
109. Elmer Gertz, “The Black Laws of Illinois,” Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society 56 (Autumn 1963): 454-73.
110. Thorsten Sellin, Slavery and the Penal System (New York: Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, 1976);
111. Esposito E. and Wood W., Prison Slavery, David Brion Davis, The Problem of Slavery in the Age of Revolution (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 453-68;
112. Orlando Patterson, Slavery and Social Death (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1982), 44-45, 128-29
113. Howe H, “Slavery as Punishment”; Rodriguez, Forced Passages
114. Lichtenstein L, Twice the Work of Free Labor, 1-36, 8-80,110-68;
115. Adam Hirsch, The Rise and Fall of the Penitentiary (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992), 71-111.
116. Cesare Beccaria, On Crimes and Punishments (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 69.
117. Jeremy Bentham, The Rationale of Punishment (London: Robert Heward, 1830), 165.
118. Scott Christianson, With Liberty for Some (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1998);
119. Mark Colvin, Penitentiaries, Reformatories, and Chain Gangs (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1997), 1-128;
120. Rebecca M. McLennan, The Crisis of Imprisonment: Protest, Politics, and the Making of the American Penal State, 1776-1941 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008).
121. Hartman H, Scenes of Subjection, 164-206
122. Antonio Gramsci, Selections from the Prison Notebooks (New York: International Publishers, 1999), 206-75
123. Althusser A, “Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses,” 97.
124. Goluboff G, “The Thirteenth Amendment and the Lost Origins of Civil Rights,” and Blackmon, Slavery by Another Name, 381.
125. Donald Nieman, To Set the Law in Motion (New York: KTO Press, 1979), 110.
126. Hartman H, Scenes of Subjection, 164-206.
127. Hartman H, Scenes of Subjection, 244.
128. Dittmer D, Black Georgia in the Progressive Era, 1900-1920, 78.
129. Talitha LeFLouria, ‘“The Hand That Rocks the Cradle Cuts Cord-wood’: Exploring Black Women’s Lives and Labor in Georgia’s Convict Camps, 1865-1917,” Labor: Studies in Working-Class History of the Americas 8, no. 3 (2011):
130. Senator Joseph E. Brown and Governor John B. Brown. Dittmer, Black Georgia in the Progressive Era, 83.
131. Robinson R., Black Marxism-, Frantz Fanon, Wretched of the Earth. For my use of the term “afterlife” in respect to the staying power of chattelized law, I am indebted to Saidiya Hartman, Lose Your Mother (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2007).
132. E. Stagg Whitin, Penal Servitude (New York: National Committee on Prison Labor, 1912), 1.
133. Apthecker A, American Negro Slave Revolts (New York: International Publishers, 1969), 123.
134. Angela Y. Davis, “Public Imprisonment and Private Violence: Reflections on the Hidden Punishment of Women,” 24 New England Journal on Criminal & Civil Confinement 339 (1998).
135. William Cohen, “Negro Involuntary Servitude in the South, 1865-1940: A Preliminary Analysis,” Journal of Southern History, 42, no. 1 (February 1976): 53-55;
136. Schmidt S, “Principle and Prejudice,” 691-701.
137. Du Bois, Black Reconstruction in America, 697-98.
138. Hartman H, Scenes of Subjection, 164-206.
139. Hartman H United States v. Reynolds, 235 U.S. 133 (1914), 145.
140. Daniel D, The Shadow of Slavery, 110-31.
141. Hartman H, Scenes of Subjection, 164-206.
142. Daniel D, The Shadow of Slavery 22,108.
143. Daniel D, The Shadow of Slavery.
144. Mary Ellen Curtin, Black Prisoners and Their World, Alabama, 1865-1900 (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2000), 120.
145. Walter Rugaber, “70 Deaths Linked in Arkansas Prison Since 1936 Linked to Violence,” New York Times, February 7, 1968,1, 22.
146. Johnny Butler and other anonymous prisoners, “Early in the Morning,” Prison Worksongs, Arhoolie CD 448, Arhoolie Productions, 1997.
147. Mike Davis, “A Prison Industrial Complex: Hell Factories in the Field,” The Nation, February 20, 1995, 229-34
148. James Ridgeway, “God’s Own Warden,” Mother Jones, July- August 2011.
149. Marie Gottschalk, “Days Without End: Life Sentences and Penal Reform,” Prison Legal News, https://www.prisonlegalnews.org/.
150. Cindy Chang et al., “Louisiana Incarcerated: How We Built the World’s Prison Capital,” Times-Picaytme, http://www.nola.com/crime/index.ssf/20i2/o5/louisiana_is_the_worlds_prison.html.
151. Stephen Small and Jennifer J. Eichstedt, Representations of Slavery: Race and Ideology in Southern Plantation Museums (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 2002).
152. Mary Rachel Gould, “Discipline and the Performance of Punishment: Welcome to the Wildest Show in the South,” Liminalities: A Journal of Performance Studies 7, no. 4 (December 2011): 24.
153. Mary Rachel Gould, “Joke-Crackers in Prison: Blackface Comedians Entertain Men in Penitentiary,” The Watchman and Southron (Sumpter, S.C.), December 31,1913, 8;
154. Mary Rachel Gould, “Prisoners Give a Play: Many Citizens Attend a Thanksgiving Vaudeville Show in Auburn,” New York Times, November 27,1914, 6;
155. Mary Rachel Gould, “Sing Sing Prisoners Merry: Convicts Give a Minstrel and Vaudeville Entertainment,” New York Times, November 29, 1907, 9;
156. Mary Rachel Gould, “Convicts Entertain Nevada’s Governor: Executive Attends Minstrel Show in Prison—Warden Bakers New Plan,” San Francisco Chronicle, March 3, 1911, 13;
157. Mary Rachel Gould, “Convicts Give Minstrel Show: Folsom Inmates Display Talent in Black Face,” Los Angeles Times, December 26,1912,13.
158. B. I. Krebs, “Blood Took Penitentiary Out of the Red: Prisoners Flogged 10,000 Times During Machine Rule,” Times-Picayune, May 11, 1941, 26-27.
159. Raymond Luc Levasseur, “Trouble Coming Everyday: ADX—the First Year,” North Coast Xpress (June-July 1996).
160. Wilbert Rideau, “A Matter of Control” The Angolite, January-February 1993, 28-34.
161. Herman Wallace, “On Solitary Confinement,” Free the Angola 3, http://prisonactivist.org/angola/.
162. Dennis Childs, “Angola, Convict Leasing, and the Annulment of Freedom,” in Violence and theBody, ed. Arturo Aldama (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2003), 199-203.
163. Jamaica Kincaid, “In History,” Callaloo 20, no. 1 (1997): 1-7.
164. Hartman H, Lose Yottr Mother, 118,133.
165. Fred Moten, In the Break: The Aesthetics of the Black Radical Tradition(Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2003), 197.
166. Odea Mathews, “Somethin’ Within Me,” Arhoolie CD 448, “Angola Prisoner’s Blues” (arhoolie.com). Tradition Music Co. (BMI), administered by Bug Music c/o BMG Rights Management. Originally recorded circa 1959.
167. Harriet Jacobs, Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl, ed. Jean Fagan Yellin (1861; Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1987), 114-17.
168. Feldman F, Formations of Violence: The Narrative of the Body and Political Power in Northern Ireland (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991), 119.
169. Spillers S, “Mama’s Baby, Papa’s Maybe: An American Grammar Book,” 67.
170. Toni Morrison, Beloved, 78.
171. El-Hajj Malik Shabazz, The Autobiography of Malcolm X(New York: Ballantine Books, 1992), 176.
172. El-Hajj Malik Shabazz, “Angola Officials Deny Brutalities: Inmates Cut Heel Tendons as Accusations Fly,” Times-Picayune, February 26,1951;
173. Anne Butler and C. Murray Henderson, Angola: Louisiana State Penitentiary, a Half Century of Rage and Reform (Lafayette: University of Southwestern Louisiana, 1990), 7-33.
174. Edward Stagg, “Americas Worst Prison,” Colliers Magazine, November 22,1952.
175. Krebs K, “Blood Took Penitentiary Out of the Red,” and Butler and Henderson, Angola, 39.
176. Hartman H, Scenes of Subjection, 17-114.
177. Alan Lomax, “Sinful Songs of the Southern Negro: Experiences in Collecting Secular Folk-Music,” Southwest Review 19 (1933-34): 130.
178. Hartman H, Scenes of Subjection, 43-44.
179. Butler B.and Henderson H., Angola, 40. The phrase “all-purpose black man” is from Toni Morrison, Playing in the Dark: Whiteness and the Literary Imagination, 78.
180. Raymond LeBlanc, “Selected Limitations on the Organization of Treatment in a ‘Modern Prison,” Masters thesis, Department of Sociology, Louisiana State University, 34.
181. Wilbert Rideau, “The Sexual Jungle,” in Life Sentences: Rage and Survival Behind Bars, ed. Wilbert Rideau and Ron Wikberg (New York: Times Books, 1992), 77.
182. Micki McElya, Clinging to Mammy: The Faithful Slave in Twentieth-Century America (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2007).
183. Kim Hall, Things of Darkness: Economies of Race and Gender in Early Modern England (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1995), 211-53.
184. Kim Hall, “What the Black Woman Thinks about Women’s Lib” (1971), in Toni Morrison: What Moves at the Margin, Selected Nonfiction (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2008), 27.
185. Julie Raimondi, “Space, Place, and Music in New Orleans,” PhD diss., Department of Ethnomusicology, University of California, Los Angeles, 2012, 50.
186. Zagria Z., “Patsy Valdalia” entry in “A Gender Variance Who’s Who: Essays on trans, intersex, cis and other persons and topics from a trans perspective,” http://zagria.bl0gsp0t.c0m/2009/08/patsy-valdalia-1921-1982-perf0rmer.html
187. Jeff Hannusch, “The South’s Swankiest Nightspot: The Legend ofthe DewDrop Inn,” ikoiko com, http://www.satchmo.com/ikoiko/dewdropinn.html
188. Hamilton H, “Sexual Politics and African-American Music,” 162.
189. Laura Grantmyre, “‘They lived their life and they didn’t bother anybody’: African American Female Impersonators and Pittsburgh’s Hill District, 19x0-1960” American Qiiarterly 63, no. 4 (December 2011): 983-1011.
190. Essex Hemphill, Introduction to Brother to Brother: New Writings by Gay Black Men (Los Angeles: Alyson Books, 1991).
191. Trusty Hunt, Search Continues,” Morning Advocate, October 26,1948.
192. Mary Fonesca and Steven Brooke, “Afton Villa Gardens: St. Francesville,” in Louisiana’s Gardens (Gretna: Pelican Publishing, 1999), 13-16.
193. William Craft, Running a Thousand Miles for Freedom; or, the Escape of William and Ellen Craft from Slavery (London: William Tweedie, 1860).
194. Terry Jones, “Wolf Dog to Patrol Angola,” Advocate (Baton Rouge), May 2, 2012, http://theadvocate.com/news/27207is-i23/wolf-dog-to-patrol-angola.
195. Joy James, ed., The New Abolitionists and Imprisoned Intellectuals.
196. Harriet Wilson, OurNig; or Sketches of the Life of a Free Black (1859)
197. William Walker and Thomas Gaines, Buried Alive (Behind Prison Walls) for a Quarter of a Century: Life of William Walker (Saginaw, Mich.: Friedman & Hynan, 1892). I
198. Elise Meyers Walker, David Meyers, and James Dailey II, Inside the Ohio Penitentiary (Landmarks)(Charleston, S.C.: History Press, 2013), 90-102.
199. Associated Press, Times-Picaytme (New Orleans), April 30,1930,1
200. Staughton Lynd, Lttcas-ville: The Untold Story of a Prison Uprising (Oakland: PM Press, 2011), 85,133-34.
201. Du Bois, “Back Toward Slavery,” in Black Reconstruction, 670-709
202. David Roediger, The Wages of Whiteness (London: Verso, 1991);
203. Cheryl Harris, “Whiteness as Property,” 106 Ham L. Rev. (1993): 1709-95.
204. Khalil Gibran Muhammad’s excellent study, The Condemnation of Blackness: Race, Crime, and the Making of Modern Urban America (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2010).
205. Krenshaw K, “Mapping the Margins: Intersectionality, Identity Politics, and Violence against Women of Color,” Stanford Law Review 43, no. 6 (July 1991).
206. Hill Collins, Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness, and thePolitics of Empowerment (New York: Routledge, 2000).
207. Sylvia Rivera Law Project, “‘It’s War in Here’: A Report on the Treatment of Transgender and Intersex People in New York State Men’s Prisons,” Sylvia Rivera Law Project, New York, 2007.
208. Michel Fabre, “Chester Himes Direct,” in Conversations with Chester Himes, ed. Michel Fabre and Robert Skinner (Jackson: University of Mississippi Press, 1995), 131.
209. Chester Himes, The duality of Hurt (New York: Paragon House, 1971), 117.
210. Carl Van Vechten, February 18,1947, Van Vechten Papers
211. Robert Bone, The Negro Novel in America (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1965), 169.
212. H. Bruce Franklin, ‘“Portrait of the Artist as a Young Convict’: Yesterday Will Make You Cry,” in Andromeda, Rutgers University, http://andromeda.rutgers, edu/~hbf/himes.html.
213. Fabre F, “Chester Himes Direct,” 125.
214. Himes H, “Prison Mass” (1933), in The Collected Stories of Chester Himes (New York: Thunder’s Mouth Press, 2000), 147.
215. Dayan D, “Legal Slaves and Civil Bodies,” 59 (italics in Blackstone; underlining is my emphasis).
216. Assata Shakur, Assata: An Autobiography (Chicago: Lawrence Hill Books, 1987);
217. Jackson J., Soledad Brother, A. Davis, Angela Davis: An Autobiography
218. Leonard Peltier, Prison Writings: My Life Is a Sundance (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1999);
219. Abu-Jamal, Live from Death Row
220. Viet Mike Ngo, “Grave Digger,” Amerasia Journal 29, no. 1 (2003): 180.
221. Jackson J, Soledad Brother, 23.
222. Himes H, Yesterday Will Make You Cry, 77-79.
223. Wynter W, “On Disenchanting Discourse,” 446-47.
224. Kimberly Phillips, AlabamaNorth: African-American Migrants, Community, and Working-Class Activism in Cleveland, 1915-194$ (Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 1999), 12.
225. Kenneth Kusmer, A Ghetto Takes Shape: Black Cleveland, 1870-1930 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1976);
226. Beverly Bunch-Lyons, Contested Terrain: African American Women Migrate from the South to Cincinnati’, 1900-1930 (New York: Routledge, 2002);
227. Phillips P, AlabamaNorth
228. Frank Quillin, The Color Line in Ohio: A History of Race Prejudice in a Typical Northern State (Ann Arbor: F. G. Wahr, 1913).
229. Edward Margolies and Michel Fabre, The Several Lives of Chester Himes(Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1997), 19-20.
230. Himes H, The Qiiality of Hurt, 18, 64.
231. Valerie Smith, Self-Discovery and Authority in Afro-American Narrative (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1991).
232. Fabre F and Skinner S, Conversations with Chester Himes, 64.
233. Moten M, In the Break, 197.
234. Walter Benjamin, “Thesis on the Philosophy of History,” in Illuminations, 256.
235. Scott Christianson, With Liberty for Some: 500 Years of Imprisonment in America (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1998), 228.
236. Campbell Gibson and Kay Jung, Historical Census Statistics on Population Totals by Race, 1790 to 1990 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Bureau of the Census, 2002).
237. Alan Lomax, “‘Sinful’ Songs of the Southern Negro,” in Alan Lomax: Selected Writings, 1934-1997, ed. Ronald Cohen (New York: Routledge, 2003), 22, 30.
238. Muhammad M, The Condemnation of Blackness, 4-5.
239. Carl Van Vechten, March 11,1953, Chester Himes Papers
240. George Chauncey’s informative study, Gay New York: Gender Urban Culture, and the Making of the Gay Male World New York: Basic Books, 1994.
241. Stephen Donaldson, “A Million Jockers, Punks, and Queens,” in Prison Masculinities, ed. Don Sabo, Terry Kupers, and Willie London (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2001), 122.
242. Himes H, Black on Black: Baby Sister and Selected Writings (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1973), 7.
243. Cesare Lombroso, Crime, Its Cause and Remedies (London: W. Heinemann, 1911), 418.
244. Margaret Otis, “A Perversion not Commonly Noted,” Journal of Abnormal Psychology 8, no. 2 (June-July 1913): 113-16.
245. Himes H, Yesterday Will Make You Cry, 259, 315.
246. Roderick A. Ferguson, Aberrations in Black: Toward a Qiieer of Color Critique (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2004), 17, 21-22.
247. Eric A. Stanley and Nat Smith, eds., Captive Genders: Trans Embodiment and the Prison Industrial Complex (Oakland, Calif.: AK Press, 2011).
248. Julia Oparah (aka Julia Sudbury), ed., Global Lock-down: Race, Gender; and the Prison-Industrial Complex (New York: Routledge, 2005).
249. Laura Grantmyre, “‘They lived their life and they didn’t bother anybody’: African American Female Impersonators and Pittsburgh’s Hill District, 1920-1960,” American Qiiarterly 63, no. 4 (December 2011): 983-1011.
250. Ferguson F, Aberrations in Black, 41.
251. Lori Saffin, “Identities under Siege: Violence against Transpersons of Color,” in Stanley and Smith, eds., Captive Genders, 141-64.
252. Joseph Fishman, Sex in Prison: Revealing Sex Conditions in American Prisons (New York: National Library Press, 1934). H
253. Lombroso L, Crime, Its Cause and Remedies, 418.
254. Rideau R, “The Sexual Jungle,” in Life Sentences, ed. Rideau and Wikberg, 97.
255. Himes H, Yesterday Will Make You Cry, 360.
256. A. Davis, “Public Imprisonment and Private Violence.” For a study of the regularity of rape in men’s prisons see Human Rights Watch, No Escape: MaleRape in U. S. Prisons (New York: Human Rights Watch, 2001).
257. A. Davis, Are Prisons Obsolete? (New York: Seven Stories Press, 2003)
258. Wilson Gilmore, Golden Gulag, 7.
259. Donaldson D, “A Million Jockers, Punks, and Queens,” 122-24.
260. Himes H, Yesterday Will Make You Cry, 358.
261. Robin Levi and Vanessa Huang, “Prison Proposal Is Disturbingly Akin to Eugenics,” Los Angeles Daily Journal, January 8, 2007.
262. Zaharibu Dorrough, J. Heshima Denham, and Kambui Robinson, “Feeling Death at Our Heels: An Update from the Frontlines of the Struggle (from the NCTT Corcoran SHU),” Prisoner Hunger Strike Solidarity: Amplifying the Voices of CA Prisoners on Hunger Strike