The winning of the west: The expansion of the western Sioux in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries

Journal of American History

Volumn 65, Issue 2, 1978, Pages 319-343

  White, Richard ^a  

^a MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 84946409850     PISSN: 00218723     EISSN: 19452314     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/1894083     Document Type: Article

References (199)

1. W. W. Newcomb, “A Re-examination of the Causes of Plains Warfare,” American Anthropologist, 52 (July-Sept. 1950), 317-330
2. Harry Holbert, Tumey-High, Primitive Warfare: Its Practice and Concepts (Columbus, 1971), 104, 134, 147, 169-70
3. Robert Lowie, Indians of the Plains (New York, 1963), 114.
4. Oscar Lewis, The Effects of White Contact Upon Blackfoot Culture with Special Reference to the Role of the Fur Trade (New York, 1942), 53-59
5. Frank Raymond Secoy, Changing Military Patterns on the Great Plains (11th Century through Early 19th Century) (New York, 1953)
6. Symmes C. Oliver, Ecology and Cultural Continuity as Contributing Factors in the Social Organization of the Plains Indians (Berkeley, 1962), 13, 52, 59.
7. John C. Ewers, “Intertribal Warfare As the Precursor of Indian-White Warfare on the Northern Great Plains,” Western Historical Quarterly, 6 (Oct. 1975), 397-410.
8. Western Historical Quarterly, 409-10.
9. John C. Ewers, Teton Dakota, Ethnology and History (Berkeley, 1937), 63-64
10. Lowie, Indians of the Plains, 11. These divisions of the Tetons will be called tribes instead of bands since they were subdivided into smaller units to which the term band is more applicable.
11. Secoy, Changing Military Patterns on the Great Plains, 42, 66-67
12. Lawrence J. Burpee, ed., Journal and Letters of Pierre Gaultier De Varennes De La Verendrye and His Sons (Toronto, 1927), 135-39, 210-12, 262, 380.
13. James Howard, “Yanktonai Ethnohistory and the John K. Bear Winter Count,” Plains Anthropologist, Memoirs 11, 21 (Aug. 1976), 21. For a differing view
14. George Hyde, Red Cloud’s Folk (Norman, 1937), 3-8.
15. Secoy, Changing Military Patterns on the Great Plains, 75
16. Mildred Mott Wedel, “LeSueur and the Dakota Sioux,” Aspects of Upper Great Lake Anthropology: Papers in Honor of Lloyd A. Wilford (St. Paul, 1974), 165-67.
17. Abraham Nasatir, ed., Before Lewis and Clark: Documents Illustrating the History of the Missouri (2 vols., St. Louis, 1952), 2, 382
18. George Hyde, Spotted Tail’s Folk: A History of the Brule Sioux (Norman, 1961), 14-15
19. Annie Heloise Abel, ed., Tabeau’s Narrative of Loisel’s Expedition to the Upper Missouri (Norman, 1939), 120-23
20. Donald Jackson, ed., Letters of the Lewis and Clark Expedition with Related Documents (Urbana, 1962), 536
21. Victor Collot, A Journey in North America (Florence, 1924), 1, 294
22. Howard, “Yanktonai Ethnohistory,” 6-7. “Trade fair” is a white term to the Sioux these gatherings took place for religious and social reasons as well as economic.
23. Howard, “Yanktonai Ethnohistory,” 25
24. Garrick Mallery, Picture-Writing of the American Indians (Washington, 1893), 298, 304.
25. Abel, Tabeau’s Narrative ofLoisel’s Expedition, 84-85. Tabeau says Yanktons, but from the location he is obviously referring to the Yanktonais
26. Collot, Journey in North America, 1, 294
27. Secoy, Changing Military Patterns on the Great Plains, 67.
28. Mallery, Picture-Writing of the American Indians, 301-308
29. Burpee, Journal and Letters of La Verendrye, 313, 321-333
30. “Journal of Jean Baptiste Trudeau [sic],” Missouri Historical Society Collections, 4 (1913), 28
31. Abel, Tabeau’s Narrative of Loisel’s Expedition, 123
32. R. G. Thwaites, ed., Original Journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition (8 vols., New York, 1905), 1, 220
33. Nasatir, Before Lewis and Clark, 1, 282-89
34. Secoy, Changing Military Patterns on the Great Plains, 72-74.
35. Nasatir, Before Lewis and Clark, 1, 268-69
36. Preston Holder, The Hoe and the Horse on the Plains (Lincoln, 1970). For later attempts of the Sans Arcs (1815-1817) and the Yanktonais (1850s) to become sedentary villagers
37. Mallery, Picture-Writing of the American Indians, 316-17
38. House Exec. Docs., 34 Cong., 1 Sess. (16 vols., Washington, 1856), 9, No. 65, pp. 5-6
39. Howard, “Yanktonai Ethnohistory,” 7-8
40. Abel, Tabeau’s Narrative of Loisel’s Expedition, 104.
41. Abel, Tabeau’s Narrative of Loisel’s Expedition, 123, 168-169
42. Collot, Journey in North America, 1, 294.
43. Mallery, Picture-Writing of the American Indians, 308-13
44. Garrick Mallery, Pictographs of the North American Indian: A Preliminary Paper (Washington, 1886), 103
45. Abel, Tabeau’s Narrative of Loisel’s Expedition, 123, 168-69
46. Nasatir, Before Lewis and Clark, 1, 299
47. Frank Stewart, “Mandan and Hidatsa Villages in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries,” Plains Anthropologist, 19 (Nov. 1974), 287
48. Elliot Coues, ed., Manuscript Journals of Alexander Henry and David Thompson (3 vols., Minneapolis, 1897), 1, 345-48
49. Thwaites, Original Journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition, 6, 88, 106, 107
50. Jackson, Letters of the Lewis and Clark Expedition, 524.
51. Collot, Journey in North America, 1, 284
52. Nasatir, Before Lewis and Clark, 1, 268-69
53. Abraham P. Nasatir, trans, and ed., “Spanish Explorations of the Upper Missouri,” Mississippi Valley Historical Review, 14 (June 1927), 59.
54. Reuben Gold Thwaites, ed., Early Western Travels 1748-1846 (32 vols., Cleveland, 1904), Vol. XXIII: Part II of Maximilian, Prince of Wied’s Travels in the Interior of North America 1832-1834, 230-32
55. Coues, Manuscript Journals of Henry and Thompson, 1, 330-33
56. Thwaites, Original Journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition, 1, 220
57. Abel, Tabeau’s Narrative of Loisel’s Expedition, 169-71
58. Stewart, “Mandan and Hidatsa Villages,” 292-93. Why this seemingly natural alliance of village peoples failed to hold until the mid-nineteenth century has never been adequately ex-plained.
59. Abel, Tabeau’s Narrative of Loisel’s Expedition, 165, 99-101, 110
60. Thwaites, Original Journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition, 1, 168, 88
61. Donald Jackson, ed., “Journey to the Mandans, 1809: The Lost Narrative of Dr. Thomas,” Bulletin of the Missouri Historical Society, 20 (April 1964), 186. That warfare at this period was a serious and costly endeavor provoked by real economic needs does not mean that pre-contact warfare did not conform to the game model. Other evidence, however, suggests it may not have fit the game model either.
62. Secoy, Changing Military Patterns on the Great Plains, 34
63. Lewis, Effects of White Contact Upon Blackfoot Culture, 49-51.
64. Jackson, Letters of the Lewis and Clark Expedition, 166-228
65. Thwaites, Original Journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition, 6, 96, 98, 100, 103
66. Mallery, Pictographs of the North American Indian, 130, 132-33. The Yanktons and Yanktonais were above the Little Sioux River, the Oglalas were between Cheyenne River and the Teton River. The Brules were near the Great Bend and on the White River drainage. The Miniconjous hunted near the Cheyenne River while the other Saones were below the Arikaras. Some scholars date Sioux expansion onto the Great Plains west of the Missouri much earlier than the nineteenth century, but thus far the evidence simply does not seem adequate to sustain this position. The recently published John K. Bear winter count has a Yanktonai war party near the Big Horn Mountains in 1725, but this seems unlikely for several reasons. The Yanktonais historically moved out onto the Great Plains behind the Tetons, yet the earliest winter count record of the Tetons in the plains beyond the immediate Missouri River region is that of the Oglala party that reached the Black Hills in 1775. Furthermore the Big Horn area was never Yanktonai territory in any sense, making it even more unlikely that they would penetrate it so early. The Yanktonais remained a Missouri River tribe. Lastly, the John K. Bear winter count refers at least once to an event (the Pawnee defeat of the Spanish in 1720, recorded for 1732) that does not even concern the Sioux. The Big Horn entry could be a similar reference to an event they did not participate in.
67. Howard, “Yanktonai Ethnohistory,” 29.
68. Thwaites, Original Journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition, 6, 98.
69. Elliot Coues, ed., “Letters of William Clark and Nathaniel Pryor,” Annals of Iowa, 1 (Jan. 1895), 615-19
70. Clarence Carter, The Territorial Papers of the United States: Vol. 14: The Territory of Louisiana-Missouri, 1806-1814 (Washington, 1949), 222, 345, 348-50
71. Louise Barry, The Beginning of the West: Annals of the Kansas Gateway to the American West, 1540-1854 (Topeka, 1972), 61.
72. Senate Exec. Docs., 25 Cong., 3 Sess. (5 vols., Washington, 1839), No. 1, p. 499.
73. Mallery, Pictographs of the North American Indian, 108
74. Mallery, Picture Writing of the American Indians, 317. This paper deals largely with external influences on the Sioux, not with the internal political and social changes that took place within the Confederacy during this period. This is an important study in its own right. Dr. M. Martin, Vaccination Report, Nov. 28, 1832, and Martin to Lewis Cass, Nov. 27, 1832, St. Louis Superintendency, Letters Received, Records of the Office of Indian Affairs, RG 75 (National Archives)
75. Thwaites, Part II of Maximilian, 359
76. J. Pilcher to Wm. Clark, Feb. 27, 1838, July 3, 1838, and Sept. 12, 1838, Upper Missouri Superintendency, Letters Received, Records of the Office of Indian Affairs. The winter counts differ. The Sans Arc, Yanktonais, Miniconjou, and Oglala counts in Garrick Mallery do not mention the epidemic. Mallery, Pictographs of the North American Indian, 117. The counts in James Howard do, with four saying few died and one saying many died
77. James Howard, “Dakota Winter Counts as a Source of Plains History,” Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 173 (1960), 374. Edwin Denig notes that the Hunkpapa, one of the tribes included in the divergent account in Howard, did suffer heavily in 1838. Edwin Thompson Denig, Five Indian Tribes of the Upper Missouri, John C. Ewers, ed. (Norman, 1961), 28.
78. The following censuses fall into a definite pattern—15, 000-17, 000 in the 1820s, 11, 000-30, 000 in the 1830s, and about 25, 000 for the 1840s and 1850s. The variation in the 1830s probably resulted from the exclusion of the Brules and Oglalas by some writers after these tribes left Missouri for the Platte
79. Thwaites, Original Journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition, 6, 96-98
80. Jackson, Letters of the Lewis and Clark Expedition, 536
81. House Exec. Docs., 19 Cong., 1 Sess. (10 vols., Washington, 1826), No. 117, pp. 8-10
82. Estimate of the Current Expenses for the Upper Missouri Agency, Sept. 1828, St. Louis Superintendency, Letters Received, Records of the Office of Indian Affairs
83. Remarks, J. L. Bean, 1st quarter, 1831, Upper Missouri Superintendency, Letters Received, Records of the Office of Indian Affairs
84. Denig, Five Indian Tribes, 22-29
85. D. D. Mitchell to H. Crawford, St. Louis Superintendency, Letters Received, Records of the Office of Indian Affairs
86. Senate Exec. Docs., 34 Cong., 1 Sess. (20 vols., Washington, 1856), No. 76, pp. 15-16
87. Reuben Gold Thwaites, ed., Early Western Travels 1748-1846 (32 vols., Cleveland, 1904), Vol. XXII: Part I of Maximilian, Prince of Wied’s Travels in the Interior of North America, 1832-1834, 304-05
88. F. V. Hayden, Contributions to the Ethnography and Philology of the Indian Tribes of the Missouri Valley (Philadelphia, 1862), 371
89. Hyde, Red Cloud’s Folk, 29-30
90. Senate Exec. Docs., 22 Cong., 1 Sess. (3 vols., Washington, 1832), No. 90, p. 47
91. Tho. Harvey to Wm. Medill, Feb. 4, 1847, St. Louis Superintendency, Letters Received, Records of the Office of Indian Affairs.
92. Senate Exec. Docs., 22 Cong., 1 Sess., No. 90, pp. 52-53
93. Thwaites, Part I of Maximilian, 22, 380-81
94. Hiram Martin Chittenden and Alfred Talbot Richardson, eds., Life, Letters and Travels of Father Pierre-Jean De Smet, S. J., 1801-1873 (4 vols., New York, 1905), II, 635. Also
95. Lewis, Effects of White Contact Upon Blackfoot Culture, 28.
96. Buffalo herds did not, as was once believed, migrate hundreds of miles each spring and fall. The herds migrated within a restricted range.
97. Frank Gilbert Roe, The North American Buffalo: A Critical Study of the Species in its Wild State (Toronto, 1951), 116-18, 505-06
98. Paul Wilhelm, Duke of Wuerttemberg, “First Journey to North America in the Years 1822 to 1824,” South Dakota Historical Collections, 19 (1938), 369
99. Senate Exec. Docs., 22 Cong., 1 Sess., No. 1, pp. 52-53
100. J. Dougherty, Thorn. McKenney, Sept. 14, 1827, Upper Missouri Superintendency, Letters Received, Records of the Office of Indian Affairs
101. J. Sanford to Clark, Aug. 17, 1833, St. Louis Superintendency, Letters Received, Records of the Office of Indian Affairs
102. Denig, Five Indian Tribes, 22-29.
103. Wilhelm, “First Journey to North America,” 406
104. F. G. Roe, The Indian and the Horse (Norman, 1955), 302
105. Lewis, Effects of White Contact Upon Blackfoot Culture, 54
106. John C. Ewers, The Horse in Blackfoot Culture With Comparative Material From Other Western Tribes (Washington, 1955), 174.
107. Abel, Tabeau’s Narrative of Loisel’s Expedition, 130-35, 151
108. Reuben Gold Thwaites, ed., Early Western Travels, 1748-1846 (32 vols., Cleveland, 1904-1907), Vol. V: Bradbury’s Travels in the Interior of North America, 1809-1811, 103-173
109. John C. Luttig, Journal of a Fur-Trading Expedition on the Upper Missouri, 1812-1813, Stella M. Drumm, ed. (St. Louis, 1920), 104
110. Denig, Five Indian Tribes, 56-57
111. Coues, Manuscript Journals of Henry and Thompson, 1, 336.
112. Abel, Tabeau’s Narrative of Loisel’s Expedition, 130
113. Bradbury’s Travels, 103, 108-113
114. Reuben Gold Thwaites, ed., Early Western Travels, 1748-1846 (32 vols., Cleveland, 1904-1907), Vol. VI: Brackenridge’s Journal up the Missouri, 1811, 98-99
115. Luttig, Journal of a Fur-Trading Expedition, 68-69, 76, 79, 82, 104, 108, 115, 127.
116. Wilhelm, “First Journey to North America,” 405
117. Denig, Five Indian Tribes, 56-57
118. Annie Heloise Abel, Chardon’s Journal at Fort Clark, 1834-39 (Pierre, S.D., 1932), 205, 311-12
119. Dougherty to Clark, Nov. 12, 1834, Upper Missouri Superintendency, Letters Received, Records of the Office of Indian Affairs
120. Sanford to Clark, July 17, 1832, St. Louis Superintendency, Letters Received, Records of the Office of Indian Af- fairs.
121. Mitchell to Wm. N. Fulkerson, June 10, 1836 Fulkerson to Clark, Oct. 1, 1835, Oct. 1, 1837, Upper Missouri Superintendency, Letters Received, Records of the Office of Indian Affairs
122. Abel, Chardon’s Journal
123. Senate Exec. Docs., 25 Cong., 2 Sess. (6 vols., Washington, 1838), No. 1, p. 557
124. House Exec. Docs., 37 Cong., 3 Sess. (12 vols., Washington, 1863), No. 1, p. 194.
125. House Exec. Docs., 19 Cong., 1 Sess., 6, No. 117, p. 9. The Kiowa resisted as late as 1814-1815. It should be emphasized that the Oglala and Brule formed the alliance with the Cheyenne the Yanktonais apparently did not make peace with them until much later.
126. Mallery, Picture-Writing of the American Indians, 316, 281
127. Secoy, Changing Military Patterns on the Great Plains, 75. Nor does it appear that the Oglala-Cheyenne alliance was without its disruptions.
128. Mallery, Pictographs of the North American Indian, 139. Why these tribes allied with the Sioux at all is not clear.
129. The development of this myth may be followed in Hiram Chittenden, The American Fur Trade of the Far West (3 vols., New York, 1902), 305
130. Bernard De Voto, Across the Wide Missouri (Boston, 1947), 224
131. Hyde, Red Cloud’s Folk, 43-46
132. Robert A. Trennert, Alternative to Extinction: Federal Indian Policy and the Beginnings of the Reservation System, 1846-51 (Philadelphia, 1975), 161. Only Bernard De Voto questioned the evidence, and even he finally accepted it. The main evidence cited is a letter from Lucien Fontenelle to Pierre Chouteau saying William Sublette had built a fort on the Platte to capture the Sioux trade. But, as Joshua Pilcher pointed out, the Sioux for years had been-going as far south as the Arkansas to raid, and winter counts record battles on the Platte in 1832-1833. Pilcher to G. Harris, Jan. 23, 1837, Upper Missouri Superintendency, Letters Received, Records of the Office of Indian Affairs
133. Mallery, Picture-Writing of the American Indians, 319. Another letter indicates that the Rocky Mountain Fur Company was trying to win the trade of the Oglalas already present on the Platte. Wm. Laidlaw to Pratte and Chouteau, Oct. 26, 1835, Ayer Ms. 486, Ayer Collection, Newberry Library (Chicago).
134. For insights into this phenomenon and the general formulation of it, Harold Hickerson, “The Virginia Deer and Intertribal Buffer Zones in the Upper Mississippi Valley,” Anthony Leeds and Andrew P. Vayda, eds., Man, Culture and Animals: The Role of Animals in Human Ecological Adjustments (Washington, 1965), 43-66.
135. 33 Rufus B. Sage, Scenes in the Rocky Mountains (Philadelphia, 1846), 125
136. Francis Parkman, The Oregon Trail (Madison, 1969), 197
137. American State Papers, Military Affairs, 24 Cong., 1 Sess. (7 vols., Washington, 1837), 6, No. 654, p. 138
138. Senate Exec. Docs., 35 Cong., 1 Sess. (16 vols., Washington, 1858), No. 11, p. 461
139. Senate Exec. Docs., 34 Cong., 1 Sess., 13, No. 76, p. 9
140. Chittenden and Richardson, Life, Letters and Travels of De Smet, 2, 657-665
141. Reuben Gold Thwaites, ed., Early Western Travels, 1748-1846 (32 vols., Cleveland, 1904-1907), Vol. XXIX: De Smet’s Oregon Missions and Travels over the Rocky Mountains, 1845-1846, 365
142. House Exec. Docs., 36 Cong., 1 Sess. (12 vols., Washington, 1855-1860), No. 78, p. 24.
143. Parkman, Oregon Trail, 121-22, 135, 137, 140, 197, 206, 214-24
144. Dale Morgan, ed., Overland in 1846: Diaries and Letters of the California-Oregon Trail (2 vols., Georgetown, Cal., 1963), 573
145. Thwaites, Part I of Maximilian, 304-05
146. Reuben Gold Thwaites, ed., Early Western Travels, 1148-1846 (32 vols., Cleveland, 1904-1907), Vol. XIX: Part I of Gregg’s Commerce of the Prairies, 321
147. American State Papers, Military Affairs, 24 Cong., 1 Sess., 6, No. 654, pp. 143-133.
148. Hayden, Contributions to the Ethnology and Philology of the Indian Tribes, 394
149. Denig, Five Indian Tribes, 142, 144-45, 166, 185-86, 353
150. Thwaites, Part I of Maximilian, 351.
151. Dougherty to Clark, Nov. 29, 1832, Nov. 12, 1834, Upper Missouri Superintendency, Letters Received, Records of the Office of Indian Affairs
152. C. H. Harris, June 27, 1837, Council Bluffs, Letters Received, The best account of the Pawnees is
153. Gene Weltfish, The Lost Universe (New York, 1965). A badly biased and far less useful history is George E. Hyde, Paumee Indians (Denver, 1951).
154. Senate Exec. Docs., 25 Cong., 3 Sess., I, No. 1, 504
155. Mallery, Picture-Writing of the American Indians, 320-21
156. “Letters Concerning the Presbyterian Mission in the Pawnee Country Near Bellvue, Neb., 1831-1849,” Collections of the Kansas State Historical Society, 1915-1918, 14 (1918), 630-31
157. Hyde, Red Cloud’s Folk, 46-47.
158. Denig, Five Indian Tribes, 22-23, 25, 29
159. James C. Olson, Red Cloud and the Sioux Problem (Lincoln, 1965), 20-21
160. House Exec. Docs., 34 Cong., 1 Sess., 13, No. 65, pp. 5-6
161. J. Hewitt, ed., Journal of Rudolph Friederich Kurz (Washington, 1937), 191-92.
162. Trennert, Alternative to Extinction, 160-92
163. Denig, Five Indian Tribes, 16-18.
164. “Letters Concerning the Presbyterian Mission,” 659, 664, 730
165. Harvey to L. H. Crawford, July 25, 1845, Harvey to Medill, Oct. 17, 1847, Nov. 22, 1847, and H. Wharton to G. Manypenny, Dec. 1851, Council Bluffs, Letters Received, Records of the Office of Indian Affairs
166. John Dunbar, “The Pawnee Indians: Their Habits and Customs,” Magazine of American History, 5 (Nov. 1880), 341-42.
167. “Letters Concerning the Presbyterian Mission,” 659-730. Daniel Miller to Mitchell, Dec. 23 and 24, 1843, Harvey to Medill, Oct. 17, 1847, Council Bluffs, Letters Received, Records of the Office of Indian Affairs
168. “The Expedition of Major Clifton Wharton in 1844,” Collections of the Kansas State Historical Society, 1923-1925, 16 (1925), 284-85
169. Donald Jackson, The journals of Zebulon Montgomery Pike (2 vols, Norman, 1966), 2, 41
170. Wm. Dennison to A. M. Robinson, July 16, 1859, Otoe Agency, Letters Received, Records of the Office of Indian Affairs
171. Wm. Albin to W. Dole, Oct. 1, 1864, Pawnee Agency, Letters Received, Records of the Office of Indian Affairs.
172. John W. Williams to Wm. Burgess, Aug. 12, 1873, Letter of Pawnee Chiefs to E. P. Smith, Aug. 21, 1874, Speeches in Council with Quakers, N. D. [circa Aug. 1874], and Petition of Pawnee Chiefs and Head Men, Oct. 8, 1874, Pawnee Agency, Letters Received, Records of the Office of Indian Affairs. For warfare in alliance with white Americans
173. George Bird Grinnell, Two Great Scouts and their Pawnee Battalion (Cleveland, 1928).
174. Denig, Five Indian Tribes, 19, 204
175. House Exec. Docs., 34 Cong., 1 Sess. (16 vols., Washington, 1856), 9, No. 65, pp. 10-14
176. Stanley Vestal, New Sources of Indian History, 1850-1891 (Norman, 1934), 167-72
177. House Exec. Docs., 37 Cong., 3 Sess., 1, No. 1, p. 193.
178. American expeditions on the Great Plains from Lewis and Clark to Colonel Dodge made attempts at establishing intertribal peace, but none of these efforts was on the same scale as the Laramie Conference. For the two most thorough treatments of policy during this period
179. Trennert, Alternative to Extinction, 178-97
180. James C. Malin, Indian Policy and Westward Ex-pansion (Lawrence, Kansas, 1921), 72-75.
181. Mitchell to Brown, Oct. 13, 1849, and Mitchell to Brown, March 9, 1851, St. Louis Superintendency, Letters Received, Records of the Office of Indian Affairs
182. Senate Exec. Docs., 31 Cong., 1 Sess. (2 vols., Washington, 1850), 1, No. 70.
183. Trennert, Alternative to Extinction 191, 188-92.
184. Percival G. Lowe, Five Years a Dragoon and Other Adventures on the Great Plains (Kansas City, 1906), 78-81
185. Chittenden and Richardson, Life, Letters and Travels of De Smet, 2, 679-80, 687
186. Capt. H. M. Wharton to Capt. M. Sevill, June 6, 1852, Council Bluffs, Letters Received, Records of the Office of Indian Affairs
187. Trennert, Alternative to Extinction, 188-90
188. Senate Exec. Docs., 35 Cong., 2 Sess. (18 vols., Washington, 1859), 2, No. 1, 630-31
189. St. Louis Missouri Republican, Oct. 29, 1851, and Nov. 9, 1851.
190. Letter of G. K. Warren to George Jones, “Relative to his explorations of Nebraska, Jan. 28, 1858,” printed copy, Graff Collection, Newberry Library (Chicago)
191. House Exec. Docs., 34 Cong., 1 Sess., 13, No. 65, pp. 4-5, 10-11
192. Denig, Five Indian Tribes, 30, 32-33
193. W. H. Wessels to Adj. Gen., July 7, 1858, Central Superintendency, Letters Sent, Records of the Office of Indian Affairs
194. Trennert, Alternative to Txtinction, 13-15
195. Wilcomb E. Washburn, The Indian in America (New York, 1975), 64-65
196. Lowie, Indians of the Plains, 114
197. Senate Exec. Docs., 35 Cong., 2 Sess., 2, No. 1, 630-33, 668-70.
198. Wilcomb E. Washburn described the Sioux as confronting their “Ancient enemies,” the Snakes (Shoshones), at Ft. Laramie in 1851 at a time when the Sioux advance had only recently prompted warfare between these previously widely separated peoples. Washburn, Indian in America, 192
199. Newcomb, “A Re-examination of the Causes of Plains Warfare.”