Rechargeable lithium batteries for energy storage in smart grids

Rechargeable Lithium Batteries: From Fundamentals to Applications

Volumn , Issue , 2015, Pages 319-351

  Zaghib, K ^a   Mauger, A ^b,c   Julien, C M ^b,d  

^a HYDRO QUÉBEC   (Canada)

^b SORBONNE UNIVERSITÉ   (France)

^c UNIVERSITÉ PIERRE ET MARIE CURIE   (France)

^d Université Pierre et Marie Curie UPMC CNRS   (France)

Author keywords

Energy storage; Lithium secondary batteries; Smart grid; Vehicle to grid

Indexed keywords

CHARGING (BATTERIES); ELECTRIC BATTERIES; ELECTRIC POWER TRANSMISSION NETWORKS; ENERGY STORAGE; FUEL STORAGE; LITHIUM; LITHIUM BATTERIES; LITHIUM COMPOUNDS; SECONDARY BATTERIES; SOLAR POWER GENERATION;

ELECTRICITY TRANSMISSION; ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEMS; FREQUENCY REGULATIONS; LITHIUM SECONDARY BATTERIES; RECHARGEABLE LITHIUM BATTERY; SMART GRID; SMART GRID APPLICATIONS; VEHICLE TO GRIDS;

SMART POWER GRIDS;

EID: 84940121646     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1016/B978-1-78242-090-3.00012-2     Document Type: Chapter

References (148)

1. Coster E., Myrzik J., Kruimer B., Kling W. Integration issues of distributed generation in distribution grids. Proc. IEEE 2011, 99:28-39.
2. Chen Zh., Blaabjerg F. Wind farm-a power source in future power systems. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2009, 13(6):1288-1300.
3. Abdullah M.A., Yatim A.H.M., Tan C.W., Saidur R. A review of maximum power point tracking algorithms for wind energy systems. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2012, 16:3220-3227. http://www.aesenergystorage.com/.
4. Swierczynski M., Teodorescu R., Rasmussen C.N., Rodriguez P., Vikelgaard H. Overview of the energy storage systems for wind power integration enhancement 2010, 3749-3756.
5. Vazquez S., Lukic S., Galvan E., Franquelo L.G., Carrasco J.M., Leon J.I. Recent advances on energy storage systems 2011, 4636-4640.
6. Epexspot, 2014. http://www.epexspot.com/en/.
7. Jannati M., Hosseinian S.H., Vahidi B., Li G.-J. A survey on energy storage resources configurations in order to propose an optimum configuration for smoothing fluctuations of future large wind power plants. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2014, 29:158-172.
8. Chebbo M. Electricity networks of the future 2020 and beyond 2007, Framework ESG (Ed.).
9. Fadaeenejad M., Saberian A.M., Fadaee M., Radzi M.A.M., Hizam H., AbKadir M.Z.A. The present and future of smart power grid in developing countries. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2014, 29:828-834.
10. Welsch M., Bazilian M., Howells M., Divan D., Elzinga D., Strbac G., Jones L., Keane A., Gielen D., Balijepalli V.S.K., Brew-Hammond A., Yumkella K. Smart and just grids for sub-Saharan Africa: exploring options. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2013, 20:336-352.
11. Bhatia R.S., Jain S.P., Jain D.K., Singh B. Battery energy storage system for power conditioning of renewable energy sources. Proceedings of the Power Electronics and Drives Systems (PEDS) Conference 2006, vol. 1:501-506.
12. IHS, 2014. http://www.ihs.com/index.aspx.
13. Meza E. Grid-connected storage market set to explode, pv-magazine 2014, Available at:, (accessed 15.01.14). http://www.pv-magazine.com/news/details/beitrag/grid-connected-storage-market-set-to-explode_100013945/#axzz2xusqeBB1.
14. Kaldellis J.K., Zafirakis D. Optimum energy storage techniques for the improvement of renewable energy sources-based electricity generation economic efficiency. Energy 2007, 32:2295-2305.
15. Kazempour J.S., Moghaddam M.P., Haghifam M.R., Yousefi G.R. Electric energy storage systems in a market-based economy: comparison of emerging and traditional technologies. Renew. Energy 2009, 34:2630-2639.
16. First Hydro Company website: . http://www.fhc.co.uk/pumped_storage.htm.
17. T. Jacob, Stucky Consulting Engineers Ltd. Available from: (accessed 29.03.10). http://www.stucky.ch/en/contenu/pdf/Pumped_storage_in_Switzerland_Dr_Jacob.pdf.
18. Levine J.G. Pumped hydroelectric energy storage and spatial diversity of wind resources as methods of improving utilization of renewable energy sources 2007, MS Thesis, University of Colorado.
19. Busby R.L. Wind Power: The Industry Grows Up 2012, PennWell Corporation, Tulsa, Oklahoma.
20. Ibrahim H., Ilinca A., Perron J. Energy storage systems-characteristics and comparisons. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2008, 12:1221-1250.
21. Díaz-González F., Sumper A., Gomis-Bellmunt O., Villafáfila-Robles R. A review of energy storage technologies for wind power applications. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2012, 16:2154-2171.
22. Popp M. Storage for a secure Power Supply from Wind and Sun 2014, Available at:. http://poppware.de/Storage_for_a_secure_Power_Supply_from_Wind_and_Sun.pdf.
23. Bernal-Agustín J.L., Dufo-López R. Hourly energy management for grid-connected wind-hydrogen systems. Int. J. Hydrog. Energy 2008, 33:6401-6413.
24. Brown P.D., Peças Lopes J.A., Matos M.A. Optimization of pumped storage capacity in an isolated power system with large renewable penetration. IEEE Trans. Power Syst. 2008, 23:523-531.
25. Kapsali M., Kaldellis J.K. Combining hydro and variable wind power generation by means of pumped-storage under economically viable terms. Appl. Energy 2010, 87:3475-3485.
26. Papaefthimiou S., Karamanou E., Papathanassiou S., Papadopoulos M. Operating policies for wind-pumped storage hybrid power stations in island grids. IET Renew. Power Gener. 2009, 3:293-303.
27. Colthorpe A. Ecobuild: Power One's Energy Storage Vision for Next Step of PV Market 2014, Available at:, (accessed 6.03.14). http://www.solarpowerportal.co.uk/news/ecobuild_power_ones_energy_storage_vision_for_next_step_of_pv_market.
28. P. Moser, Available from: RWE Corporate website: (accessed 22.11.10). https://www.rwe.com/web/cms/en/365478/rwe/innovation/projects-technologies/energy-storage/project-adele-adele-ing/.
29. P. Crowe, (accessed 17.08.11). http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/article/2011/08/energy-storage-industry-grows-to-integrate-wind-solar.
30. Denholm P., Kulcinski G.L. Life cycle energy requirements and greenhouse gas emissions from large scale energy storage systems. Energy Convers. Manage. 2004, 45:2153-2172.
31. Lund H., Salgi G. The role of compressed air energy storage (CAES) in future sustainable energy systems. Energy Convers. Manage. 2009, 50:1172-1179.
32. Electricity Storage Association, . http://www.electricitystorage.org/.
33. Faias S., Santos P., Sousa J., Castro R. An overview on short and long-term response energy storage devices for power systems applications 2008, 1-6.
34. Hadjipaschalis I., Poullikkas A., Efthimiou V. Overview of current and future energy storage technologies for electric power applications. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2009, 13:1513-1522.
35. Ridge Energy Storage & Grid Services L.P. The economic impact of CAES on wind in TX, OK, and NM, (accessed 27.06.05). http://www.ridgeenergystorage.com/re_wind_projects-compressed2005.pdf.
36. ScottMadden Management Consultants. Available from: , 2009. http://www.scottmadden.com/?a=strm&aid=259.
37. Holm S.R., Polinder H., Ferreira J.A. Analytical modeling of a permanent magnet synchronous machine in a flywheel. IEEE Trans. Magn. 2007, 43:1955-1967.
38. Liu H., Jiang J. Flywheel energy storage-an upswing technology for energy sustainability. Energy Build. 2007, 39:599-604.
39. Bolund B., Bernhoff H., Leijon M. Flywheel energy and power storage systems. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2007, 11:235-258.
40. Dai X., Deng Z., Liu G., Tang X., Zhang F., Deng Z. Review on advanced flywheel energy storage system with large scale. Trans. China Electrotech. Soc. 2011, 26:133-140.
41. Yogi-Goswami D., Kreith F. Energy Conversion 2007, CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, Abingdon, UK.
42. J. Zhang, Research on flywheel energy storage system using in power network, Conference on Power Electronics and Drive Systems (PEDS), vol. 2. Available at: , 2005. http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/mostRecentIssue.jsp?punumber=10774.
43. Poullikkas A., Efthimiou V. Overview of current and future energy storage technologies for electric power applications. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2009, 13:1513-1522.
44. Beacon Power, Beacon Power's "Smart Energy 25" flywheel. Available at: (accessed 03.06.11). http://www.beaconpower.com/products/smart-energy-25.asp.
45. Fiske O.J., Ricci M.R. Third Generation Flywheels for High Power Electricity Storage 2006, LaunchPoint Technologies, Inc., Goleta, California, Available at:. http://www.launchpnt.com/portals/53140/docs/002_Fiske_PowerRing.pdf.
46. S.M. Schoenung, Long- vs. short-term energy storage technologies analysis. Sandia Report SAND 2003-2783 (2003).
47. Greenblatt J.B., Succar S., Denkenberger D.C., Williams R.H., Socolow R.H. Baseload wind energy: modeling the competition between gas turbines and compressed air energy storage for supplemental generation. Energy Policy 2007, 35:1474-1492.
48. McDowall J. Integrating energy storage with wind power in weak electricity grids. J. Power Sources 2006, 162:959-964.
49. Rydh C.J. Environmental assessment of vanadium redox and lead-acid batteries for stationary energy storage. J. Power Sources 1999, 80:21-29.
50. IEEE Power and Energy Society IEEE Recommended practice for the characterization and evaluation of emerging energy storage technologies in stationary applications 2010.
51. Aifantis K.E., Hackney S.A., Vasant-Kumar R. High Energy Density Lithium Batteries 2010, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, RFA.
52. Pickard W.F., Shen Q.A., Hansing N.J. Parking the power: strategies and physical limitations for bulk energy storage in supply-demand matching on a grid whose input power is provided by intermittent sources. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2009, 13:1934-1945.
53. EUROBAT Association of European Automotive and Industrial Battery Manufacturers 2013, http://www.eurobat.org/sites/default/files/eurobat_smartgrid_publication_may_2013_0.pdf.
54. Broussely M., Pistoia G. Industrial Applications of Batteries. From Cars to Aerospace and Energy Storage 2007, Elsevier B.V.
55. Wen Z., Cao J., Gu Z., Xu X., Zhang F., Lin Z. Research on sodium sulfur battery for energy storage. Solid State Ion. 2008, 179:1697-1701.
56. Ton D.T., Hanley C.J., Peek G.H., Boyes J.D. Solar Energy Grid Integration Systems-Energy Storage (SEGIS-ES) 2008, Available at:. http://prod.sandia.gov/techlib/accesscontrol.cgi/2008/084247.pdf.
57. Saint-John J. General Electric's Slow Path to Grid-Scale Energy Storage 2013, Available from:, (accessed 06.11.13). http://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/general-electrics-slow-path-to-grid-scale-energy-storage.
58. GE Energy Storage, Transforming grid operations through innovation. Available at: . http://geenergystorage.com/grid.
59. M. Bartmann, BASF to Present New Developments in NiMH Batteries for Grid Energy Storage Applications at IRES 2013. (accessed 11.11.13). http://www.basf.com/group/pressrelease/P-13-514.
60. Hall P.J., Bain E.J. Energy-storage technologies and electricity generation. Energy Policy 2008, 36:4352-4355.
61. Scamman D.P., Gavin W.R., Roberts E.P.L. Numerical modelling of a bromidepolysulphide redox flow battery. Part 1: modelling approach and validation for a pilot-scale system. J. Power Sources 2009, 189:1220-1230.
62. Ponce-de-Leon C., Frías-Ferrer A., González-García J., Szánto D.A., Walsh F.C. Redox flow cells for energy conversion. J. Power Sources 2006, 160:716-732.
63. Prudent Energy Corp., URL: . http://www.pdenergy.com/.
64. Redflow Technologies Ltd., URL: . http://www.redflow.com.au/.
65. Weber A.Z., Mench M.M., Meyers J.P., Ross P.N., Gostick J.T., Liu Q. Redox flow batteries: a review. J. Appl. Electrochem. 2011, 41:1137-1154.
66. Alotto P.P., Guargneri M., Moro F. Redox flow batteries for the storage of renewable energy: a review. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2014, 29:325-335.
67. Van Noorden R. A better battery, chemists are reinventing rechargeable cells to drive down costs and boost capacity. Nature 2014, 507:26-28.
68. University of New South Wales, Vanadium Redox Battery. http://www.ceic.unsw.edu.au/centers/vrb/Index.html.
69. Barin A., Canha L.N., Magnago K., Da-Rosa-Abaide A. Fuzzy multi-sets and multi-rules: analysis of hybrid systems concerning renewable sources with conventional and flow batteries 2009.
70. D. Wogan, 2013 (accessed 21.10.13). http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/plugged-in/2013/10/21/vanadium-flow-batteries-could-become-a-cost-effective-solution-for-balancing-texas-power-grid/.
71. Li H. IEEE's Annual Innovative Smart Grid Technologies Conference (ISGT) 2013, http://resourcecenter.ieee-pes.org/.
72. Sweet B. Vanadium redox gaining ground in energy storage 2013, Spectrum, IEEE, Available at:, (accessed 10.03.13). http://spectrum.ieee.org/energywise/energy/renewables/vanadium-redox-gaining-ground-in-energy-storage.
73. Gildemeister energy solutions, Cell Cube FB 200kW, . http://energy.gildemeister.com/de/speichern/cellcube-fb-200.
74. On E. Smart Grid and Innovative Energy-Storage Device Enter Service Available at:, (accessed 09.09.13). https://www.eon.com/en/media/news/press-releases/2013/9/9/smart-grid-and-innovative-energy-storage-device-enter-service.html.
75. Gildemeister energy solutions receive storage and solar orders worth E29.2-million, Energy Storage J. Available at: (accessed February 2013). http://energystoragejournal.com/gildemeister-energy-solutions-receive-storage-and-solar-orders-worth-e29-2-million-2/.
76. Greentech Media, (accessed 15.03.13). http://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/the-german-american-vanadium-flow-battery-connection.
77. Prudent Energy Corp., World's largest vanadium flow battery goes on line in USA. Available at: (accessed 26.04.12). http://www.pdenergy.com/news-042612-battery.php.
78. Van de Linden S. Bulk energy storage potential in the USA, current developments and future prospects. Energy 2006, 31:3446-3457.
79. Alaska Energy Authority Energy Storage Review, ; see Prudent Energy Corp. Website: . http://www.pdenergy.com/.
80. Beck F., Ruëtschi P. Rechargeable batteries with aqueous electrolytes. Electrochim. Acta 2000, 45:2467-2482.
81. Huang K.-L., Li X.-G., Liu S.-Q., Tan N., Chen L.-Q. Research progress of vanadium redox flow battery for energy storage in China. Renew. Energy 2008, 33:186-192.
82. Rydh C.J., Sandén B.A. Energy analysis of batteries in photovoltaic systems. Part II: energy return factors and overall battery efficiencies. Energy Convers. Manage. 2005, 46:1980-2000.
83. P. De-Boer, J. Raadschelders, 'Flow batteries' leonardo energy, briefing paper, (2011) (accessed 20.04.11). http://www.leonardo-energy.org/webfmsend/164.
84. Kondoh J., Ishii I., Yamaguchi H., Murata A., Otani K., Sakuta K., Higuchi N., Sekine S., Kamimoto M. Electrical energy storage systems for energy networks. Energy Convers. Manage. 2000, 41:1863-1874.
85. Lex P., Jonshagen B. The zinc-bromine battery system for utility and remote area applications. Power Eng. 1999, 13:142-148.
86. Hromadova M., Ronald Fawcett W. Studies of double-layer effects at single crystal gold electrodes II. The reduction kinetics of hexaaquairon(III) ion in aqueous solutions. J. Phys. Chem. A 2001, 105:104-111.
87. Beaudin M., Zareipour H., Schellenberglabe A., Rosehart W. Energy storage for mitigating the variability of renewable electricity sources: an updated review. Energy Sustain. Dev. 2010, 14:302-314.
88. Corey G.P. An assessment of the state of the zinc-bromine battery development effort 2013, Available at:. http://www.redflow.com.
89. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA and the U.S. Department of Energy. EPRI-DOE handbook, supplement of energy storage for grid connected wind generation applications (2004).
90. Premium Power Corp., URL: . http://www.premiumpower.com/.
91. Smith W. The role of fuel cells in energy storage. J. Power Sources 2000, 86:74-83.
92. Price A., Bartley S., Male S., Cooley G. A novel approach to utility scale energy storage [regenerative fuel cells]. Power Eng. 1999, 13:122-129.
93. Price A. Technologies for energy storage-present and future: flow batteries 2000, 1541-1545.
94. Baxter R. Energy Storage: A Non-Technical Guide 2006, PennWell Books, Tulsa, Oklahoma, USA.
95. Divya K.C., Ostergaard J. Battery energy storage technology for power systems-an overview. Electr. Power Syst. Res. 2009, 79:511-520.
96. Chang B.J., Garcia C.P., Johnson D.W., Bents D.J., Scullin V.J., Jakupca I.J. Continuous operation of polymer electrolyte membrane regenerative fuel cell system for energy storage. J. Fuel Cell Sci. Technol. 2007, 4:497-500.
97. Grigoriev S.A., Millet P., Porembsky V.I., Fateev V.N. Development and preliminary testing of a unitized regenerative fuel cell based on PEM technology. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 2011, 36:4164-4168.
98. Li X., Xiao Y., Shao Z.G., Yi B. Mass minimization of a discrete regenerative fuel cell (RFC) system for on-board energy storage. J. Power Sources 2010, 195:4811-4815.
99. Mitlitsky F., Myers B., Weisberg A.H. Regenerative fuel cell systems. Energy Fuels 1998, 12:56-71.
100. Conte M., Iacobazzi A., Ronchetti M., Vellone R. Hydrogen economy for a sustainable development: state-of-the-art and technological perspectives. J. Power Sources 2001, 100:171-187.
101. Varkaraki E., Lymberopoulos N., Zoulias E., Guichardot D., Poli G. Hydrogen-based uninterruptible power supply. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 2007, 32:1589-1596.
102. Winter C.J. Hydrogen energy-abundant, efficient, clean: a debate over the energy-system-of-change. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 2009, 34:1-52.
103. Neyerlin K.C., Gu W.B., Jorne J., Gasteiger H.A. Determination of catalyst unique parameters for the oxygen reduction reaction in a pemfc batteries, fuel cells, and energy conversion. J. Electrochem. Soc. 2006, 153:A1955-A1963.
104. Li P. Energy storage is the core of renewable energy technologies. IEEE Nanotechnol. Mag. 2008, 2:13-18.
105. US Department of Energy, Office of energy efficiency and renewable energy Types of Fuel Cells 2011, (accessed 08.03.11). http://www1.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/fuelcells/fc_types.html.
106. Kim J.T., Jorne J. The kinetics of a chlorine graphite electrode in the zinc-chlorine battery. J. Electrochem. Soc. 1977, 124:1473-1477.
107. Kosek J.A., LaConti A.B. Advanced hydrogen electrode for a hydrogen bromine battery. J. Power Sources 1988, 22:293-300.
108. 2 fuel cell. Electrochem. Commun. 2006, 8:1358-1362.
109. Nelson D.B., Nehrir M.H., Wang C. Unit sizing and cost analysis of stand-alone hybrid wind/PV/fuel cell power generation systems. Renew. Energy 2006, 31:1641-1656.
110. Julien C.M., Mauger A. Review of 5-V electrodes for Li-ion batteries: status and trends. Ionics 2013, 19:951-988.
111. Julien C.M., Mauger A., Zaghib K., Groult H. Comparative issues for cathode materials for Li-ion batteries. Inorganics 2014, 2:132-154.
112. Liu D., Zhu W., Trottier J., Cagnon C., Barray F., Guerfi A., Mauger A., Groult H., Julien C.M., Goodenough J.B. Spinel materials for high-voltage cathodes in lithium-ion batteries. RSC Adv. 2014, 4:154-167.
113. Zaghib K., Mauger A., Groult H., Goodenough J.B., Julien C.M. Advanced electrodes for high-power Li-ion batteries. Materials 2013, 6:1028-1049. Available at:. http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1944/6/3/1028.
114. K. Zaghib, J. Dubé, A. Dallaire, K. Galoustov, A. Guerfi, M. Ramanathan, A. Benmayza, J. Prakash, A. Mauger, C.M. Julien, Intrinsic safety of high-power Li-ion batteries, in: G. Pistoia (Ed.), Handbook on Lithium-Ion Batteries: Advances and Applications, Elsevier, 2013b, pp. 437-480 (Chapter 19).
115. Mauger A., Julien C.M. Surface modifications of electrode materials for lithium-ion batteries: status and trends. Ionics 2014, 20:751-787.
116. 12. J. Power Sources 2012, 216:192-200.
117. Zaghib K., Dontigny M., Guerfi A., Charest P., Rodrigues I., Mauger A., Julien C.M. Safe and fast-charging Li-ion battery with long shelf life for power applications. J. Power Sources 2011, 196:3949-3954.
118. 4 with purity controlled by SQUID magnetometry. J. Power Sources 2006, 163:560-566.
119. Lux Resaerch Inc.,: . http://www.luxresearchinc.com/.
120. Habib A., Shamsiah A.-O. Advancing Li-ion 2012, Available at:, (accessed 01.05.12). http://www.pv-magazine.com/archive/articles/beitrag/advancing-li-ion-_100006681/501/#axzz2vx36ILCi.
121. Power One URL: . http://www.power-one.com.
122. SNEC, 8th International Photovoltaic Power Generation Conference 'Power One: Energy storage is next step for PV market'. Available at: , 2014 (accessed 21.03.14). http://www.snec.org.cn/website/newsDetail.aspx?id=1158&lang=en.
123. Bakhoum E.G. New mega-farad ultracapacitors. IEEE Trans. Ultrason. Ferroelectr. Freq. Control 2009, 56:14-34.
124. Dong Z., Kennedy S.J., Wu Y. Electrospinning materials for energy-related applications and devices. J. Power Sources 2011, 196:4886-4904.
125. Sharma P., Bhatti T.S. A review on electrochemical double-layer capacitors. Energy Convers. Manage. 2010, 51:2901-2912.
126. Miller J.R., Simon P. Electrochemical capacitors for energy management. Science 2008, 321:651-652.
127. Pan H., Li J., Feng Y.P. Carbon nanotubes for supercapacitor. Nanoscale Res. Lett. 2010, 5:654-668.
128. Kusko A., Dedad J. Short-term and long-term energy storage methods for standby electric power systems. IEEE Ind. Appl. Mag. 2007, 66-72.
129. Onar O.C., Uzunoglu M., Alam M.S. Modeling, control and simulation of an autonomous wind turbine/photovoltaic/fuel cell/ultra-capacitor hybrid power system. J. Power Sources 2008, 185:1273-1283.
130. Burke A. Ultracapacitors: why, how, and where is the technology. J. Power Sources 2000, 91:37-50.
131. Simon P., Gogotsi Y. Materials for electrochemical capacitors. Nat. Mater. 2008, 7:845-854.
132. El-Kady M.F., Strong V., Dubin S., Kaner R.B. Laser scribing of high-performance and flexible graphene-based electrochemical capacitors. Science 2012, 335:1326-1330.
133. Liu C., Yu Z., Neff D., Zhamu A., Jang B.Z. Graphene-based supercapacitor with an ultrahigh energy density. Nano Lett. 2010, 10:4863-4868.
134. Yang X., Cheng C., Wang Y., Qiu L., Li D. Liquid-mediated dense integration of graphene materials for compact capacitive energy storage. Science 2013, 341:534-537.
135. Zhu Y., Murali S., Stoller M.D., Ganesh K.J., Cai W.W., Ferreira P.J., Pirkle A., Wallace R.M., Cychosz K.A., Thommes M., Su D., Stach E.A., Ruoff R.S. Carbon-based supercapacitors produced by activation of graphene. Science 2011, 332:1537-1541.
136. H. Yang, S. Kannappan, A.S. Pandian, J.-H. Jang, Y.S. Lee, W. Lu, arXiv:1311.1413 [cond-mat.mtrl-sci, 6 nov. 2013].
137. Khayyam H., Ranjbarzadeh H., Marano V. Intelligent control of vehicle to grid power. J. Power Sources 2012, 201:1-9.
138. Emadi A. Handbook of Automotive Power Electronics and Motor Drives 2005, CRC Press, Abingdon, UK, p. 34.
139. Hilrue M.K., Parsons G.R., Kempton W., Gardner M.P. Willingness to pay for electric vehicles and their attributes. Resour. Energy Econ. 2011, 33:686-705.
140. Kamboj S., Pearre N., Kempton W., Decker K., Trnka K., Kern C. Exploring the formation of electric vehicle coalitions for vehicle-to-grid power regulation 2010.
141. Kempton W., Marra F., Andersen P.B., Garcia-Valle R. Business models and control and management architectures for EV electrical grid integration 2012.
142. Kempton W., Tomic J. Vehicle-to-grid power fundamentals: calculating capacity and net revenue. J. Power Sources 2005, 144:268-279.
143. A. Briones, J. Francfort, P. Heitmann, M. Schey, S. Schey, J. Smart, Vehicle-to-grid (V2G). Power flow regulations and building codes, Review by AVTA, Idaho Nat. Lab. Report, Sept. 2012, INL/EXT-12-26853 (2012).
144. Kempton W., Dhanju A. Electric vehicles with V2G: storage for large-scale wind power. Windtech Int. 2006, 2:18-21.
145. Y. Nussbaumer, Vehicle to grid: de la batterie vers le réseau électrique. In: Energie, Voiture Electrique, Automobile Propre. Available at: , 2012 (accessed 07.06.12). http://www.automobile-propre.com/2012/06/07/vehicle-to-grid-de-la-batterie-vers-le-reseau-electrique/.
146. Udo V. Proven at PJM: Vehicle to Grid (V2G) and Power System/Transportation Synergies 2008, Pulse, Energy, Available at:, (accessed 17.11.08). http://www.energypulse.net/centers/article/article_print.cfm?a_id=1878.
147. Hydro-Québec Report (2014), Démonstration d'une zone de réseau interactif, Hydro-Québec-Institut de recherche, (accessed 08.01.14). http://www.rncan.gc.ca/energie/financement/programmes-financement-actuels/fep/4958.
148. NanoMarkets Batteries and Ultra-capacitors for the Smart Power Grid 2014, (accessed 06.08.14). http://www.nanomarkets.net.