Strategic partnering to improve community health worker programming and performance: Features of a community-health system integrated approach

Human Resources for Health

Volumn 13, Issue 1, 2015, Pages

  Naimoli, Joseph F ^a   Perry, Henry B ^b   Townsend, John W ^c   Frymus, Diana E ^a   McCaffery, James A ^d  

^a UNITED STATES AGENCY FOR INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT   (United States)

^b JOHNS HOPKINS BLOOMBERG SCHOOL OF PUBLIC HEALTH   (United States)

^c POPULATION COUNCIL   (United States)

^d Training Resources Group ^*  (United States)

Author keywords

Communities; Community health workers; Health systems; Performance

Indexed keywords

CLINICAL COMPETENCE; COOPERATION; DEVELOPING COUNTRY; HEALTH AUXILIARY; HEALTH SERVICE; HUMAN; MOTIVATION; ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT; PUBLIC RELATIONS; QUALITATIVE RESEARCH; STANDARDS; TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT; TRUST;

CLINICAL COMPETENCE; COMMUNITY HEALTH WORKERS; COMMUNITY-INSTITUTIONAL RELATIONS; COOPERATIVE BEHAVIOR; DEVELOPING COUNTRIES; HEALTH SERVICES ADMINISTRATION; HUMANS; MOTIVATION; QUALITATIVE RESEARCH; QUALITY IMPROVEMENT; TRUST;

EID: 84940564531     PISSN: None     EISSN: 14784491     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1186/s12960-015-0041-3     Document Type: Review

References (95)

1. United Nations. The Millennium Development Goals report 2014. New York: United Nations; 2014.
2. Yamey G, Shretta R, BInka F. The 2030 sustainable development goal for health: must balance bold aspiration with technical feasibility. BMJ. 2014;349:g5295.
3. Earth Institute. One million community health workers. Task force report. New York: Columbia University; 2011.
4. Tulenko K, Mogedal S, Afzal M, Frymus D, Oshin A, Pate M, et al. Community health workers for universal health-care coverage: from fragmentation to synergy. Bull World Health Organ. 2013;9:847-52.
5. Global Health Workforce Alliance (GHWA). Integrating community health workers in national health workforce plans. Geneva: WHO; 2010.
6. Singh P, Sachs J. 1 million community health workers in sub-Saharan Africa by 2015. Lancet. 2013;382:363-5.
7. Haines A, Sanders D, Lehmann U, Rowe A, Lawn J, Jan S, et al. Achieving child survival goals: potential contribution of community health workers. Lancet. 2007;369:2121-31.
8. Global Health Workforce Alliance and World Health Organization. A universal truth: no health without a workforce. Geneva: WHO; 2014.
9. Christopher J, Le M, Lewin S, Ross D. Thirty years after Alma-Ata: a systematic review of the impact of community health workers delivering curative interventions against malaria, pneumonia and diarrhoea on child mortality and morbidity in sub-Saharan Africa. Hum Resour Health. 2011;9:27.
10. Perry H, Zulliger R, Rogers M. Community health workers in low-, middle- and high-income countries: an overview of their history, recent evolution, and current effectiveness. Annu Rev Public Health. 2014;35:399-421.
11. Frymus D, Kok M, de Koning K, Quain E. Community health workers and universal health coverage: knowledge gaps and a need based global research agenda by 2015. Geneva: Global Health Workforce Alliance/World Health Organization; 2013.
12. Global Health Workforce Alliance (GHWA). Community health workers and other front line health workers: moving from fragmentation to synergy to achieve universal health coverage. Geneva: WHO; 2013.
13. Berman P, Gwatkin D, Burger S. Community-based health workers: head start or false start towards health for all? Soc Sci Med. 1987;25:443-59.
14. Naimoli J, Frymus D, Quain E, Roseman E. Community and formal health system support for enhanced community health worker performance: A U.S. Government evidence summit, final report. Washington, DC: USAID; 2012.
15. Crigler L, Hill K, Furth R, Bjerregaard D. Community Health Worker Assessment and Improvement Matrix (CHW AIM): a toolkit for improving CHW programs and services. Bethesda, MD: University Research Corporation; 2011.
16. Atun R, de Jongh T, Secci F, Ohiri K, Adeyi O. Integration of target health interventions into health systems: a conceptual framework work analysis. Health Policy Plan. 2010;25:104-11.
17. Briggs C, Garner P. Strategies for integrating primary health services in middle- and low-income countries at the point of delivery. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2006;2.
18. World Bank. Africa Health Forum-finance and capacity for results: information to improve value for money in health. Washington, DC: World Bank; 2013.
19. World Health Organization. The World Health Report 2010: health systems financing: the path to universal coverage. Geneva: WHO; 2010.
20. Kanter R. When giants learn to dance. New York: Simon and Schuster; 1989.
21. Frehywot S, Wuliji T, Carnell M, Collins P, Cooney K, Dini H, et al. Evidence synthesis paper: combined community and formal health system (prepared for the U.S. Government Evidence Summit on Community and Formal health System Support for Enhanced Community Health Worker Performance). Washington, DC: USAID; 2012.
22. Robinson S, Larsen D. The relative influence of the community and the health system on work performance: a case study of community health workers in Colombia. Soc Sci Med. 1990;30:1041-8.
23. Frenk J, Chen L, Bhutta Z, Cohen J, Crisp N, Evans T, et al. Health professionals for a new century: transforming education to strengthen health systems in an interdependent world. Lancet. 2010;376:1923-58.
24. Nsona H, Mtimuni A, Daelmans B, Callaghan-Koru J, Gilroy K, Mgalula L, et al. Scaling up integrated community case management of childhood illness: update from Malawi. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2012;87:54-60.
25. Mwai G, Mburu G, Torpey K, Frost P, Ford N, Seeley J. Role and outcomes of community health workers in HIV are in sub-Saharan Africa: a systematic review. J Int AIDS Soc. 2013;16:18586.
26. Glenton C, Colvin C, Carlsen B, Swartz A, Lewin S, Noyes J, et al. Barriers and facilitators to the implementation of lay health worker programmes to improve access to maternal and child health: qualitative evidence synthesis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013;10.
27. Berman P, Miller Franco L, Askew I, Boezwinkle J, Brown C, Cherian D, et al. Evidence synthesis paper: formal health system. (Prepared for the U.S. Government Evidence Summit on Community and Formal health System Support for Enhanced Community Health Worker Performance). Washington DC: USAID; 2012.
28. Perry H, Townsend J, McQueen S, Adana U, D'Harcourt E, Newsome M, et al. Evidence synthesis paper: community. (Prepared for the U.S. Government Evidence Summit on Community and Formal health System Support for Enhanced Community Health Worker Performance). Washington, DC: USAID; 2012.
29. Perry H, Sierra-Esteban F, Berman P. The financing of large-scale community health worker programs. In: Perry H, Crigler L, editors. Developing and strengthening community health worker programs at scale: a reference guide for program managers and policy makers. Washington, DC: USAID/ Maternal and Child Health Integrated Project (MCHIP); 2014.
30. World Health Organization. Health systems financing: the path to universal coverage. World Health Report 2010. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2010.
31. World Health Organization. Mobilization of domestic resources for health. Report of Working Group 3 of the Commission on Macroeconomics and Health. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2002.
32. Iwami M, Petchey R. A CLAS act? Community-based organizations, health service decentralization, and primary care development in Peru. J Public Health Med. 2002;24:246-51.
33. Ramiro L, Castillo F, Tan-Torres T, et al. Community participation in local health boards in a decentralized setting: cases from the Philippines. Health Policy Plan. 2001;16 Suppl 2:61-9.
34. Bhattacharyya K, Winch P, LeBan K, Tien M. Community health worker incentives and disincentives: how they affect motivation, retention and sustainability. Basic Support for Institutionalizing Child Survival Project (BASICS II) for USAID. Arlington: USAID; 2001.
35. Clarke M, Dick J, Zwarenstein M, Lombard C, Diwan V. Lay health worker intervention with choice of DOT superior to standard TB care for farm dwellers in South Africa: a cluster randomized control trial. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 2005;9:673-9.
36. Phillips J, Stinson W, Bhatia S, Rahman M, Chakraborty J. The demographic impact of the family planning-health services project in Matlab. Bangladesh Stud Fam Plann. 1982;13:131-40.
37. Ro M, Treadwell H, Northridge M. Community health workers and community voices: promoting good health. Atlanta: National Center for Primary Care at Morehouse School of Medicine; 2003.
38. United Nations Children's Fund. What works for children in South Asia: community health workers. Kathmandu: UNICEF, Regional Office for South Asia; 2004.
39. Amare Y. Non-financial incentives for voluntary community health workers: a qualitative study. Working paper no. 1. JSI Research & Training Institute: In The Last Ten Kilometers Project Addis Ababa. 2009.
40. Diaz J, Altobelli L, Espejo L, Cabrejos J. Pilot training center project in CLAS Las Moras-Huanuco. Lima: Future Generations; 2007.
41. Bhutta Z, Memon Z, Soofi S, Salat M, Cousens S, Martines J. Implementing community-based perinatal care: results from a pilot study in rural Pakistan. Bull World Health Organ. 2008;86:452-9.
42. Debpuur C, Phillips J, Jackson E, Nazzar A, Ngom P, Binka F. The impact of the Navrongo project on contraceptive knowledge and use, reproductive preferences, and fertility. Stud Fam Plann. 2002;33:141-64.
43. Dick J, Clarke M, van Zyl H, Daniels K. PHC nurses implement and evaluate a community outreach approach to health care in the South African agriculture sector. Int Nurs Rev. 2007;54:383-90.
44. Wangalwa G, Cudjoe B, Wamalwa D, Machira Y, Ofware P, Ndirangu M, et al. Effectiveness of Kenya's community health strategy in delivering community-based maternal and newborn health care in Busia County, Kenya: non-randomized pre-test post test study. Pan Afr Med J. 2012;13:12.
45. Ayele F, Desta A, Larson C. The functional status of community health agents: a trial of refresher courses and regular supervision. Health Policy Plan. 1993;8:379-84.
46. Gilroy K, Winch P. Management of sick children by community health workers: intervention models and programme examples. Geneva & New York: World Health Organization (WHO) and United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF); 2006.
47. Mosquera M, Zapata Y, Lee K, Arango C, Varela A. Strengthening user participation through health sector reform in Colombia: a study of institutional change and social representation. Health Policy Plan. 2001;16 Suppl 2:52-60.
48. Zakus J. Resource dependency and community participation in primary health care. Soc Sci Med. 1998;46:475-94.
49. LeBan K, Perry H, Crigler L, Colvin C. Community participation in large-scale community health worker programs. In: Perry H, Crigler L, editors. Developing and strengthening community health worker programs at scale: a reference guide and case studies for program managers and policy makers. Washington, DC: USAID Maternal and Child Health Integrated Project (MCHIP); 2014.
50. Perry H, Scott K, Javadi D, Gergen J, Shelley K, Crigler L, et al. Case studies of large-scale community health worker programs: examples from Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Brazil, Ethiopia, India, Indonesia, Iran, Nepal, Pakistan, Rwanda, Zambia and Zimbabwe. In: Perry H, Crigler L, editors. Developing and strengthening community health worker programs at scale: a reference guide and case studies for program managers and policy makers. Washington, DC: USAID and MCHIP; 2014.
51. Marquez L, Brownlee A, Molzan J, Reynolds J, Seims L. Community health workers: a comparative analysis of PRICOR-funded studies. Chevy Chase: Primary Health Care Operations Research Project; 1987.
52. Meyer-Capps J, Carruth M, Nitkin T, Doty D, Dechasa S. Grand Cape Mount Child Survival Program: improved child health in a transitional state through IMCI, October 2006-September 2010, Final Evaluation Report. Washington, DC: Medical Teams International and U.S. Agency for International Development; 2010.
53. Nair N, Tripathy P, Prost A, Costello A, Osrin D. Improving newborn survival in low-income countries: community-based approaches and lessons from South Asia. PLoS Med. 2010;7.
54. Phillips J, Bawah A, Binka F. Accelerating reproductive and child health programme impact with community-based services: the Navrongo experiment in Ghana. Bull World Health Organ. 2006;84:949-55.
55. Rahman S, Ali N, Jennings L, Seraji M, Mannan I, Shah R, et al. Factors affecting recruitment and retention of community health workers in a newborn care intervention in Bangladesh. Hum Resour Health. 2010;8.
56. Sadler K, Puett C, Mothabbir G, Myatt M. Community case management of severe acute malnutrition in Southern Bangladesh. Boston: Tufts University, Feinstein International Center; 2011.
57. Teklehaimanot A, Kitaw Y, Yohannes A, Girma S, Seyoum S, Desta H, et al. Study of the working conditions of health extension workers in Ethiopia. Ethiop J Health Dev. 2007;21:240-5.
58. Maggwa B, Askew I, Marangwanda C, Nyakauru R, Janowitz B. An assessment of the Zimbabwe National Family Planning Council's community based distribution programme. In: Frontiers in Reproductive Health (FRONTIERS). Washington, DC: Population Council; 2001.
59. Hill Z, Benton L. Supervision: a review. Innovations at Scale for Community Access and Lasting Effects (inSCALE). London: Institute of Child Health, University College of London; 2010.
60. McNamara P. Provider-specific report cards: a tool for health sector accountability in developing countries. Health Policy Plan. 2006;21:101-9.
61. Renaud A, Semasaka J. Verification of performance in results-based financing: the case of community and demand-side RBF in Rwanda. Washington, DC: World Bank; 2014.
62. Braun R, Catalani C, Wimbush J, Israelski D. Community health workers and mobile technology: a systematic review of the literature. PLoS One. 2013;8, e65772.
63. Schneider H, Hlophe H, van Rensburg D. Community health workers and the response to HIV/AIDS in South Africa: tensions and prospects. Health Policy Plan. 2008;23:179-87.
64. Shankar A, Asrilla Z, Kadha J, Sebayang S, Apriatni M, Sulastri A, et al. Programmatic effects of a large-scale multiple-micronutrient supplementation trial in Indonesia: using community facilitators as intermediaries for behavior change. Food Nutr Bull. 2009;30:S207-14.
65. Sircar B, Deb B, Sengupta P, Mondal S, Gupta D, Sarkar S, et al. An operational study on implementation of oral rehydration therapy in a rural community of West Bengal. India Indian J Med Res. 1991;93:297-302.
66. Government of Rwanda. Third Health Sector Strategic Plan, July 2012-June 2018. Kigali, Rwanda: Ministry of Health; 2012.
67. Arifeen S, Mullany L, Shah R, Mannan I, Rahman S, Talukder M, et al. The effect of cord cleansing with chlorhexidine on neonatal mortality in rural Bangladesh: a community-based, cluster-randomised trial. Lancet. 2012;379:1022-8.
68. Delacollette C, Van der Stuyft P, Molima K. Using community health workers for malaria control: experience in Zaire. Bull World Health Organ. 1996;74:423-30.
69. Kan X, Desai P, Coyle E, Davey Smith G, Sandiford P. The community health worker: effective programmes for developing countries. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 1992.
70. Bhutta Z, Lassi Z, Pariyo G, Huicho L. Global experience of community health workers for delivery of health related Millennium Development Goals: a systematic review, country case studies, and recommendation for integration into national health systems. Geneva: World Health Organization, Global Health Workforce Alliance; 2010.
71. Nkonki L, Cliff J, Sanders D. Lay health worker attrition: important but often ignored. Bull World Health Organ. 2011;89:919-23.
72. Ahmed S. Taking healthcare where the community is: the story of the Shasthya Sebikas of BRAC. BRAC Univ J. 2008;5:39-45.
73. Khan S, Chowdhury A, Karim F, Barua M. Training and retaining Shasthyo Shebika: reasons for turnover of community health workers in Bangladesh. Health Care Superv. 1998;17:37-47.
74. Mahbub A. A documentation on BRAC's Shastho Sehbika: exploring the possibilities of institutionalisation. Dhaka: BRAC, Research and Evaluation Division; 2000.
75. Rahman M, Tasneem S. Determinants of income of the Shasthya Shebikas: evidence from a pilot MNCH initiative in the Nilphamari District of Bangladesh. Dhaka: BRAC, Research and Evaluation Division; 2008.
76. Altobelli L, Espejo L, Cabrejos J. Cusco, Peru: child and maternal health impact report. In: NEXOS: promoting maternal and child health linked to co-management of primary health care services. Lima: Future Generations; 2009.
77. Colvin D. What motivates community health workers? Designing programs that incentivize community health worker performance and retention. In: Perry H, Crigler L, editors. Developing and strengthening community health worker programs at scale: a reference guide for program managers and policy makers. Washington, DC: USAID/ Maternal and Child Health Integrated Project (MCHIP); 2014.
78. Kane S, Gerretsen B, Scherpbier R, Dal Poz M, Dieleman M. A realist synthesis of randomised control trials involving use of community health workers for delivering child health interventions in low and middle income countries. BMC Health Serv Res. 2010;10:286.
79. Griffiths M, McGuire JS. A new dimension for health reform-the Integrated Community Child Health Program in Honduras. In Health system innovations in Central America: lessons and impact of new approaches. Gerard M LaForgia (Ed.) Washington, DC: World Bank; 2005.
80. Hodgins S, Javadi D, Perry H. Measurement and data use for community health services. In: Perry H, Crigler L, editors. Developing and strengthening community health worker programs at scale: a reference guide and case studies for program managers and policy makers. Washington, DC: USAID Maternal and Child Health Integrated Project (MCHIP); 2014.
81. Berlan D, Shiffman J. Holding health providers in developing countries accountable to consumers: a synthesis of relevant scholarship. Health Policy Plan. 2012;27:271-80.
82. Kallander K, Tibenderana J, Akpogheneta O, Strachan D, Hill Z, ten Asbroek A, et al. Mobile health (mHealth) approaches and lessons for increased performance and retention of community health workers in low- and middle-income countries: a review. J Med Internet Res. 2013;15, e17.
83. Pritchett L, Samji S, Hammer J. It's all about MeE: using structured experiential learning ('e') to crawl the design space. Working Paper No. 2012/104. New York: United Nations University and World Institute for Development Economics Research; 2012.
84. Rogers M. Diffusion of innovations. New York: The Free Press; 1995.
85. Subramanian S, Naimoli J, Matsubayashi T, Peters D. Do we have the right models for scaling up health services to achieve the Millennium Development Goals? BMC Health Serv Res. 2011;11:336.
86. Isaac S, Michael W. Handbook in research and evaluation. San Diego: EdITS Publishers; 1981.
87. Habicht J, Victora C, Vaughan J. Evaluation designs for adequacy, plausibility and probability of public health programme performance and impact. Int J Epidemiol. 1999;28:10-8.
88. Naimoli J. Learning from implementation: draft protocol. Washington, DC: World Bank; 2010.
89. Brown C, Lilford R. The stepped wedge trial design: a systematic review. BMC Med Res Methodol. 2006;5.
90. Perry H, Zulliger R. How effective are community health workers? An overview of current evidence with recommendations for strengthening community health worker programs to accelerate progress in achieving the health-related Millennium Development Goals. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health; 2012.
91. Walker D, Jan S. How do we determine whether community health workers are cost-effective? Some core methodological issues. J Community Health. 2005;30:221-9.
92. Naimoli J, Frymus D, Wuliji T, Franco L, Newsome M. A community health worker "logic model": towards a theory of enhanced performance in low- and middle-income countries. Bio Med Cent Human Resour Health. 2014;12:56.
93. World Health Organization. Everybody's business: strengthening health systems to improve health outcomes-WHO's Framework for Action. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2007.
94. Liberato S, Brimblecombe J, Ritchie J, Ferguson M, Coveney J. Measuring capacity building in communities: a review of the literature. BMC Public Health. 2011;11:850.
95. Putnam D. Bowling alone: the collapse and revival of the American community. New York: Simon and Schuster; 2000.