Progressivism meets jim crow: Curriculum revision and development in Houston, Texas, 1924-1929

Paedagogica Historica

Volumn 39, Issue 4, 2003, Pages 457-476

  Benjamin, Karen ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN MADISON   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84944870712     PISSN: 00309230     EISSN: 1477674X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/00309230307476     Document Type: Article

References (101)

1. Zilversmit, Arthur. 1993. Changing Schools: Progressive Education Theory and Practice, 1930-1960 Chicago
2. 1926. "A Ranking of the State Educational Systems". School and Society, 24: 167 The rankings were based on per pupil expenditures, teacher salaries, percentage of students in high school, etc. Texas ranked thirty-ninth out of forty-eight states
3. Urban, Wayne J., 1981. "Educational Reform in a New South City: Atlanta 1890-1925" ”. In Education and the Rise of the New South Edited by: Goodenow, Ronald K., and White, Arthur O., 114–128. Boston
4. 1927. "Junior Curriculum Leads in Mention By Columbia Bureau". Houston Chronicle, 8 September
5. Harap, Henry, and Bayne, Alice J., 1932. "A Critical Survey of Public School Courses of Study Published 1929-1931". Journal of Educational Research, 26: 106–107.
6. Caswell, HoIlis S., and Campbell, Doak S., 1935. Curriculum Development 550–551. New York
7. Johnson, Hannibal B., 1998. Black Watt Street 55–56. Austin In both Tulsa and Houston, Oberholtzer witnessed the extreme racial violence that always lay at the core of Jim Crow. During the Tulsa Race Riot of 1921, one of Tulsa's only two black schools, Dunbar School, was burned to the ground. The other school, Booker T. Washington, served as a makeshift hospital for riot victims and as headquarters for the Red Cross effort to aid more than 2,000 people made homeless by the violence. In Houston, on 20 June 1928, a group of white men stormed Jefferson Davis Hospital at 2:15 a.m. and forcefully removed Robert Powell, a critically wounded black man accused of killing a white police officer. The mob drove Powell to the outskirts of the city and murdered him. Seven arrests were made, but all were acquitted despite the fact that two of the lynchers signed confessions
8. Hirsch, James S., 2002. Riot and Remembrance: The Tulsa Race War and Its Legacy 47–48. 132Boston
9. 1928. "Heavenly Houston Turns Hellish and Hunnish As Mobbists Stage Pastime". Houston Informer, 23 June
10. Sorelle, James M., 1980. The Darker Side of "Heaven": The Black Community in Houston, Texas, 1917-1945, 77Kent State University. Doctoral dissertation
11. Woodward, C. Vann. 1951. Origins of the New South, 1877-1913 Baton Rouge Chapter 14
12. Zilversmit. Changing Schools 37–39.
13. Resales, F. Arturo. 1994. "Mexicans in Houston: The Struggle to Survive, 1908-1975". The Houston Review,: 226–227. 231 Houston's Mexican-American population grew rapidly in the 1920s (from about 6,000 to about 14,500) but would not surpass five per cent of the total population. The illiteracy rate of the city's Mexican community hovered at about seventy-five per cent. Because many parents opposed the rigid policy of Americanization supported by the Houston school board and state education officials, they kept their children at home. It was not until the late 1920s that public schooling became the primary means of elementary education for Chicano students, and the school administration responded with increasing segregation. Some middle-class and élite Mexican-Americans attended white-majority elementary and high schools
14. Miguel, Guadalupe San. 2001. Brown Not White: School Integration and the Chicano Movement in Houston College Station
15. 1924. "School Board Worried Over Bond Issue". Houston Chronicle, 7 March
16. 1924. "A Superintendent of Schools". Houston Chronicle, 24 February
17. 1924. "The Searchlight". Houston Press, 12 March
18. 1924. "School Board Elects Superintendent; Gives Up Bond Issue Plan". Houston Chronicle, 12 March
19. 1924. "Wilson Wants Higher Salary; School Board Seeks New Candidate". Houston Chronicle, 15 March
20. 1954. "Oberholtzer, Founding Head of U.H., Dies". Houston Chronicle, 19 June Handbook of Texas Online, s.v. "Edison E. Oberholtzer", in: Texas Scrapbooks, s.v. Oberholtzer", Houston Metropolitan Research Center, Houston, Texas
21. 1924. "School Head to Urge Survey of Houston Needs". Houston Press, 7 April
22. 1924. "E.E. Oberholtzer Is Elected by Board; Had Wide Experience". Houston Chronicle, 8 April
23. Nicholson, Patrick James. 1977. In Time: An Anecdotal History of the First Fifty Years of the University of Houston, 3Houston: Pacesetter Press.
24. 1930. The Building Program of the Houston Independent School District, 1924-1930, 5Houston: Board of Education of the Houston Independent School District.
25. Cousins, R.B., Annual Report of the Public Schools of the Independent School District, Houston, Texas 1921–1922. 1922–1923. 9
26. 1924. "In Praise of Houston Teachers". Houston Post-Dispatch, 3 June
27. Johnson, W.L.D., 1943. Organization of the Public Schools in Houston, Texas, 1905-1940, 52–53. Prairie View State Normal and Industrial College. Master's Thesis
28. 1929. "One Decade on Journalistic Seas". Houston Informer, 25 May Building Program, p. 63
29. 1926. "Houston". Houston Post-Dispatch, 29 March
30. 1923. "Ask Increase in Facilities for Schools". Houston Chronicle, 13 March Minutes of the Board of Education, 1924-1928, Board Services Collection, Hattie Mae White Administration Building, Houston Independent School District, Houston, Texas
31. Thomas, Jesse O., 1930. "Negro Schools in Houston". Journal of Negro Life, 8: 179
32. Idem. 1929. A Study of the Social Welfare Status of the Negroes in Houston, Texas, 19–21. Atlanta: National Urban League.
33. Greene, Lorenzo D., 1992. "Sidelights on Houston Negroes as Seen by an Associate of Dr Carter G. Woodson in 1930" ”. In Black Dixie: Afro-Texan History and Culture in Houston, Edited by: Winz, Gary D., 149–150. College Station. Thelma Scott Bryant, interview by author, tape recording, Houston, Texas (17 July 2001)
34. Broome, Edwin C., 1925. "Public School Curriculum Needs Comprehensive Nation-Wide Revision". School Life, 21: 27
35. 1928. "Teachers Wonder How Great School Expense Boost Was Spent; Many Figures Given". Houston Press, 27 February Figures calculated by using $800 for a black elementary schoolteacher's salary and $1,200 for a white elementary schoolteacher's salary, Minutes of the Board of Education, 22 March 1928
36. 1928. "Support Citizens' Ticket at Saturday's School Election!". Houston Informer, 31 March
37. 1927. "The Neglected Three R's". Houston Post-Dispatch, 4 March
38. 1926. "Houston". Houston Post-Dispatch, 29 March
39. 1927. "Our City". Houston Chronicle, 3 October
40. 1927. "Searchlight". Houston Press, 1 October
41. 1930. Some Activities in Houston Schools, 1924-1930, 5–7. Houston: Board of Education of the Houston Independent School District. The district did not publish test results for African-Americans. Due to the high cost of testing, it is unlikely that black students took the annual examinations, Minutes of the Houston Board of Education, 13 June 1927; Superintendent's Bulletin #71-A (15 May 1929), Board Services Collection (microfilm), Hattie Mae White Administration Building, Houston Independent School District, Houston, Texas
42. 1928. "Petroleum Film Will Be Shown in Houston". Houston Post-Dispatch, 6 March The Chamber of Commerce also collaborated with the school district on an educational film entitled, "The Story of Petroleum". Junior and senior high schools received "four-page manuscripts describing the picture" that invited students and teachers to a free public viewing at the City Auditorium
43. 1927. "Educators See City Schools: Come Here from N.E.A. Meet in Dallas". Houston Press, 4 March
44. 1927. "Party of 25 Educators Here on Way to Valley". Houston Chronicle, 4 March
45. 1928. "School Costs Are Defended: Oberholtzer at Kiwanis Club Says Increased Expenditure Is Necessary". Houston Press, 19 October
46. 1927. "H.L. Mills Talks about Schools to Women's Club". Houston Chronicle, 27 October
47. 1928. "School Head Guests of Burnett Students". Houston Post-Dispatch, 10 February
48. 1927. "Rotary Club Is Entertained at Jackson School". Houston Chronicle, 15 April
49. 1928. Oberholtzer Talks on School System". Houston Chronicle, 29 March
50. 1928. "Schools to Hold Annual Exhibition". Houston Chronicle, 10 March
51. 1927. "Niissle to Direct School Exhibition". Houston Post-Dispatch, 16 March
52. 1927. "School Exhibit at Auditorium Opens on Thursday Night". Houston Chronicle, 27 April
53. 1923. "Starting with the Child". Houston Chronicle, 15 May
54. 1930. Curriculum Revision and Development, 1924-1930, 9Houston: Board of Education of the Houston Independent School District.
55. Oberholtzer, E.E., “ The Next Step in School Supervision" ”. In Addresses and Proceedings -- National Education Association of the United States (1922) 1439–1445.
56. 1925. "Science Professor Talks to Teachers". Houston Post-Dispatch, 8 March
57. 1926. "Dr. Samuel Powers to Speak Saturday". Houston Post-Dispatch, 5 March
58. 1927. "Authority on Child Education to Speak". Houston Post-Dispatch, 5 March
59. 1927. "Chicago Dean Gives Lecture to Teachers: Need and Methods of Teaching Reading Are Discussed by Dr. William S. Gray of Chicago University". Houston Chronicle, 22 March Minutes of the Houston Board of Education, 9 January, 12, 27 March 1928; Curriculum Revision and Development, p. 43
60. 1928. "Development During \fear is Noteworthy; 53,961, School Census". Houston Chronicle, 30 December In 1928 there were 1,410 teachers in the school district. Of these, 718 were in the Houston Teacher's Association representing about two-thirds of the district's white teachers. Therefore, the district employed roughly 1,076 white teachers and 334 black teachers in 1928
61. 1928. "Teachers' Pay Plan Explained". Houston Press, 23 February Superintendent's Bulletin #76 (17 March 1927); Bulletin #70, 3 March 1927; Bulletin #55, 14 February 1927; Curriculum Revision and Development, p. 43
62. 1928. "Why". Houston Press, 21 March Curriculum Revision and Development, pp. 35-36
63. Oberholtzer, E.E., 1927. “ The Teacher and the School Board" ”. In Proceedings of the Annual Meeting -- National Education Association of the United States 79
64. 1928. "Teachers' Pay Plan Explained". Houston Press, 23 February Miss Gussie Howard was a representative from the teachers' salary committee and one of the most outspoken members of the Houston Teachers' Association. As of 1928, she had taught Houston children for forty years
65. 1928. "Citizens Voice School Protest". Houston Post, 16 March Mrs Hodges was a former member of the school board and a perennial critic of school reform and superintendent Oberholtzer
66. Tyack, David, and Hansot, Elisabeth. 1982. Managers of Virtue: Public School Leadership in America, 1820-1980 180–201. New York Houston's curriculum reform program also illustrates the gender components of progressive education described by many historians of education. Male administrators and educational "experts" such as Oberholtzer devalued the judgment and individuality of the largely female teaching force. See
67. 1928. "Teachers Rap New Fonville Salary Stand: Stress Laid Upon the Word 'Laborers' by Association". Houston Press, 27 February
68. Oberholtzer. "The Teacher and the School Board" 80 Oberholtzer claimed that the relationship between the teachers and school board was "governed chiefly" by the relationship between the teachers and the superintendent
69. 1926. "Teachers Salary Schedule Mapped". Houston Post-Dispatch, 16 December
70. Bryant, Ira B., 1975. Texas Southern University: Its Antecedents, Political Origin, and Future Houston
71. Thelma ScottBryant, interview by author; Hazel Hainsworth Young, interview by author, tape recording, Houston, Texas (28 July 2001).
72. 1927. "Salary Raise Not Raise So Teachers Contend at Meeting: In Some Cases New Plan Is Lower". Houston Press, 20 May
73. 1928. Teachers Rap New Fonville Salary Stand". Houston Press, 27 February
74. 1927. "Many Teachers to Take Special Study Tours: School Board to Allow Increment for Traveling as Well as for Summer Work". Houston Chronicle, 14 June
75. Terry, William E., 1978. Origin and Development of Texas Southern University 13Houston Bryant, Texas Southern University, p. 5
76. 1927. "232 Students Are Registered at New Junior College". Houston Chronicle, 13 June Minutes of the Houston Board of Education, 30 September 1929
77. 1927. "Houston College Mentor Is Named". Houston Press, 20 August Minutes of the Houston Board of Education, 25 April 1927
78. Curriculum Revision and Development, p. 13.
79. Some Activities in the Houston Schools, pp. 1-2.
80. Curriculum Revision and Development, p. 75.
81. Some Activities in the Houston Schools, pp. 1-2.
82. 1927. "Furnishings for Houston Schools Made in Own Shops". Houston Chronicle, 9 February
83. 1928. "Labor's Paper Issues Plea in School Ballot: Union Men Show Interest in Election, Supporting Trustees Favorable to Children's Welfare". Houston Post, 30 March Although in recent decades historians have criticized schools for tracking working class students into vocational classes, Houston's introduction of junior high schools and a larger array of vocational classes did not coincide with the introduction of guidance counselors and aptitude tests that tracked working class students away from academic choices. In the 1920s members of the American Federation of Labor endorsed the introduction of vocational classes and expressed pride in their skilled craft work. For example, in April of 1929 Oberholtzer presented to the school board the recommendations of the Houston Master Plumbers Association for a new course in plumbing
84. 1929. "Vocation Study Will Center in New Structure". Houston Post-Dispatch, 16 September Minutes of the Houston Board of Education, 15 April 1929
85. Building Program, pp. 40-41.
86. Some Activities in the Houston Schools, p. 56.
87. Anderson, James. Education of Blacks in the South, 1860-1935, 33–78. Chapel Hill: 1988. For a discussion of manual training in African-American schools, see
88. Some Activities in the Houston Schools, pp. 96, 98; Curriculum Revision and Development, p. 38.
89. Some Activities in the Houston Schools, p. 97.
90. Prather, Patricia Smith. 2000s. Texas Tmilblazer Series, Houston: Texas Trailblazer Preservation Association. s.v. "E.O. Smith"; Hazel Hainsworth Young, interview by author. Hazel Young's husband was an electrician
91. 1929. "School Bells Will Summon 50,000 Children Back to Class Rooms". Houston Post-Dispatch, 16 September "Vocation Study Will Center in new Structure", in
92. 1933. Analyses and Trends of School Costs, School Revenues, and Number of Pupils and Employees, 1924-1933, 710Houston: Board of Education of the Houston Independent School District.
93. Thompson, Charles H., 1938. "The Federal Program of Vocational Education in Negro Schools of Less Than College Grade". Journal of Negro Education, 7: 303–318. 84
94. 1928. "Our City". Houston Chronicle, 1 March
95. Curriculum Revision and Development, p. 48.
96. 1929. "School Bells Will Summon 50,000 Children Back to Class Rooms". Houston Post-Dispatch, 16 September
97. Oberholtzer, E.E., 1937. An Integrated Curriculum in Practice: A Study of the Development, Installation, and Appraisal of a Certain Type of Integrated Curriculum in the Educational Program of the Public Elementary Schools of Houston, Texas 197New York
98. Walter Crosby Eells. 1931. The Junior College 80Boston
99. Oberholtzer, E.E., 1934. "Portrait". National Education Association Journal, 23: 101
100. Oberholtzer. An Integrated Curriculum in Practice 127129
101. Kousser, J. Morgan. 1980. "Progressivism--For Middle-Class Whites Only: North Carolina Education, 1880-1910". The Journal of Southern History, 46: 190