Contribution from frozen soil meltwater to runoff in an in-land river basin under water scarcity by isotopic tracing in northwestern China

Global and Planetary Change

Volumn 136, Issue , 2016, Pages 41-51

  Zongxing, Li ^a,b   Qi, Feng ^a   Wang, Q J ^b   Song, Yong ^b   Aifang, Cheng ^c   Jianguo, Li ^a  

^a INSTITUTE OF GEOLOGY AND GEOPHYSICS   (China)

^b CSIRO   (Australia)

^c BAOJI UNIVERSITY OF ARTS AND SCIENCES   (China)

Author keywords

Cryosphere; Frozen soil; Glacier; Hydrograph separation; Shiyang River

Indexed keywords

FROZEN SOILS; GLACIERS; GROUNDWATER; ISOTOPES; RIVERS; RUNOFF; SNOW; SOILS; SURFACE WATERS; WATERSHEDS;

CONTRIBUTION RATE; CRYOSPHERE; HYDROGRAPH SEPARATION; HYDROLOGICAL PROCESS; ISOTOPIC COMPOSITION; ISOTOPIC TRACING; NORTHWESTERN CHINA; NUMBER OF SAMPLES;

WATER RESOURCES;

CRYOSPHERE; FROZEN GROUND; GLACIER DYNAMICS; ISOTOPIC ANALYSIS; MELTWATER; RIVER BASIN; RUNOFF; SNOWMELT; WATER SUPPLY;

CHINA; GANSU; SHIYANG RIVER;

EID: 84949921778     PISSN: 09218181     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.gloplacha.2015.12.002     Document Type: Article

References (97)

1. Cao B., Pan B.T., Gao H.S., Jian S.F., Wen Y.H., Shangguan D.H. Glacier variation in the Lenglongling range of eastern Qilian Mountains from 1972 to 2007. J. Glaciol. Geocryol. 2010, 32(2):242-248. (In Chinese).
2. Chen Z., Nie Z., Zhang G., Wan L., Shen J. Environmental isotopic study on the recharge and residence time of groundwater in the Heihe River Basin, northwestern China. Hydrogeol. J. 2006, 14:1635-1651.
3. Chen Z., Qi J., Xu J., Ye H. Palaeoclimatic interpretation of the past 30kyr from isotopic studies of the deep confined aquifer of the North China Plain. Appl. Geochem. 2003, 18:997-1009.
4. Cheng G., Wu T. Responses of frozen soil to climate change and their environmental significance, Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. J. Geophys. Res. 2007, 112:F02S03. 10.1029/2006JF000631.
5. Cheng G.D., Jin H.J. Frozen soil and ground water on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau and in northeastern China. Hydrogeol. J. 2013, 21:5-23.
6. Dogramaci S., Skrzypek G., Dodson W., Grierson P.F. Stable isotope and hydrochemical evolution of groundwater in the semi-arid Hamersley basin of subtropical northwest Australia. J. Hydrol. 2012, 475:281-293.
7. Eckhardt K. A comparison of baseflow indices, which were calculated with seven different baseflow separation methods. J. Hydrol. 2008, 352:168-173.
8. Edmunds W.M., Ma J.Z., Aeschbach-Hertig W., Kipfer R., Darbyshire F. Groundwater recharge history and hydrogeochemical evolution in the Minqin basin, North West China. Appl. Geochem. 2006, 21:2148-2170.
9. Engel M., Penna D., Bertoldi G., Dell'Agnese A., Soulsby C., Comiti F. Identifying runoff contributions during melt-induced runoff events in a glacierized Alpine catchment. Hydrol. Process. 2015, 10.1002/hyp.10577.
10. Frampton A., Painter S., Lyon S.W., Destouni G. Non-isothermal, three-phase simulations of near-surface flows in a model frozen soil system under seasonal variability and climate change. J. Hydrol. 2011, 403:352-359.
11. Gao H.K., He X.B., Ye B.S., Gao X. The simulation of HBV hydrology model in the Dongkemadi River Basin, headwater of Yangtze River. J. Glaciol. Geocryol. 2011, 33:171-181. (In Chinese).
12. Gao X., Ye B.S., Zhang S.Q., Qiao C.J., Zhang X.W. Glacier runoff change in the upper stream of Yarkant River and its impact on river runoff during 1961-2006. Chin. Sci. Ser. D 2010, 40(5):654-665. (In Chinese).
13. Gao X., Zhang S.Q., Ye B.S., Gao H.K. Recent changes of glacier runoff in the HexiIn-land River Basin. Adv. Water Sci. 2011, 22(3):344-350. (In Chinese).
14. Gibson J., Edwards T., Birks S., Amour N., Buhay W., McEachern P., Wolfe B., Peters D. Progress in isotope tracer hydrology in Canada. Hydrol. Process. 2005, 19:303-327.
15. Gong T.L., Liu C.M., Liu J.S. Hydrological response of Lhasa River to climate change and frozen soil degradation in Xizang. Acta Geol. Sin. Engl. Ed. 2006, 61:519-526. (In Chinese).
16. Gustafsson L.G., Destouni G. Exchange and pathways of deep and shallow ground water in different climate and frozen soil conditions using the Forsmark site, Sweden, as an example catchment. Hydrogeol. J. 2013, 21:225-237.
17. Hayashia M., Quintonb W.L., Pietroniroc A., Gibson J.J. Hydrologic functions of wetlands in a discontinuous frozen soil basin indicated by isotopic and chemical signatures. J. Hydrol. 2004, 296(2004):81-97.
18. Hooper R.P. Diagnostic tools for mixing models of stream water chemistry. Water Resour. Res. 2003, 39(3):1055. 10.1029/2002WR001528.
19. Hooper R.P., Christophersen N., Peters N.E. Modelling stream water chemistry as a mixture of soil water end-members. Georgia. J. Hydrol. 1990, 116:321-343.
20. Huang Y.Y., Liu J.S., Shang S.C., et al. Study on monthly runoff volume in winter, frozen earth and climate change in the Keriya River Basin in the Kunlun Mountains. Arid Zone Res. 2008, 25:174-178. (In Chinese).
21. Huth A.K., Leydecker A., Sickman J.O. A two-component hydrograph separation for three high-elevation catchments in the Sierra Nevada California. Hydrol. Process. 2004, 18:1721-1733.
22. IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) Summary for policymakers, in climate change 2013: the physical science basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 2013, 5-28. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. S. Thomas, F. Stocker (Eds.).
23. Kang E.S., Chen R.S., Zhang Z.H., et al. Study on mountainous hydrology and ecology in in-land basins of China. Adv. Earth Sci. 2008, 23:675-681. (In Chinese).
24. Karen E.F., James W. Impacts of frozen soil degradation on Arctic river biogeochemistry. McClelland. Hydrol. Process. 2009, 23:169-182.
25. Kong Y., Pang Z.H. Evaluating the sensitivity of glacier rivers to climate change based on hydrograph separation of discharge. J. Hydrol. 2012, 434-435:121-129.
26. Lawrence D.M., Slater A.G. A projection of severe near-surface frozen soil degradation during the 21st century. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2005, 32:L24401. 10.1029/2005GL025080.
27. Li J.B., Wang G., Li X.H., Ma J.Z. Coupling relations between water resources variation and climate and human activities during the past 50years. J. Arid Land Res. Environ. 2008, 22(2):75-80. (In Chinese).
28. Li L.P., Liu M.C. Changing trend and features of the runoff from mountain areas of rivers in Shiyang River drainage basin. J. Soil Water Conserv. 2011, 25(1):58-63.
29. Li Z., He Y., Wang P., Theakstone W.H., An W., Wang X., Lu A., Zhang W., Cao W. Changes of daily climate extremes in southwestern China during 1961-2008. Glob. Plane. Chan. 2012, 80-81:255-272.
30. Li P., Xu J., Chen Z., Zhao B. Impact of climate change and human activity on the runoff in the upper reaches of the Shiyang River, Northwest China. PeerJ Prepr. 2014, 2:e187v1.
31. Li S.M., Chen G.D., Li Y.H., Wang L. Rational utilization of water resources and the ecological environment protection in Hexi Corridor 2002, 1-250. Yellow River Conservancy Press, Zhengzhou, China, (In Chinese).
32. Li Z.X., Feng Q., Guo X.Y., Gao Y., Pan Y.H., Wang T.T., Li J.G., Guo R., Jia B., Song Y.X., Han C.T. The evolution and environmental significance of glaciochemistry during the ablation period in the north of Tibetan Plateau, China. Quat. Int. 2014, 10.1016/j.quaint.2014.06.071.
33. Li Z.X., Feng Q., Li J.G., Pan Y.H., Wang T.T., Liu L., Guo X.Y., Gao Y., Guo R., Jia B. Environmental significance and hydrochemical processes at a cold alpine basin in the Qilian Mountains. Environ. Earth Sci. 2014, 10.1007/s12665-014-3689-4.
34. Li Z.X., Feng Q., Liu W., Wang T.T., Chen A.F., Gao Y., Guo X.Y., Pan Y.H., Li J.G., Guo R., Jia B. Study on the contribution from cryosphere to runoff in the cold alpine basin: a case study of Hulugou River basin in the Qilian Mountains. Glob. Planet. Chang. 2014, 122(2014):345-361.
35. Li Z.X., Feng Q., Liu W., Wang T.T., Guo X.Y., LiZ J., Gao Y., Pan Y.H., Guo R., Jia B., Song Y.X., Han C.T. The stable isotope evolution in Shiyi glacier system during the ablation period in the north of Tibetan Plateau. China Quat. Int. 2015, 10.1016/j.quaint.2015.02.013.
36. Li Z.X., He Y.Q., Pu T., Jia W.X., He X.Z., Pang H.X., Zhang N.N., Liu Q., Wang S.J., Zhu G.F., Wang S.X., Chang L., Du J.K., Xin H.J. Changes of climate, glaciers and runoff in China's monsoonal temperate glacier region during the last several decades. Quat. Int. 2010, 218(2010):13-28.
37. Li Z.X., He Y.Q., Yang X.M., Theakstone W.H., Jia W.X., Pu T., Liu Q., He X.Z., Song B., Zhang N.N., Wang S.J., Du J.K. Changes of the Hailuogou glacier, Mt. Gongga,China, against the background of climate change since the Holocene. Quat. Int. 2010, 218(2010):166-175.
38. Li Z.X., He Y.Q., An W.L., Song L.L., Zhang W., Norm C., Wang Y., Wang S.J., Liu H.C., Cao W.H., Theakstone W.H., Wang S.X., Du J.K. Climate and glacier change in southwestern China during the past several decades. Environ. Res. Lett. 2011, 6(2011):045404.
39. Liu C., Jun X. Water problems and hydrological research in the Yellow River and the Huai and Hai River basins of China. Hydrol. Process. 2004, 18:2197-2210.
40. Liu F.J. Seasonal and interannual variation of streamflow pathways and biogeochemical implications in semi-arid, forested catchment in Valles Caldera. Ecohydrology 2008, 1:239-252.
41. Liu J.S., Wei W.S., Huang Y.Y., et al. Hydrological response of winter stream flow to climate change and frozen soil degradation in Manas watershed, Tianshan Mountains. J. Glaciol. Geocryol. 2006, 28:656-662. (In Chinese).
42. Liu J., Hayakawab N., Lub M., et al. Hydrological and geocryological response of winter streamflow to climate warming in Northeast China. Cold Reg. Sci. Technol. 2003, 37:15-24.
43. Liu J.S., Wang S.Y., Huang Y.Y. Effect of climate change on runoff in a basin with mountain frozen soil, Northwest China. Permafr. Periglac. Process. 2007, 18:369-377.
44. Liu Y., Fan N., An S., Bai X., Liu F., Xu Z., Wang Z., Liu S. Characteristics of water isotopes and hydrograph separation during the wet season in the Heishui River, China. J. Hydrol. 2008, 353:314-321.
45. Liu Y.S., Qin X., Zhang T., Zhang M.J., Du W.T. The change of Ningchan River Glacier No. 3 at Lenglongling, east Qilian Mountain, China. Sci. Cold Arid Reg. 2013, 5(6):709-714.
46. Lu Y.H., Ye B.S., Li C. Degradation of frozen ground in Hailaer River basin and its impact on hydrologic processes. Adv. Water Sci. 2013, 24(3):319-325. (In Chinese).
47. Ma J.Z., Li X.H., Huang T.M., Edmunds W.M. Chemical evolution and recharge characteristics of water resources in the Shiyang River basin. Resour. Sci. 2005, 27(3):117-122. (In Chinese).
48. Ma J.Z., Pan F., Chen L.H., Edmunds W.M., Ding Z.Y., He J.H., Zhou K.P., Huang T.M. Isotopic and geochemical evidence of recharge sources and water quality in the Quaternary aquifer beneath Jinchang City, NW China. Appl. Geochem. 2010, 25(2010):996-1007.
49. Matin M.A., Bourque C.P.A. Mountain-river runoff components and their role in the seasonal development of desert-oases in northwest China. J. Arid Environ. 2008, 122:1-15.
50. McClelland J.W., Holmes R.M., Peterson B.J., et al. Increasing river discharge in the Eurasian Arctic: consideration of dams, frozen soil thaw, and fires as potential agents of change. J. Geophys. Res. 2004, 109:D18102. 10.1029/2004JD004583.
51. Miller M.P., Susong D.D., Shope C.L., Heilweil V.M., Stolp B.J. Continuous estimation of baseflow in snowmelt-dominated streams and rivers in the Upper Colorado River Basin: a chemical hydrograph separation approach. Water Resour. Res. 2014, 50:6986-6999. 10.1002/2013WR014939.
52. Muskett R.R., Romanovsky V.E. Groundwater storage changes in Arctic frozen soil watersheds from GRACE and in situ measurements. Environ. Res. Lett. 2009, 4:045009.
53. Niu L., Ye B.S., Li J., Sheng Y. Effect of frozen soil degradation on hydrological processes in typical basins with various frozen soil coverage in Western China. Sci. China Ser. D 2011, 54(4):615-624. (In Chinese).
54. Peng T.R., Wang C.H., Hsu S.M., Chen N.-C., Su T.W., Lee J.F. Use of stable water isotopes to assess sources and influences of slope groundwater on slope failure. Hydrol. Process. 2012, 26:345-355.
55. Peng T.R., Wang C.H., Hsu S.M., Wang G.S., Su T.W., Lee J.F. Identification of groundwater sources of a local-scale creep slope: using environmental stable isotopes as tracers. J. Hydrol. 2010, 381:151-157.
56. Penna D., Engel M., Mao L., Dell'Agnese A., Bertoldi G., Comiti F. Tracer-based analysis of spatial and temporal variations of water sources in a glacierized catchment. Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci. 2014, 18:5271-5288.
57. Pu T., He Y.Q., Zhu G.F., Zhang N.N., Du J.K. Characteristics of water stable isotopes and hydrograph separation in Baishui catchment during the wet season in Mt. Yulong region, south western China. Hydrol. Process. 2013, 10.1002/hyp.9479.
58. Quinton W.L., Baltzer J.L. The active-layer hydrology of a peat plateau with thawing frozen soil (Scotty Creek, Canada). Hydrogeol. J. 2013, 21:201-220.
59. Ruan Y.F., Zhao L.J., Xiao H.L., Zhou M.X., Cheng G.D. The groundwater in the Heihe River basin: isotope age and renewability. J. Glaciol. Geocryol. 2015, 37(3):767-782. (2015,(In Chinese)).
60. Semenova O., Lebedeva L., Beldiman I. Computation of runoff engineering characteristics under conditions of lack of hydrometeorological measurements in north-east of Russia. Proceedings of the Tenth International Conference on Frozen soil 2012, vol. 2:371-376. Salekhard, Russia.
61. Semenova O., Lebedeva L., Vinogradov Y. Simulation of subsurface heat and water dynamics, and runoff generation in mountainous frozen soil conditions in the upper Kolyma River basin Russia. Hydrogeol. J. 2013, 2013(21):107-119.
62. Shi Y. Concise Glacier Inventory of China 2008, Shanghai Popular Science Press, Shanghai,China, (In Chinese).
63. Smith L.C., Sheng Y.W., MacDonald G.M. A first pan-Arctic assessment of the influence of glaciation, frozen soil, topography and peatlands on northern Hemisphere lake distribution. Permafr. Periglac. Process. 2007, 18:201-208.
64. Stewart I.T., Cayan D.R., Dettinger M.D. Changes in snowmelt runoff timing in western North America under a 'business as usual' climate change scenario. Clim. Chang. 2004, 62(1-3):217-232.
65. Sun C.J., Chen Y.N., Li W.H., Li X.G., Yang Y.H. Isotopic time-series partitioning of streamflow components under regional climate change in the Urumqi River, northwest China. Hydrol. Sci. J. 2015, 10.1080/02626667.2015.1031757.
66. Tian F., Qiu G.Y., Yang Y.H., Lü Y.H., Xiong Y.J. Estimation of evapotranspiration and its partition based on an extended three-temperature model and MODIS products. J.Hydrol. 2013, 498(2013):210-220.
67. Vanderzalm J.L., Jeuken B.M., Wischusen J.D.H., Pavelic P., Le Gal La Salle C., Knapton A., Dillon P.J. Recharge sources and hydrogeochemical evolution of groundwater in alluvial basins in arid central Australia. J. Hydrol. 2011, 397:71-82.
68. Walvoord M.A., Striegl R.G. Increased groundwater to stream discharge from frozen soil thawing in the Yukon River basin: potential impacts on lateral export of carbon and nitrogen. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2007, 2007(34):L12402. 10.1029/2007GL030216.
69. Wang H.Q., Zhang M.S., Zhu H., Dang X.Y., Yang Z., Yin L.H. Hydro-climatic trends in the last 50years in the lower reach of the Shiyang River basin, NW China. Catena 2012, 95:33-41.
70. Wang L.S., Tang Z.J. Isotopic and geochemical evolution characteristics of groundwater circulation in the Shiyang River basin. Acta Sci. Circumst. 2013, 33(6):1748-1755. (In Chinese).
71. Wang N.L., Zhang S.B., He J.Q., Pu J.C., Wu X.B., Jiang X. The runoff area for the upper Heihe River at the middle Qilian Mountains tracing by stable isotope. Sci. China Ser. D 2009, 54(15):2148-2152. (In Chinese).
72. Wang X.Y., Li Z.Q., Edwards R., Rozihan T., Zhou P. Characteristics of water isotopes and hydrograph separation during the spring flood period in Yushugou River basin, Eastern Tianshans, China. J. Earth Syst. Sci. 2015, 124(1):115-124.
73. Wen X., Wang T., Xue X., Duan H., Liao J. Study on spatial and temporal variation of oasis in Shiyang River basin from 1975 to 2010. J. China Desert 2013, 33(2):478-585. (In Chinese).
74. Woo M.I., Yang Z.N., Xia Z.J., Yang D.Q. Streamflow processes in an alpine frozen soil catchment, Tianshan, China. Permafr. Periglac. Process. 1994, 5:71-85.
75. Wu X., Shi S., Li Z.H. The study on the groundwater flow system in the Ejina basin, the lower reach of Heihe River. J. Hydrogeol. Eng. Geol. 2001, 2:30-33.
76. Xing B., Liu Z.F., Liu G.D., Zhang J. Determination of runoff components using path analysis and isotopic measurements in a glacier-covered alpine catchment (upper Hailuogou Valley) in southwest China. Hydrol. Process. 2015, 10.1002/hyp.10418.
77. Yamazaki Y., Kubota J., Ohata T., Vuglinsky V., Mizuyama T. Seasonal changes in runoff characteristics on a frozen soil watershed in the southern mountainous region of eastern Siberia. Hydrol. Process. 2006, 20:453-467.
78. Yang D., Ye B.S., Kane D. Streamflow changes over Siberian Yenisei River basin. J. Hydrol. 2004, 296:59-80.
79. Yang D., Ye B.S., Shiklomanov A. Streamflow characteristics and changes over the Ob River watershed in Siberia. J. Hydrometeorol. 2004, 5:69-84.
80. Yang Y., Chen R., Han C., et al. Measurement and estimation of the summertime daily evapotranspiration on alpine meadow in the Qilian Mountains, northwest China. Environ. Earth Sci. 2012, 10.1007/s12665-012-1907-5.
81. Yang Y., Chen R.S., Song Y.X., Liu J.F., Han C.T., Liu Z.W. Measurement and estimation of grassland evapotranspiration in a mountainous region at the upper reach of Heihe River basin, China. Chin. J. Appl. Ecol. 2013, 24(4):1055-1062. (In Chinese).
82. Yao T.D., Qin D.H., Shen Y.P., Zhao L., Wang N.L., Lu A.X. Cryospheric changes and their impacts on regional water cycle and ecological conditions in the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau. Chin. J. Nat. 2013, 35(3):179-186. (In Chinese).
83. Yao, T.D., Thompson, L., Yang, W., Yu, W.S., Gao, Y., Guo, X.J., Yang, X.X., Duan, K.Q., Zhao,H.B., Xu, B.Q., Pu, J.C., Lu, A.X., Xiang, Y., Kattel, D.B., Joswiak, D., 2012. Different glacier status with atmospheric circulations in Tibetan Plateau and surroundings. Nat. Clim. Chang. 663-667.
84. Yde J.C., Tvis Knudsen N., Steffensen J.P., Carrivick J.L., Hasholt B., Ingeman-Nielsen T., Kronborg C., Larsen N.K., Mernild S.H., Oerter H., Roberts D.H., Russell A.J. Spatiotemporal variability of oxygen isotope compositions in three contrasting glacier river catchments in Greenland. Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci. Discuss. 2015, 12:5841-5893.
85. Ye B., Yang D., Kane D.L. Changes in Lena River streamflow hydrology: human impacts versus natural variations. Water Resour. Res. 2003, 39:1200. 10.1029/2003WR001991.
86. Ye B., Yang D., Zhang Z., Kane D.L. Variation of hydrological regime with frozen soil coverage over Lena Basin in Siberia. J. Geophys. Res. 2009, 114. 10.1029/2008JD010537.
87. Zhang H.W., Lu A.X., Wang L.H., Guo Z.M., Zhang C.W. Glacier change in the Lenglongling Mountain monitored by remote sensing. Rem.Sens. Technol. Appl. 2010, 25(5):682-686. (In Chinese).
88. Zhang S.Q., Gao X., Zhang X.W. Glacial runoff likely reached peak in the mountainous areas of the Shiyang River basin, China. J. Mt. Sci. 2015, 12(2):382-395.
89. Zhang Y.H., Wu Y., Su J., Wen X., Liu F. Groundwater replenishment analysis by using natural isotopes in Ejina Basin, northwestern China. Environ. Geol. 2005, 48:6-14.
90. Zhang Y.S., Ohataa T., Kadota T. Land-surface hydrological processes in the frozen soil region of the eastern Tibetan Plateau. J. Hydrol. 2003, 283:41-56.
91. Zhao L., Ding Y.J., Liu G.Y., Wang S.L., Jin H.J. Estimates of the reserves of ground ice in frozen soil regions on the Tibetan Plateau. J. Glaciol. Geocryol. 2010, 32(1):1-9.
92. Zhao L.J., Xiao H.L., Dong Z.B., Xiao S.C., Zhou M.X., Cheng G.D., Yin L., Yin Z.L. Origins of groundwater inferred from isotopic patterns of the Badain Jaran Desert, Northwestern China. Ground Water 2011, 10.1111/j.1745-6584.2011.00895.x.
93. Zhong X. Characteristic of river discharge in Shiyang River basin. Gansu Water Conservancy and Hydropower Technology 2011, 47(4):8-10. (In Chinese).
94. Zhou J.X., Wu J.K., Liu S.W., Zeng G.X., Jia Q., Wang X.N., Zhao Q.D. Hydrograph separation in the headwaters of the Shule River Basin: combining water chemistry and stable isotopes. Adv. Meteorol. 2015, 1-10. (Article ID 830306).
95. Zhou Y.W., Guo D.X., Qiu G.Q., et al. Frozen soil in China 2000, Science Press, Beijing, (In Chinese).
96. Zhu G.F., Li Z.Z., Su Y.H., Ma J.Z., Zhang Y.Y. Hydrogeochemical and isotope evidence of groundwater evolution and recharge in Minqin basin, Northwestern China. J. Hydrol. 2007, 333:239-251.
97. Zhu G.F., Su Y.H., Feng Q. The hydrochemical characteristics and evolution of groundwater and surface water in the Heihe River basin, northwest China. Hydrogeol. J. 2008, 16:167-182.