Graduated compression stockings for the prevention of deep-vein thrombosis in postoperative surgical patients: A systematic review and economic model with a value of information analysis

Health Technology Assessment

Volumn 19, Issue 98, 2015, Pages 1-219

  Wade, Ros ^a   Sideris, Eleftherios ^a   Paton, Fiona ^a   Rice, Stephen ^a   Palmer, Stephen ^a   Fox, Dave ^a   Woolacott, Nerys ^a   Spackman, Eldon ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF YORK   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CLINICAL EFFECTIVENESS; COMPRESSION STOCKING; COST EFFECTIVENESS ANALYSIS; DEEP VEIN THROMBOSIS; DEVICE SAFETY; HUMAN; LIFE EXPECTANCY; MEDICAL DEVICE COMPLICATION; META ANALYSIS; PATIENT COMPLIANCE; PATIENT INFORMATION; PATIENT PREFERENCE; QUALITY OF LIFE; RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIAL (TOPIC); REVIEW; RISK REDUCTION; SURGICAL PATIENT; SYSTEMATIC REVIEW; THROMBOSIS PREVENTION; TREATMENT OUTCOME; ADVERSE EFFECTS; COST BENEFIT ANALYSIS; ECONOMIC MODEL; ECONOMICS; POSTOPERATIVE PERIOD; PSYCHOLOGY; VENOUS THROMBOSIS;

COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS; HUMANS; MODELS, ECONOMIC; PATIENT COMPLIANCE; POSTOPERATIVE PERIOD; RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIALS AS TOPIC; STOCKINGS, COMPRESSION; TREATMENT OUTCOME; VENOUS THROMBOSIS;

EID: 84949209841     PISSN: 13665278     EISSN: 20464924     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3310/hta19980     Document Type: Review

References (178)

1. Sajid MS, Desai M, Morris RW, Hamilton G. Knee length versus thigh length graduated compression stockings for prevention of deep vein thrombosis in postoperative surgical patients. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2012;5:CD007162. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD007162.pub2
2. House of Commons Select Committee on Health. The Prevention of Venous Thromboembolism in Hospitalised Patients: Second Report of Session 2004–05. London: The Stationery Office; 2005. URL: www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200405/cmselect/cmhealth/99/99we02.htm (accessed 8 October 2015).
3. Sweetland S, Green J, Liu B, de Gonzalez AB, Canonico M, Reeves G, et al. Duration and magnitude of the postoperative risk of venous thromboembolism in middle aged women: prospective cohort study. BMJ 2009;339:b4583. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.b4583
4. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE). NICE Clinical Guidance CG92: Venous Thromboembolism: Reducing the Risk: Reducing the Risk of Venous Thromboembolism (Deep Vein Thrombosis and Pulmonary Embolism) in Patients Admitted to Hospital. London: NICE; 2010.
5. Department of Health (DH). Risk Assessment for Venous Thromboembolism (VTE). London: DH; 2010.
6. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE). NICE Quality Standards: VTE and bleeding risk assessment. London: NICE; 2013. URL: www.nice.org.uk/guidance/qualitystandards/vteprevention/vtebleedingriskassessment.jsp (accessed 23 September 2013).
7. Office of the Surgeon General and the National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute. The Surgeon General’s Call to Action to Prevent Deep Vein Thrombosis and Pulmonary Embolism. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services; 2008.
8. Lowe GDO, Greer IA, Cooke TG, Dewar EP, Evans MJ, Forbes CD, et al. Regular review - risk of and prophylaxis for venous thromboembolism in hospital patients. BMJ 1992;305:567–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.305.6853.567
9. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE). NICE Clinical Guidance CG144: Venous Thromboembolic Diseases: the Management of Venous Thromboembolic Diseases and the Role of Thrombophilia Testing. London: NICE; 2012.
10. Kanaan AO, Lepage JE, Djazayeri S, Donovan JL. Evaluating the role of compression stockings in preventing post thrombotic syndrome: a review of the literature. Thrombosis 2012:694851. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2012/694851
11. Scottish Intercollegiate Guidelines Network (SIGN). SIGN Guideline 122: Prevention and Management of Venous Thromboembolism: A National Clinical Guideline. Edinburgh: SIGN; 2010.
12. Howard A, Zaccagnini D, Ellis M, Williams A, Davies AH, Greenhalgh RM. Randomized clinical trial of low molecular weight heparin with thigh-length or knee-length antiembolism stockings for patients undergoing surgery. Br J Surg 2004;91:842–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/bjs.4514
13. Sigel B, Edelstei Al, Felix WR, Memhardt CR.Compression of deep venous system of lower leg during inactive recumbency. Arch Surg 1973;106:38–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archsurg.1973.01350130040009
14. Benko T, Cooke EA, McNally MA, Mollan RAB. Graduated compression stockings – knee length or thigh length. Clin Orthop Relat Res 2001;383:197–203. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00003086-200102000-00022
15. Brady D, Raingruber B, Peterson J, Varnau W, Denman J, Resuello R, et al. The use of knee-length versus thigh-length compression stockings and sequential compression devices. Crit Care Nurs Q 2007;30:255–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01.CNQ.0000278926.67562.2f
16. Hameed MF, Browse DJ, Immelman EJ, Goldberg PA. Should knee-length replace thigh-length graduated compression stockings in the prevention of deep-vein thrombosis? S Afr J Surg 2002;40:15–16.
17. Sachdeva A, Dalton M, Amaragiri Sachiendra V, Lees T. Elastic compression stockings for prevention of deep vein thrombosis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2010;7:CD001484.http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/14651858.cd001484.pub2
18. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE). Venous Thromboembolism: Reducing the Risk. Evidence Update February 2012: A Summary of Selected New Evidence Relevant to NICE Clinical Guideline 92 ‘Reducing the Risk of Venous Thromboembolism (Deep Vein Thrombosis and Pulmonary Embolism) in Patients Admitted to Hospital’ (2010). London: NICE; 2012.
19. Sajid MS, Tai NR, Goli G, Morris RW, Baker DM, Hamilton G. Knee versus thigh length graduated compression stockings for prevention of deep venous thrombosis: a systematic review. Eur J Vasc Endovasc Surg 2006;32:730–6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejvs.2006.06.021
20. Williams JT, Palfrey SM. Cost effectiveness and efficacy of below knee against above knee graduated compression stockings in the prevention of deep vein thrombosis. Phlebologie 1988;41:809–11.
21. Porteous MJL, Nicholson EA, Morris LT, James R, Negus D. Thigh length versus knee length stockings in the prevention of deep-vein thrombosis. Br J Surg 1989;76:296–7. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1002/bjs.1800760324
22. Shirai N. Study on prophylaxis of postoperative deep vein thrombosis. Acta Sch Med Univ Gifu 1985;33:1173–83.
23. Tsapogas MJ, Goussous H, Peabody RA, Karmody AM, Eckert C. Postoperative venous thrombosis and effectiveness of prophylactic measures. Arch Surg 1971;103:561. http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archsurg.1971.01350110059009
24. Turpie AGG, Hirsh J, Gent M, Julian D, Johnson J. Prevention of deep-vein thrombosis in potential neurosurgical patients – a randomized trial comparing graduated compression stockings alone or graduated compression stockings plus intermittent pneumatic compression with control. Arch Intern Med 1989;149:679–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archinte.1989.00390030131025
25. Hui ACW, Heras-Palou C, Dunn I, Triffitt PD, Crozier A, Imeson J, et al. Graded compression stockings for prevention of deep-vein thrombosis after hip and knee replacement. J Bone Joint Surg Br 1996;78B:550–4.
26. Allan A, Williams JT, Bolton JP, Lequesne LP. The use of graduated compression stockings in the prevention of postoperative deep-vein thrombosis. Br J Surg 1983;70:172–4. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/bjs.1800700311
27. Holford CP. Graded compression for preventing deep venous thrombosis. BMJ 1976;2:969–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.2.6042.969
28. Scurr JH, Ibrahim SZ, Faber RG, Lequesne LP. Efficacy of graduated compression stockings in prevention of deep-vein thrombosis. Br J Surg 1977;64:371–3. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/bjs.1800640521
29. Turner GM, Cole SE, Brooks JH. The efficacy of graduated compression stockings in the prevention of deep-vein thrombosis after major gynecological surgery. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1984;91:588–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-0528.1984.tb04808.x
30. Barnes RW, Brand RA, Clarke W, Hartley N, Hoak JC. Efficacy of graded-compression anti-embolism stockings in patients undergoing total hip arthroplasty. Clin Orthop Relat Res 1978;132:61–7.
31. Bergqvist D, Lindblad B. The thromboprophylactic effect of graded elastic compression stockings in combination with dextran 70. Arch Surg 1984;119:1329–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archsurg.1984.01390230095024
32. Fredin H, Bergqvist D, Cederholm C, Lindblad B, Nyman U. Thromboprophylaxis in hip-arthroplasty – dextran with graded compression or preoperative dextran compared in 150 patients. Acta Orthop Scand 1989;60:678–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.3109/17453678909149602
33. Kalodiki EP, Hoppensteadt DA, Nicolaides AN, Fareed J, Gill K, Regan F, et al. Deep venous thrombosis prophylaxis with low molecular weight heparin and elastic compression in patients having total hip replacement – a randomised controlled trial. Int Angiol 1996;15:162–8.
34. Scurr JH, Coleridgesmith PD, Hasty JH. Regimen for improved effectiveness of intermittent pneumatic compression in deep venous thrombosis prophylaxis. Surgery 1987;102:816–20.
35. Torngren S. Low-dose heparin and compression stockings in the prevention of postoperative deep venous thrombosis. Br J Surg 1980;67:482–4. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/bjs.1800670710
36. Wille-Jørgensen P, Hauch O, Dimo B, Christensen SW, Jensen R, Hansen B. Prophylaxis of deep venous thrombosis after acute abdominal operation. Surg Gynecol Obstet 1991;172:44–8.
37. Wille-Jørgensen P, Thorup J, Fischer A, Holstchristensen J, Flamsholt R. Heparin with and without graded compression stockings in the prevention of thromboembolic complications of major abdominal surgery: a randomized trial. Br J Surg 1985;72:579–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/bjs.1800720726
38. Ohlund C, Fransson SG, Starck SA. Calf compression for prevention of thromboembolism following hip-surgery. Acta Orthop Scand 1983;54:896–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.3109/17453678308992929
39. Kierkegaard A, Norgren L. Graduated compression stockings in the prevention of deep vein thrombosis in patients with acute myocardial infarction. Eur Heart J 1993;14:1365–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/eurheartj/14.10.1365
40. Centre for Reviews and Dissemination. Systematic Reviews: CRD’s Guidance for Undertaking Reviews in Health Care. York: Centre for Reviews and Dissemination, University of York; 2009.
41. Moher D, Liberati A, Tetzlaff J, Altman DG, Grp P. Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses: the PRISMA statement. BMJ 2009;339:b2535. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.b2535
42. Higgins JPT, Green S. Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions Version 5.1.0 [updated March 2011]. Oxford: The Cochrane Collaboration; 2011.
43. Dias S, Welton NJ, Caldwell DM, Ades AE. Checking consistency in mixed treatment comparison meta-analysis. Stat Med 2010;29:932–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/sim.3767
44. Cooper NJ, Sutton AJ, Morris D, Ades AE, Welton NJ. Addressing between-study heterogeneity and inconsistency in mixed treatment comparisons: Application to stroke prevention treatments in individuals with non-rheumatic atrial fibrillation. Stat Med 2009;28:1861–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/sim.3594
45. Lu GB, Ades AE. Assessing evidence inconsistency in mixed treatment comparisons. J Am Stat Assoc 2006;101:447–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1198/016214505000001302
46. Sutton A, Ades AE, Cooper N, Abrams K. Use of indirect and mixed treatment comparisons for technology assessment. Pharmacoeconomics 2008;26:753–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.2165/00019053-200826090-00006
47. Wolf J, Prüss-Ustün A, Cumming O, Bartram J, Bonjour S, Cairncross S, et al. Systematic review: assessing the impact of drinking water and sanitation on diarrhoeal disease in low- and middle-income settings: systematic review and meta-regression. Trop Med Int Health 2014;19:928–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/tmi.12331
48. Dias S, Welton N, Sutton A, Ades AE. NICE DSU Technical Support Document 2: A Generalised Linear Modelling Framework for Pairwise and Network Meta-analysis of Randomised Controlled Trials (updated 2014). Sheffield: Decision Support Unit, ScHARR, University of Sheffield; 2011.
49. Cohen AT, Skinner JA, Warwick D, Brenkel I. The use of graduated compression stockings in association with fondaparinux in surgery of the hip – a multicentre, multinational, randomised, open-label, parallel-group comparative study. J Bone Joint Surg Br 2007;89B:887–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1302/0301-620X.89B7.18556
50. Brooks SP, Gelman A. General methods for monitoring convergence of iterative simulations. J Comp Graph Stat 1998;7:434–55.
51. Ramos J, Perrotta C, Badariotti G, Berenstein G. Interventions for preventing venous thromboembolism in adults undergoing knee arthroscopy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2008;4:CD005259. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/14651858.cd005259.pub3
52. Wille-Jørgensen P, Rasmussen Morten S, Andersen Betina R, Borly L. Heparins and mechanical methods for thromboprophylaxis in colorectal surgery. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2004;1:CD001217. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/14651858.cd001217
53. Byrne B. Deep vein thrombosis prophylaxis: the effectiveness and implications of using below-knee or thigh-length graduated compression stockings. Heart Lung 2001;30:277–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1067/mhl.2001.116009
54. Elvaas IKO, Graff BA, Harboe I, Norderhaug IN. Graduated Compression Stockings for Prevention of Deep Vein Thrombosis. Hamar: The Norwegian Knowledge Centre for the Health Services; 2008.
55. Scott A, Argaez C. Knee-high versus thigh-high compression devices: a review of the clinical and cost-effectiveness. Ottawa: Canadian Agency for Drugs and Technologies in Health; 2008.
56. Agarwal R, Umscheid CA. Mechanical Prophylaxis for Venous Thromboembolism After Ambulatory Surgery. Philadelphia, PA: Center for Evidence-Based Practice; 2009.
57. Amaragiri SV, Lees TA. Elastic compression stockings for prevention of deep vein thrombosis (Cochrane Review). J Am Coll Surg 2003;196:619.
58. Loomba RS, Arora RR, Chandrasekar S, Shah PH. Thigh-length versus knee-length compression stockings for deep vein thrombosis prophylaxis in the inpatient setting. Blood Coagul Fibrinolysis 2012;23:168–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/MBC.0b013e32834cb25b
59. Johnston R. The Effectiveness of Below Knee Thromboembolic Deterrent Garments Compared to Full Length Garments in Preventing Deep Vein Thrombosis. Clayton, VIC: Centre for Clinical Effectiveness; 2001.
60. Camporese G, Bernardi E, Prandoni P, Noventa F, Verlato F, Simioni P, et al. Low-molecularweight heparin versus compression stockings for thromboprophylaxis after knee arthroscopy: a randomized trial. Ann Int Med 2008;149:73–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-149-2-200807150-00003
61. Caprini JA, Chucker JL, Zuckerman L, Vagher JP, Franck CA, Cullen JE. Thrombosis prophylaxis using external compression. Surg Gynecol Obstet 1983;156:599–604.
62. Fasting H, Andersen K, Nielsen HK, Husted SE, Koopmann HD, Simonsen O, et al. Prevention of postoperative deep venous thrombosis – low-dose heparin versus graded pressure stockings. Acta Chir Scand 1985;151:245–8.
63. Mellbring G, Palmer K. Prophylaxis of deep-vein thrombosis after major abdominal-surgery – comparison between dihydroergotamine-heparin and intermittent pneumatic calf compression and evaluation of added graduated static compression. Acta Chir Scand 1986;152:597–600.
64. Rasmussen A, Hansen PT, Lindholt J, Poulsen TD, Toftdahl DB, Gram J, et al. Venous thrombosis after abdominal-surgery – a comparison between subcutaneous heparin and antithrombotic stockings, or both. J Med 1988;19:193–201.
65. Ayhan H, Iyigun E, Ince S, Can MF, Hatipoglu S, Saglam M. Comparison of three different protocols in the prevention of postoperative deep vein thrombosis in patients at high-risk: randomized clinical study. Eur Surg Res 2013;50:64–5.
66. Ishak MA, Morley KD. Deep venous thrombosis after total hip-arthroplasty: a prospective controlled-study to determine the prophylactic effect of graded pressure stockings. Br J Surg 1981;68:429–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/bjs.1800680622
67. Kahn SR, Lim W, Dunn AS, Cushman M, Dentali F, Akl EA. Prevention of VTE in nonorthopedic surgical patients: antithrombotic therapy and prevention of thrombosis, 9th ed: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest 2012;141:e195S–e226S.
68. Bates SM, Greer IA, Middeldorp S, Veenstra DL, Prabulos A-M, Vandvik PO. VTE, thrombophilia, antithrombotic therapy, and pregnancy: antithrombotic therapy and prevention of thrombosis, 9th ed: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest 2012;141:e691S–e736S. http://dx.doi.org/10.1378/chest.11-2300
69. Brazilian Society of Cardiology. Steps to reduce surgical risk. In: II guidelines for perioperative evaluation. Arq Bras Cardiol 2011;96:S23–41.
70. Finnish Medical Society Duodecim. Prevention of venous thromboembolism. Helsinki: Wiley Interscience; 2010.
71. Finnish Medical Society Duodecim. Deep Vein Thrombosis. Helsinki: Wiley Interscience; 2011.
72. Nicolaides AN, Fareed J, Kakkar AK, Breddin HK, Goldhaber SZ, Hull R, et al. Prevention and treatment of venous thromboembolism International Consensus Statement (Guidelines according to scientific evidence). Int Angiol 2013;32:111–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1076029612474840
73. National Collaborating Centre for Acute Care. Venous Thromboembolism. London: Royal College of Surgeons; 2007.
74. Working Group of the Clinical Practice Guideline for the Patient Safety at Surgery Settings. Clinical Practice Guideline for the Patient Safety at Surgery Settings. Barcelona: Agency for Information, Evaluation, and Quality in Health of Catalonia; 2010.
75. ENT UK. Venous thromboembolism (VTE) prophylaxis ENT Guideline. London: ENT UK; 2010.
76. National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC). Clinical Practice Guideline for the Prevention of Venous Thromboembolism (Deep Vein Thrombosis and Pulmonary Embolism) in Patients Admitted to Australian Hospitals. Canberra: NHMRC; 2009.
77. Chalmers EA, Ganesen VJ, Liesner R, Maroo S, Nokes TJC, Saunders D, et al. The Investigation, Management and Prevention of Venous Thrombosis in Children. London: British Committee for Standards in Haematology; 2010.
78. Bahl V, Hu HM, Henke PK, Wakefield TW, Campbell Jr DA, Caprini JA. A validation study of a retrospective venous thromboembolism risk scoring method. Ann Surg 2010;251:344–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/SLA.0b013e3181b7fca6
79. Baglin T, Douketis J, Tosetto A, Marcucci M, Cushman M, Kyrle P, et al. Does the clinical presentation and extent of venous thrombosis predict likelihood and type of recurrence? A patient-level meta-analysis. J Thromb Haemost 2010;8:2436–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1538-7836.2010.04022.x
80. Parnaby C. A new anti-embolism stocking. Use of below-knee products and compliance. Br J Perioper Nurs 2004;14:302–4, 306–7.
81. Williams AM, Rhys-Davies P, Sweetham D. Graduated compression stockings in the prevention of deep vein thrombosis and the case for knee length versus thigh length stockings. J Bone Joint Surg Br 1994;76B:S56.
82. Williams AM, Davies PR, Sweetnam DIS, Harper G, Pusey R, Lightowler CDR. Knee-length versus thigh-length graduated compression stockings in the prevention of deep vein thrombosis. Br J Surg 1996;83:1553. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/bjs.1800831119
83. Williams LA, Owen TD. Above-knee versus below-knee stockings in total knee arthroplasty. Ann R Coll Surg Engl 2006;88:302–5. http://dx.doi.org/10.1308/003588406X98676
84. Winslow EH, Brosz DL. Graduated compression stockings in hospitalized postoperative patients: correctness of usage and size. Am J Nurs 2008;108:40–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01.NAJ.0000334973.82359.11
85. Thompson A, Walter S, Brunton LR, Pickering GT, Mehendale S, Smith AJ, et al. Anti-embolism stockings and proximal indentation. Br J Nurs 2011;20:1426–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.12968/bjon.2011.20.22.1426
86. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE). NICE Technology Appraisal TA245: Apixaban (Eliquis®) for the Prevention of Venous Thromboembolic Events in Adult Patients Who Have Undergone Elective Hip or Knee Replacement Surgery: Submitted by Bristol-Myers Squibb Pharmaceuticals Ltd. and Pfizer Ltd. London: NICE; 2011.
87. Lassen MR, Raskob GE, Gallus A, Pineo G, Chen D, Hornick P. Apixaban versus enoxaparin for thromboprophylaxis after knee replacement (ADVANCE-2): a randomised double-blind trial. Lancet 2010;375:807–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(09)62125-5
88. Lassen MR, Gallus A, Raskob GE, Pineo G, Chen D, Ramirez LM. Apixaban versus enoxaparin for thromboprophylaxis after hip replacement. N Engl J Med 2010;363:2487–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1006885
89. Eriksson BI, Borris LC, Friedman RJ, Haas S, Huisman MV, Kakkar AK, et al. Rivaroxaban versus enoxaparin for thromboprophylaxis after hip arthroplasty. N Engl J Med 2008;358:2765–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa0800374
90. Lassen MR, Ageno W, Borris LC, Lieberman JR, Rosencher N, Bandel TJ, et al. Rivaroxaban versus enoxaparin for thromboprophylaxis after total knee arthroplasty. N Engl J Med 2008;358:2776–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa076016
91. Kakkar AK, Brenner B, Dahl OE, Eriksson BI, Mouret P, Muntz J, et al. Extended duration rivaroxaban versus short-term enoxaparin for the prevention of venous thromboembolism after total hip arthroplasty: a double-blind, randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2008;372:31–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(08)60880-6
92. Turpie AG, Lassen MR, Davidson BL, Bauer KA, Gent M, Kwong LM, et al. Rivaroxaban versus enoxaparin for thromboprophylaxis after total knee arthroplasty (RECORD4): a randomised trial. Lancet 2009;373:1673–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(09)60734-0
93. Eriksson BI, Dahl OE, Rosencher N, Kurth AA, Van Dijk N, Frostick SP, et al. Oral dabigatran etexilate vs. subcutaneous enoxaparin for the prevention of venous thromboembolism after total knee replacement: the RE-MODEL randomized trial. Thromb Haemost 2007;5:2178–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1538-7836.2007.02748.x
94. Eriksson BI, Dahl OE, Rosencher N, Kurth AA, van Dijk CN, Frostick SP, et al. Dabigatran etexilate versus enoxaparin for prevention of venous thromboembolism after total hip replacement: a randomised, double-blind, non-inferiority trial. Lancet 2007;370:949–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(07)61445-7
95. Eriksson BI, Dahl OE, Huo MH, Kurth AA, Hantel S, Hermansson K, et al. Oral dabigatran versus enoxaparin for thromboprophylaxis after primary total hip arthroplasty (RE-NOVATE II*). A randomised, double-blind, non-inferiority trial. Thromb Haemost 2011;105:721–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1160/TH10-10-0679
96. Prandoni P, Lensing AWA, Cogo A, Cuppini S, Villalta S, Carta M, et al. The long-term clinical course of acute deep venous thrombosis. Ann Int Med 1996;125:1–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-125-1-199607010-00001
97. Imperiale TF, Speroff T. A meta-analysis of methods to prevent venous thromboembolism following total hip-replacement. JAMA 1994;271:1780–5. http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.1994.03510460072036
98. Campbell IA, Fennerty A, Miller AC, British Thoracic Society Standards of Care Committee. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of suspected acute pulmonary embolism. Thorax 2003;58:470–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/thorax.58.6.470
99. Baglin TP, Brush J, Streiff M, British Commitee for Standards in Haematology. Guidelines on use of vena cava filters. Br J Haematol 2006;134:590–5. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2141.2006.06226.x
100. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE). NICE Technology Appraisal TA170: Rivaroxaban for the Prevention of Venous Thromboembolism After Total Hip or Total Knee Replacement in Adults. London: NICE; 2009.
101. Cohen A, Botteman M, Nadipelli V, Stephens J, Ewing M, Collier P. Estimating the economic burden of pts and recurrent VTE following DVT in the UK. XVIIIth Congress of the International Society on Thrombosis and Haemostasis, Paris, 6–12 July 2001.
102. Youman P, Wilson K, Harraf F, Kalra L. The economic burden of stroke in the United Kingdom. Pharmacoeconomics 2003;21:43–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.2165/00019053-200321001-00005
103. Department of Heath. NHS Reference Costs 2007–2008. London: Department of Health; 2008.
104. British Medical Association (BMA) and Royal Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain (RPS). British National Formulary. No. 56, September 2008. London: BMJ Group and Pharmaceutical Press; 2008.
105. NHS Prescription Pricing Authority. NHS Electronic Drug Tariff 2008. London: NHS Prescription Services, Department of Health; 2008.
106. NHS Purchasing and Supplies Agency. NHS Purchasing and Supplies Agency (PASA) Catalogue. London: NHS Purchasing and Supplies Agency, Department of Health; 2007.
107. Curtis L, Netten A. Unit Costs of Health and Social Care. Canterbury: PSSRU, University of Kent; 2007.
108. Department of Health. NHS Reference Costs 2005–2006. London: Department of Health; 2006.
109. Curtis L, Netten A. Unit Costs of Health and Social Care. Canterbury: PSSRU, University of Kent; 2005.
110. Monthly Index of Medical Specialities (MIMS). MIMS online. Middlesex: Haymarket Medical Media. URL: www.mims.co.uk/home/ (accessed 23 July 2014).
111. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE). NICE Technology Appraisal TA157: Dabigatran Etexilate for the Prevention of Venous Thromboembolism After Hip or Knee Replacement Surgery in Adults. London: NICE; 2008.
112. Wille-Jørgensen P, Jorgensen LN, Crawford M. Asymptomatic postoperative deep vein thrombosis and the development of postthrombotic syndrome – a systematic review and meta-analysis. Thromb Haemost 2005;93:236–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1160/th04-09-0570
113. Miniati M, Monti S, Bottai M, Scoscia E, Bauleo C, Tonelli L, et al. Survival and restoration of pulmonary perfusion in a long-term follow-up of patients after acute pulmonary embolism. Medicine 2006;85:253–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01.md.0000236952.87590.c8
114. Prandoni P, Villalta S, Bagatella P, Rossi L, Marchiori A, Piccioli A, et al. The clinical course of deep-vein thrombosis. Prospective long-term follow-up of 528 symptomatic patients. Haematologica 1997;82:423–8.
115. National Collaborating Centre for Acute Care (NCC AC). National Clinical Guideline: Venous Thromboembolism: Reducing the risk of venous thromboembolism (deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism) in inpatients undergoing surgery. London: NCC AC at The Royal College of Surgeons of England; 2007.
116. Bucher HC, Guyatt GH, Griffith LE, Walter SD. The results of direct and indirect treatment comparisons in meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. J Clin Epidemiol 1997;50:683–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0895-4356(97)00049-8
117. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE). NICE Clinical Guidance CG68: Stroke: Diagnosis and Initial Management of Acute Stroke and Transient Ischaemic Attack (TIA). London: NICE; 2008.
118. Kind P, Dolan P, Gudex C, Williams A. Variations in population health status: results from a United Kingdom national questionnaire survey. BMJ 1998;316:736–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.316.7133.736
119. Bonderman D, Skoro-Sajer N, Jakowitsch J, Adlbrecht C, Dunkler D, Taghavi S, et al. Predictors of outcome in chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension. Circulation 2007;115:2153–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.106.661041
120. Condliffe R, Kiely DG, Gibbs JSR, Corris PA, Peacock AJ, Jenkins DP, et al. Prognostic and aetiological factors in chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension. Eur Respir J 2009;33:332–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1183/09031936.00092008
121. Office for National Statistics (ONS). Interim Life Tables, England and Wales, 1980–82 to 2007–09. London: ONS; 2010.
122. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE). Guide to the Methods of Technology Appraisal 2013. London: NICE; 2013.
123. Falck-Ytter Y, Francis CW, Johanson NA, Curley C, Dahl OE, Schulman S, et al. Prevention of VTE in orthopedic surgery patients antithrombotic therapy and prevention of thrombosis, 9th ed: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest 2012;141:E278S–E325S. http://dx.doi.org/10.1378/chest.11-2404
124. Gould MK, Garcia DA, Wren SM, Karanicolas PJ, Arcelus JI, Heit JA, et al. Prevention of VTE in nonorthopedic surgical patients: antithrombotic therapy and prevention of thrombosis, 9th ed: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. [Erratum appears in Chest 2012;141:1369]. Chest 2012;141:E227S–77S. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1378/chest.11-2297
125. Muntz J, Scott DA, Lloyd A, Egger M. Major bleeding rates after prophylaxis against venous thromboembolism: systematic review, meta-analysis, and cost implications. Int J Technol Assess Health Care 2004;20:405–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S026646230400128X
126. Department of Health (DH). Hospital Episode Statistics, Admitted patient care – England, 2012–13 [NS]. London: DH; 2013.
127. Ramiah RD, Ashmore AM, Whitley E, Bannister GC. Ten-year life expectancy after primary total hip replacement. J Bone Joint Surg Br 2007;89B:1299–302. http://dx.doi.org/10.1302/0301-620X.89B10.18735
128. Nunley RM, Lachiewicz PF. Mortality after total hip and knee arthroplasty in a medium-volume university practice. J Arthroplasty 2003;18:278–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1054/arth.2003.50095
129. Quinlan DJ, Eikelboom JW, Dahl OE, Eriksson BI, Sidhu PS, Hirsh J. Association between asymptomatic deep vein thrombosis detected by venography and symptomatic venous thromboembolism in patients undergoing elective hip or knee surgery. Thromb Haemost 2007;5:1438–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1538-7836.2007.02571.x
130. Joint National Formulary. British National Formulary. 67 ed. London: BMJ Group and Pharmaceutical Press; 2014.
131. Department of Health (DH). NHS Electronic Drug Tariff 2014. London: NHS Prescription Services, DH; 2014.
132. Department of Health. NHS Reference Costs 2012–2013. London: DH; 2013.
133. Bergqvist D, Jendteg S, Johansen L, Persson U, Odegaard K. Cost of long-term complications of deep venous thrombosis of the lower extremities: an analysis of a defined patient population in Sweden. Ann Int Med 1997;126:454–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-126-6-199703150-00006
134. Goodacre S, Sampson F, Stevenson M, Wailoo A, Sutton A, Thomas S, et al. Measurement of the clinical and cost-effectiveness of non-invasive diagnostic testing strategies for deep vein thrombosis. Health Technol Assess 2006;10(15). http://dx.doi.org/10.3310/hta10150
135. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE). NICE Guidance in Development (Discontinued 2008): Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension (Adults) – Drugs. London: NICE; 2008.
136. Grieve R, Porsdal V, Hutton J, Wolfe C. A comparison of the cost-effectiveness of stroke care provided in London and Copenhagen. Int J Technol Assess Health Care 2000;16:684–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0266462300101242
137. Office for National Statistics (ONS). Interim Life Tables, England and Wales, 2009–2011. London: ONS; 2011.
138. Gage BF, Cardinalli AB, Owens DK. The effect of stroke and stroke prophylaxis with aspirin or warfarin on quality of life. Arch Intern Med 1996;156:1829–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archinte.1996.00440150083009
139. O’Meara JJ, McNutt RA, Evans AT, Moore SW, Downs SM. A decision-analysis of streptokinase plus heparin as compared with heparin alone for deep-vein thrombosis. N Engl J Med 1994;330:1864–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199406303302605
140. Sarasin FP, Gaspoz JM, Bounameaux H. Cost-effectiveness of new antiplatelet regimens used as secondary prevention of stroke or transient ischemic attack. Arch Intern Med 2000;160:2773–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archinte.160.18.2773
141. Dennis M, Lewis SC, Warlow C, Collaboration FT. Routine oral nutritional supplementation for stroke patients in hospital (FOOD): a multicentre randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2005;365:755–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(05)70998-3
142. Johannesson M, Weinstein MC. On the decision rules of cost-effectiveness analysis. J Health Econ 1993;12:459–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0167-6296(93)90005-Y
143. Claxton K. Exploring uncertainty in cost-effectiveness analysis. Pharmacoeconomics 2008;26:781–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.2165/00019053-200826090-00008
144. Hoomans T, Fenwick EA, Palmer S, Claxton K. Value of information and value of implementation: application of an analytic framework to inform resource allocation decisions in metastatic hormone-refractory prostate cancer. Value Health 2009;12:315–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1524-4733.2008.00431.x
145. Barton GR, Briggs AH, Fenwick EA. Optimal cost-effectiveness decisions: the role of the cost-effectiveness acceptability curve (CEAC), the cost-effectiveness acceptability frontier (CEAF), and the expected value of perfection information (EVPI). Value Health 2008;11:886–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1524-4733.2008.00358.x
146. Browse NL, Jackson BT, Mayo ME, Negus D. Value of mechanical methods of preventing postoperative calf vein-thrombosis. Br J Surg 1974;61:219–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/bjs.1800610312
147. Brunkwall J, Bergqvist D, Takolander R. Deep-vein thrombosis after renal-transplantation is not reduced by graded compression stockings. Thromb Haemost 1991;65:1132.
148. Chandhoke PS, Gooding GAW, Narayan P. Prospective randomized trial of coumadin vs. sequential compression stockings as prophylaxis for postoperative deep venous thrombosis in major urological surgery. J Urol 1991;145:371A.
149. Douketis JD, Kearon C, Bates S, Duku EK, Ginsberg JS. Risk of fatal pulmonary embolism in patients with treated venous thromboembolism. JAMA 1998;279:458–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.279.6.458
150. Ellis H, Scurr JH. Prophylaxis of venous thrombosis. Phlebologie 1982;35:135–42.
151. Flanc C, Kakkar VV, Clarke MB. Postoperative deep-vein thrombosis effect of intensive prophylaxis. Lancet 1969;1:477–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(69)91585-2
152. Hansberry KL, Thompson IM, Bauman J, Deppe S, Rodriguez FR. A prospective comparison of thromboembolic stockings, external sequential pneumatic compression stockings and heparin sodium dihydroergotamine mesylate for the prevention of thromboembolic complications in urological surgery. J Urol 1991;145:1205–8.
153. Hou LL, Yao LW, Niu QM, Xu L, Yu QH, Sun WQ, et al. Preventive effect of electrical acupoint stimulation on lower-limb thrombosis: a prospective study of elderly patients after malignant gastrointestinal tumor surgery. Cancer Nurs 2013;36:139–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/NCC.0b013e3182483415
154. Hui ACW, Gregg PJ, Triffitt PD, Armstrong L, Sinclair M, Mitchell V. Graded compression stockings in the prevention of deep-vein thrombosis. J Bone Joint Surg Br 1993;75B:S111.
155. Kahn SR, Morrison DR, Cohen JM, Emed J, Tagalakis V, Roussin A, et al. Interventions for implementation of thromboprophylaxis in hospitalized medical and surgical patients at risk for venous thromboembolism. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2013;7:CD008201. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/14651858.cd008201.pub2
156. Kalodiki E, Gill K, Alkutoubi A, Birch B, Harris N, Hunt D. Low molecular weight heparin with or without graduated elastic compression in deep vein prophylaxis after elective hip replacement. Br J Surg 1992;79:1223.
157. Kalodiki E, Nicolaides A, Alkutoubi A, Birch B, Harris N, Hunt D, et al. Low-molecular-weight heparin (LMWH) and LMWH plus graduated elastic compression for deep venous thrombosis (DVT) prophylaxis in total hip-replacement. Thromb Haemost 1993;69:650.
158. Kalodiki E, Nicolaides AN, Alkutoubi A, Birch R, Harris N, Hunt D, et al. LMWH and LMWH plus graduated elastic compression for DVT prophylaxis in total hip-replacement. Thromb Haemost 1993;69:619.
159. Koopmann HD, Andersen K, Husted SE, Nielsen HK, Fasting H, Simonsen O, et al. Prevention of postoperative venous thrombosis. A comparison between low-dose heparin and graduated compression stockings. Ugeskr Laeger 1985;147:2296–8.
160. Lewis CE, Antoine J, Mueller C, Talbot WA, Swaroop R, Edwards WS. Elastic compression in prevention of venous stasis – critical re-evaluation. Am J Surg 1976;132:739–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0002-9610(76)90447-5
161. Liavag I, Fotland K. [Prevention of postoperative thrombo-embolism by elastic compression bandage of the legs]. Tidsskrift Nor LAgeforen 1972;92:239–41.
162. McNally MA, Cooke EA, O’Connel BM, Mollan RAB. Thigh versus knee length compression stockings in the prevention of venous stasis. J Bone Joint Surg Am 1995;77:11.
163. Meneilly Z, McCutcheon K. Deep vein thrombosis and caesarean section. J Perioper Pract 2013;23:17–21.
164. Moser G, Froidevaux A. Prophylaxis of post-operative deep venous thrombosis using small sub-cutaneous heparin doses, associated or not with compressive stockings: comparative study and results. Schweiz Rundsch Med Prax 1976;65:1015–20.
165. Nelson LD Jr, Montgomery SP, Dameron TB Jr, Nelson RB. Deep vein thrombosis in lumbar spinal fusion: a prospective study of antiembolic and pneumatic compression stockings. J South Orthop Assoc 1996;5:181–4.
166. Patel A, Couband D, Feron JM, Signoret F. [Prevention of deep-vein thrombosis in surgery of the hip, using heparin and an anti-thrombosis stocking]. Presse Med 1988;17:1201–3.
167. Ryan MG, Westrich GH, Potter HG, Sharrock N, Maun LM, Macaulay W, et al. Effect of mechanical compression on the prevalence of proximal deep venous thrombosis as assessed by magnetic resonance venography. J Bone Joint Surg Am 2002;84A:1998–2004.
168. San Norberto Garcia EM, Merino B, Taylor JH, Vizcaino I, Vaquero C. Low-molecular-weight heparin for prevention of venous thromboembolism after varicose vein surgery in moderate-risk patients: A randomized, controlled trial. Ann Vasc Surg 2013;27:940–6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.avsg.2013.03.006
169. Sharma U. Diving for PURLs: thigh-length stockings uncomfortable and show no patient-oriented benefit. Evid Based Pract 2011;14:5.
170. Sharma M, Carpenter SL. Thromboprophylaxis in a pediatric hospital. Current problems in pediatric and adolescent health care 2013;43:178–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cppeds.2013.05.006
171. Silbersack Y, Taute BM, Hein W, Podhaisky H. Prevention of deep-vein thrombosis after total hip and knee replacement – low-molecular-weight heparin in combination with intermittent pneumatic compression. J Bone Joint Surg Br 2004;86B:809–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1302/0301-620X.86B6.13958
172. Sobieraj DM, Coleman CI, Tongbram V, Chen W, Colby J, Lee S, et al. Comparative effectiveness of combined pharmacologic and mechanical thromboprophylaxis versus either method alone in major orthopedic surgery: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Pharmacotherapy 2013;33:275–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/phar.1206
173. Tasi SF, Lu PY, Chang CR. The effects of intermittent pneumatic compression system and elastic bandage compression of deep vein thrombosis prevention in urologic patient with lithotomy position. Int J Urol 2010;17:A360–A1.
174. Turpie AG, Hirsh J, Gent M, Julian DH, Johnson JA. A randomized trial comparing graduated compression stockings alone or graduated compression stockings plus intermittent pneumatic compression with control in the prevention of deep-vein thrombosis in neurosurgical patients. Arteriosclerosis 1988;8:A675.
175. Wilkins RW, Mixter G, Stanton JR, Litter J. Elastic stockings in the prevention of pulmonary embolism - a preliminary report. N Engl J Med 1952;246:360–4. http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJM195203062461002
176. Yokote R, Matsubara M, Hirasawa N, Hagio S, Ishii K, Takata C. Is routine chemical thromboprophylaxis after total hip replacement really necessary in a Japanese population? J Bone Joint Surg Br 2011;93:251–6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1302/0301-620X.93B2.25795
177. NICE. Venous Thromboembolism – Reducing the Risk of Venous Thromboembolism (Deep Vein Thrombosis and Pulmonary Embolism) in Inpatients Undergoing Surgery. NICE clinical guideline No. 46:1–160. London: NICE; 2007.
178. Salzman E, Hirsh J. Prevention of Venous Thromboembolism. In Colman R, Hirsh J, Marder V, Salzman E, editors. Hemostasis and Thrombosis: Basic Principles and Clinical Practice. New York, NY: Lippincott; 1982. pp. 986–92