Numerical Computation of the Electromagnetic Bias in GNSS-R Altimetry

IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing

Volumn 54, Issue 1, 2016, Pages 489-498

  Ghavidel, Ali ^a   Schiavulli, Domenico ^b,c   Camps, Adriano ^a  

^a UNIVERSITAT POLITÈCNICA DE CATALUNYA   (Spain)

^b UNIVERSITY OF NAPLES FEDERICO II   (Italy)

^c CNRS   (France)

Author keywords

Electromagnetic bias; Global Navigation Satellite Systems Reflectometry (GNSS R); ocean altimetry; scattering

Indexed keywords

ANTENNAS; BUDGET CONTROL; CIRCULAR POLARIZATION; ELECTRIC FIELDS; ERRORS; FORWARD SCATTERING; GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM; NUMERICAL MODELS; PHYSICAL OPTICS; POLARIZATION; RADAR; RADAR CROSS SECTION; REFLECTION; SALINITY MEASUREMENT; SATELLITE ANTENNAS; WIND;

GLOBAL NAVIGATION SATELLITE SYSTEMS; KIRCHHOFF APPROXIMATIONS; LEFT-HAND CIRCULAR POLARIZATIONS; NUMERICAL COMPUTATIONS; PHYSICAL OPTICS METHOD; RIGHT-HAND CIRCULAR POLARIZATIONS; SCATTERING CONFIGURATION; SOURCES OF UNCERTAINTY;

SURFACE WATERS;

ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD; ERROR ANALYSIS; GNSS; KIRCHHOFF EQUATION; MODEL VALIDATION; NUMERICAL MODEL; POLARIZATION; RADAR; REFLECTIVITY; SATELLITE ALTIMETRY; SEA SURFACE HEIGHT; UNCERTAINTY ANALYSIS; WAVE SCATTERING; WIND VELOCITY;

EID: 84947018842     PISSN: 01962892     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1109/TGRS.2015.2460212     Document Type: Article

References (49)

1. M. Martin-Neira, "A Passive Reflectometry and Interferometry System (PARIS): Application to ocean altimetry," Ecological Soc. Amer. J., vol. 17, no. 4, pp. 331-355, 1993.
2. G. A. Hajj and C. Zuffada, "Theoretical description of a bistatic system for ocean altimetry using the GPS signal," Radio Sci., vol. 38, no. 5, p. 1089, Oct. 2003.
3. A. Rius, E. Cardellach, and M. Martín-neira, "Altimetric analysis of the sea-surface GPS-reflected signals," IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens., vol. 48, no. 4, pp. 2119-2127, Apr. 2010.
4. A. Camps, "Optimization and performance analysis of interferometric GNSS-R altimeters: Application to the PARIS IoD mission," IEEE J. Sel. Topics Appl. Earth Observ. Remote Sens., vol. 7, no. 5, pp. 1436-1451, May 2014.
5. M. P. Clarizia, C. Gommenginger, M. Di Bisceglie, C. Galdi, and M. A. Srokosz, "Simulation of L-band bistatic returns from the ocean surface: A facet approach with application to ocean GNSS reflectometry," IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens., vol. 50, no. 3, pp. 960-971, Mar. 2012.
6. A. Ghavidel, D. Schiavulli, and A. Camps, "A numerical simulator to evaluate the electromagnetic bias in GNSS-R altimetry," in Proc. IEEE Int. Geosci. Remote Sens. Symp., Jul. 13-18, 2014, pp. 4066-4069.
7. B. S. Yaplee, A. Shapiro, D. L. Hammond, B. D. Au, and E. A. Uliana, "Nanosecond radar observations of the ocean surface from a stable platform," IEEE Trans. Geosci. Electron., vol. 9, no. 3, pp. 170-174, Jul. 1971.
8. T. Elfouhaily, D. R. Thompson, B. Chapron, and D. Vandemark, "Improved electromagnetic bias theory," J. Geophys. Res. Ocean., vol. 105, pp. 1299-1310, 2000.
9. T. Elfouhaily, D. R. Thompson, D. Vandemark, and B. Chapron, "Higherorder hydrodynamic modulation: Theory and applications for ocean waves," Proc. Royal Soc. London A, vol. 457, no. 2015, pp. 2585-2608, Nov. 2001.
10. F. C. Jackson, "The reflection of impulses from a nonlinear random sea," J. Geophys. Res. Ocean, vol. 84, pp. 4939-4943, 1979.
11. M. S. Longuet-Higgins, "The effect of non-linearities on statistical distributions in the theory of sea waves," J. Fluid Mech., vol. 17, no. 1955, pp. 459-480, 1963.
12. D. E. Barrick, "Determination of mean sea surface position and sea state from the radar return of a short-pulse satellite altimeter, sea surface topography from space," NOAA Sea Surface Topography Space, vol. 1, p. 19, 1972.
13. W. J. Pierson and E. Mehr, "Average return pulse form and bias for the S193 radar altimeter on Skylab as a function of wave conditions," in The Use of Artificial Satellites for Geodesy, vol. 15, S. W. Henriksen, A. Mancini, and B. H. Chovitz, Eds. Washington, DC, USA: American Geophysical Union, 1972.
14. G. Brown, "The average impulse response of a rough surface and its applications," IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag., vol. 25, no. 1, pp. 67-74, Jan. 1977.
15. M. A. Srokosz, "On the joint distribution of surface elevation and slopes for a nonlinear random sea, with an application to radar altimetry," J. Geophys. Res. Ocean, vol. 91, no. C1, pp. 995-1006, 1986.
16. R. E. Glazman, A. Fabrikant, and M. A. Srokosz, "Numerical analysis of the sea state bias for satellite altimetry," J. Geophys. Res. Ocean, vol. 101, pp. 3789-3799, 1996.
17. T. Elfouhaily, D. Thompson, D. Vandemark, and B. Chapron, "Weakly nonlinear theory and sea state bias estimations," J. Geophys. Res., vol. 104, pp. 7641-7647, Apr. 1999.
18. W. Alpers and K. Hasselmann, "The two-frequency microwave technique for measuring ocean-wave spectra from an airplane or satellite," Boundary-Layer Meteorol., vol. 13, pp. 215-230, Jan. 1978.
19. E. J. Walsh et al., "Frequency dependence of electromagnetic bias in radar altimeter sea surface range measurements," J. Geophys. Res. Ocean, vol. 96, no. C11, pp. 20571-20583, 1991.
20. L. G. Hevizi et al., "Electromagnetic bias in sea surface range measurements at frequencies of the TOPEX/Poseidon satellite," IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens., vol. 31, no. 2, pp. 376-388, Mar. 1993.
21. F. W. Millet, K. F. Warnick, and D. V. Arnold, "Electromagnetic bias at off-nadir incidence angles," J. Geophys. Res., vol. 110, no. C9, pp. 1-13, 2005.
22. F. W. Millet, K. F. Warnick, J. R. Nagel, and D. V. Arnold, "Physical optics-based electromagnetic bias theory with surface height-slope crosscorrelation and hydrodynamic modulation," IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens., vol. 44, no. 6, pp. 1470-1483, Jun. 2006.
23. D. B. Creamer, F. Henyey, R. Schult, and J. Wright, "Improved linear representation of ocean surface waves," J. Fluid Mech., vol. 205, no. 1, pp. 135-161, Apr. 1989.
24. P. Naenna and J. T. Johnson, "A Monte Carlo study of altimeter pulse returns and the electromagnetic bias," IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens., vol. 48, no. 8, pp. 3218-3224, Aug. 2010.
25. W. J. Pierson and L. Moskowitz, "A proposed spectral form for fully developed wind seas based on the similarity theory of S. A. Kitaigorodskii," J. Geophys. Res., vol. 69, pp. 5181-5190, Dec. 1964.
26. T. Elfouhaily, B. Chapron, K. Katsaros, and D. Vandemark, "A unified directional spectrum for long and short wind-driven waves," J. Geophys. Res., vol. 102, no. C7, pp. 15781-15796, Jul. 1997.
27. M. S. Longuet-Higgins, D. E. Cartwrigth, and N. D. Smith, Observation of the Directional Spectrum of Sea Waves Using the Motions of a Flotation Buoy, inOceanWave Spectra. Englewood Cliffs,NJ,USA: Prentice-Hall, 1963, pp. 111-136.
28. V. I. Tatarskii and V. V. Tatarskii, "Statistical non-Gaussian model of sea surface with anisotropic spectrum for wave scattering theory. Part I," PIER, 1999, vol. 22, pp. 259-291.
29. V. U. Zavorotny and A. G. Voronovich, "Scattering of GPS signals from the ocean with wind remote sensing application," IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens., vol. 38, no. 2, pp. 951-964, Mar. 2000.
30. C. A. Balanis, Advanced Engineering Electromagnetics. Hoboken, NJ, USA: Wiley, 1989, pp. 586-594.
31. T. Elfouhaily, D. R. Thompson, B. Chapron, and D. Vandemark, "Improved electromagnetic bias theory: Inclusion of hydrodynamic modulations," J. Geophys. Res. Ocean, vol. 106, pp. 4655-4664, Mar. 2001.
32. K. F.Warnick and D. V. Arnold, "Generalization of the geometrical-optics scattering limit for a rough conducting surface," J. Opt. Soc. Amer. A, vol. 15, no. 9, pp. 2355-2361, Sep. 1998.
33. D. V. Arnold et al., "Measurements of electromagnetic bias at Ku and C bands," J. Geophys. Res., vol. 100, pp. 969-980, Jan. 1995.
34. A. K. Fung and H. Chan, "Backscattering of waves by composite rough surfaces," IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag., vol. 17, no. 5, pp. 590-597, Sep. 1969.
35. O. Brown, "Measures of Shape: Skewness and Kurtosis," 2014. [Online]. Available: http://www.tc3.edu/instruct/sbrown/stat/shape.htm
36. G. Brown, "Backscattering from a Gaussian-distributed perfectly conducting rough surface," IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag., vol. 26, no. 3, pp. 472-482, May 1978.
37. D. E. Barrick andW. H. Peake, "A review of scattering from surfaces with different roughness scales," Radio Sci., vol. 3, pp. 865-868, Aug. 1968.
38. J. T. Johnson, J. V. Toporkov, and G. S. Brown, "A numerical study of backscattering from time-evolving sea surfaces: Comparison of hydrodynamic models," IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens., vol. 39, no. 11, pp. 2411-2420, Nov. 2001.
39. N. I. Nickolaev, O. I. Yordanov, and M. A. Mickalev, "Radar backscattering from non-Gaussian sea surface," in Proc. IEEE IGARSS, Global Monitoring Earth Manage., Jun. 3-6, 1991, vol. 3, pp. 1275-1278.
40. N. I. Nickolaev, O. I. Yordanov, and M. a. Michalev, "Non-Gaussian effects in the two-scale model for rough surface scattering," J. Geophys. Res., vol. 97, no. C10, pp. 15617-15624, Oct. 1992.
41. V. V. Tatarskii and V. I. Tatarskii, "Non-Gaussian statistical model of the ocean surface for wave-scattering theories," Waves Random Media, vol. 6, no. 4, pp. 419-435, 1996.
42. C. Cox and W. Munk, "Statistics of the sea surface derived from sun glitter," J. Mar. Res., vol. 13, pp. 198-227, 1954.
43. C. Cox and W. Munk, "Measurement of the roughness of the sea surface from photographs of the sun's glitter," J. Opt. Soc. Amer., vol. 44, no. 11, pp. 838-850, 1954.
44. M. S. Longuet-Higgins, "The statistical geometry of random surfaces," in Proc. Symp. Appl. Math. Hydrodyn. Instab. Amer. Math. Soc., 1962, pp. 105-143.
45. N. Huang and S. R. Long, "An experimental study of the surface elevation probability distribution and statistics of wind-generated waves," J. Fluid Mech., vol. 101, pp. 179-220, 1980.
46. J. M. Rius, M. Ferrando, and L. Jofre, "GRECO: Graphical electromagnetic computing for RCS prediction in real time," IEEE Antennas Propag. Mag., vol. 35, no. 2, pp. 7-17, Apr. 1993.
47. D. J. Donohue, H. Ku, D. R. Thompson, and J. Sadowsky, "Direct numerical simulation of electromagnetic rough surface and sea scattering by an improved banded matrix iterative method," Johns Hopkins APL Tech. Dig., vol. 18, no. 2, pp. 204-215, 1997.
48. K. Hasselmann, "On the nonlinear energy transfer in a gravity-wave spectrum Part 1. General theory," J. Fluid Mech., vol. 12, no. 4, pp. 481-500, 1962.
49. G. Mastin, P. Watterberg, and J. Mareda, "Fourier synthesis of ocean scenes," IEEE Comput. Graph. Appl., vol. 7, no. 3, pp. 16-23, Mar. 1987.