Environmental impacts and constraints associated with the production of major food crops in Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia

Food Security

Volumn 7, Issue 4, 2015, Pages 795-822

  Reynolds, Travis W ^a   Waddington, Stephen R ^b   Anderson, C Leigh ^c   Chew, Alexander ^c   True, Zoe ^c   Cullen, Alison ^c  

^a Colby College   (United States)

^b University of Washington ^*  (Mexico)

^c UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON   (United States)

Author keywords

Cassava; Good management practices; Maize; Publication analysis; Rice; Sorghum millets; Sustainable agriculture; Sweetpotato yam

Indexed keywords

BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICE; CROP PRODUCTION; CROP YIELD; DEVELOPING WORLD; ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION; ENVIRONMENTAL FACTOR; ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT; ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT; FOOD SECURITY; SMALLHOLDER; SOIL DEGRADATION;

SOUTH ASIA; SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA;

DIOSCOREA ALATA; IPOMOEA BATATAS; MANIHOT ESCULENTA; ZEA MAYS;

EID: 84938415516     PISSN: 18764517     EISSN: 18764525     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s12571-015-0478-1     Document Type: Article

References (170)

1. Adjei-Nsiah, S., Kuyper, T. W., Leeuwis, C., Abekoe, M. K., & Giller, K. E. (2007). Evaluating sustainable and profitable cropping sequences with cassava and four legume crops: effects on soil fertility and maize yields in the forest/savannah transitional agroecological zone of Ghana. Field Crops Research, 103, 87–97.
2. Africa Rice Center. (2010). Africa Rice Center (AfricaRice) Annual report 2009: Increasing investment in Africa’s rice sector. Cotonou.
3. Agbaje, G. O., Ogunsumi, L. O., Oluokun, J. A., & Akinlosotu, T. A. (2005). Survey of yam production system and the impact of government policies in southwestern Nigeria. Journal of Food, Agriculture and Environment, 3(2), 222–229.
4. Ahmed, M. M., Sanders, J. H., & Nell, W. T. (2000). New sorghum and millet cultivar introduction in Sub-Saharan Africa: impacts and research agenda. Agricultural Systems, 64, 55–65.
5. Ajayi, O. C., Place, F., Akinnifesi, F. K., & Sileshi, G. W. (2011). Agricultural success from Africa: the case of fertilizer tree systems in southern Africa (Malawi, Tanzania, Mozambique, Zambia and Zimbabwe). International Journal of Agricultural Sustainability, 9(1), 129–136.
6. Ali, M. Y., Waddington, S. R., Timsina, J., Hodson, D., & Dixon, J. (2009). Maize-rice cropping systems in Bangladesh: status and research needs. Journal of Agricultural Science and Technology USA, 3(6), 35–53.
7. Altieri, M. A., & Nicholls, C. I. (2004). Biodiversity and pest management in agroecosystems (2nd ed.). Binghamton: Food Products Press.
8. Amusa, N. A., Adegbite, A., Muhammed, S., & Baiyewu, R. A. (2003). Yam diseases and its management in Nigeria. African Journal of Biotechnology, 2(12), 297–502.
9. Andrade, M., Barker, I., Cole, D., Dapaah, H., Elliott, H., Fuentes, S., Grüneberg, W., Kapinga, R., Kroschel, J., Labarta, R., Lemaga, B., Loechl, C., Low, J., Lynam, J., Mwanga, R., Ortiz, O., Oswald, A., & Thiele, G. (2009). Lima: Unleashing the potential of Sweetpotato in Sub-Saharan Africa: Current challenges and way forward. International Potato Center (CIP). Working Paper 2009–1.
10. Andreae, M. O., & Merlet, P. (2001). Emission of trace gases and aerosols from biomass burning. Global Biogeochemical Cycles, 15(4), 955–966.
11. ASARECA (2005). Potato and Sweetpotato. Association for Strengthening Agricultural Research in Eastern and Central Africa (ASARECA).
12. Bagamba, F., Bashaasha, B., Claessens, I., & Antle, J. (2012). Assessing climate change impacts and adaptation strategies for smallholder agricultural systems in Uganda. African Crop Science Journal, 20(2), 303–316.
13. Bai, Z. G., Dent, D. L., Olsson, L., & Schaepman, M. E. (2008). Proxy global assessment of land degradation. Soil Use and Management, 24(3), 223–234.
14. Bänziger, M., Setimela, P. S., Hodson, D., & Vivek, B. (2006). Breeding for improved abiotic stress tolerance in maize adapted to southern Africa. Agricultural Water Management, 80(1–3), 212–224.
15. Barker, R., Meinzen-Dick, R., Shah, T., Tuong, T.P., & Levine, G. (2010). Managing irrigation in an environment of water scarcity. In Rice in the global economy: Strategic research and policy issues for food security (p. 333). Manila: 2.6: International Rice Research Institute (IRRI).
16. Basavaraj, G., Parthasarathy Rao, P., Bhagavatula, S., & Ahmed, W. (2010). Availability and utilization of pearl millet in India. SAT eJournal, 8.
17. Beed, F. D. (2014). Managing the biological environment to promote and sustain crop productivity and quality. Food Security, 6(2), 169–186.
18. Bellotti, A. C. (2002). Arthropod pests. In R. J. Hillocks & A. Bellotti (Eds.), Cassava: Biology, production and utilization (pp. 209–235). Wallingford: CABI Publishing.
19. Binam, J. N., Tonye, J., Nyambi, G., & Akoa, M. (2004). Factors affecting the technical efficiency among smallholder farmers in the slash and burn agriculture zone of Cameroon. Food Policy, 29(5), 531–545.
20. Bommarco, R., Kleijn, D., & Potts, S. G. (2013). Ecological intensification: harnessing ecosystem services for food security. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 28(4), 230–238.
21. Bossio, D., Geheb, K., & Critchley, W. (2010). Managing water by managing land: addressing land degradation to improve water productivity and rural livelihoods. Agricultural Water Management, 97(4), 536–542.
22. Bouman, B. A. M., Humphreys, E., Tuong, T. P., & Barker, R. (2007). Rice and water. Advances in Agronomy, 92, 187–237.
23. Bridge, J., Coyne, D., & Kwoseh, C. K. (2005). Nematode parasites of tropical root and tuber crops. In M. Luc, R. Sikora, M. Luc, R. Sikora, & J. Bridge (Eds.), Plant parasitic nematodes in subtropical and tropical agriculture (Revised 2nd ed., pp. 221–258). Wallingford: CAB International.
24. Burke, M. B., Lobell, D. B., & Guarino, L. (2009). Shifts in African crop climates by 2050, and the implications for crop improvement and genetic resources conservation. Global Environmental Change, 19, 317–325.
25. Cairns, J. E., Hellin, J., Sonder, K., Araus, J. L., MacRobert, J. F., Thierfelder, C., & Prasanna, B. M. (2013). Adapting maize production to climate change in sub-Saharan Africa. Food Security, 5(3), 345–360.
26. Cassman, K. G., Dobermann, A., Walters, D. T., & Yang, H. (2003). Meeting cereal demand while protecting natural resources and improving environmental quality. Annual Review of Environment and Resources, 28(1), 315–358.
27. Chartres, C. J., & Noble, A. (2015). Sustainable intensification: overcoming land and water constraints on food production. Food Security, 7(2), 235–245.
28. CIP. (2010). Facts and figures about sweetpotato. Lima: International Potato Center.
29. Claessens, L., Antle, J., Stoorvogel, J.J., Thornton, P.K., & Herrero, M. (2010). Assessing Climate Change Adaptation Strategies for Small Scale, Semi-subsistence Farming. Retrieved from: http://www.researchgate.net/publication/
30. Clay, J. (2004). World agriculture and the environment. Washington: Island Press.
31. Cobo, J. G., Dercon, G., & Cadisch, G. (2010). Nutrient balances in African land use systems across different spatial scales: a review of approaches, challenges and progress. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 136(1), 1–15.
32. Cooper, P. J. M., Dimes, J., Rao, K. P. C., Shapiro, B., Shiferaw, B., & Twomlow, S. (2008). Coping better with current climatic variability in the rain-fed farming systems of sub-Saharan Africa: an essential first step in adapting to future climate change? Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 126(1–2), 24–35.
33. Dawe, D., Pandey, S., & Nelson, A. (2010). Emerging trends and spatial patterns of rice production. In S. Pandey, D. Byerlee, D. Dawe, A. Dobermann, M. Samarendu, S. Rozelle, & B. Hardy (Eds.), Rice in the global economy: Strategic research and policy issues for food security (p. 333). Manila: 2.6: International Rice Research Institute (IRRI).
34. de Fraiture, C., Molden, D., & Wichelnsa, D. (2010). Investing in water for food, ecosystems, and livelihoods: an overview of the comprehensive assessment of water management in agriculture. Agricultural Water Management, 97, 495–501.
35. Dixon, J., Gulliver, A., & Gibbon, D. (2001). Farming systems and poverty: Improving farmers’ livelihoods in a changing world. Rome: FAO and World Bank.
36. Dobermann, A. (2004). A critical assessment of the system of rice intensification (SRI). Agricultural Systems, 79(3), 261–281.
37. Dobermann, A., & Fairhurst, T. (2000). Rice: Nutrient disorders & nutrient management. IRRI, the Philippines, PPI, USA, and PPIC, Canada.
38. Dogliotti, S., Giller, K. E., & Van Ittersum, M. K. (2014). Achieving global food security whilst reconciling demands on the environment: report of the First International Conference on Global Food Security. Food Security, 6(2), 299–302.
39. Edison, S., Hegde, V., Makeshkumar, T., Srinivas, T., Suja, G., & Padmaja, G. (2009). Sweetpotato in the Indian Sub-Continent. In G. Loebenstein & G. Thottappilly (Eds.), The sweetpotato (pp. 391–414). Dordrecht: Springer.
40. El-Sharkawy, M. A. (2006). International research on cassava photosynthesis, productivity, eco-physiology, and responses to environmental stresses in the tropics. Photosynthetica, 44(4), 481–512.
41. Erenstein, O., Sayre, K., Wall, P., Hellin, J., & Dixon, J. (2012). Conservation agriculture in maize- and wheat-based systems in the (sub)tropics: Lessons from adaptation initiatives in South Asia, Mexico, and Southern Africa. Journal of Sustainable Agriculture, 32(2), 180–206.
42. Evans Policy Analysis and Research Group (EPAR). (2015). Cassava bacterial blight and postharvest physiological deterioration. EPAR Brief No. 298. Retrieved from: https://evans.uw.edu/centers-projects/epar/epar-research
43. Ewell, P. (2011). Sweetpotato production in Sub-Saharan Africa: Patterns and key issues. Kenya: Nairobi.
44. Fageria, N. K. (2011). Growth and mineral nutrition of field crops. Boca Raton: CRC Press.
45. FAO (2001). Proceedings of the Validation Forum on the Global Cassava Development Strategy ‘00: Strategic environmental assessment, an assessment of the impact of cassava production and processing on the environment and biodiversity. Rome: Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO). Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/docrep/007/y2413e/y2413e00.htm
46. FAO (2010). Cassava diseases in Africa: a major threat to food security. Rome: Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO). Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/fcc/documents/CaCESA_EN.pdf
47. FAO (2013, 2012, 2010). FAOSTAT. Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Rome. Retrieved from http://faostat.fao.org
48. Fargione, J., Hill, J., Tilman, D., Polasky, S., & Hawthorne, P. (2008). Land clearing and the biofuel carbon debt. Science, 319(5867), 1235–1238.
49. Fermont, A.M. (2009). Cassava and soil fertility in intensifying smallholder farming systems of East Africa. PhD thesis, Wageningen University, The Netherlands.
50. Fermont, A. M., Van Asten, P. J. A., & Giller, K. E. (2008). Increasing land pressure in East Africa: the changing role of cassava and consequences for sustainability of farming systems. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 128(4), 239–250.
51. Fermont, A. M., Van Asten, P. J. A., Tittonell, P., Van Wijk, M. T., & Giller, K. E. (2009). Closing the cassava yield gap: an analysis from smallholder farms in East Africa. Field Crops Research, 112(1), 24–36.
52. Fowler, R., & Rockström, J. (2001). Conservation tillage for sustainable agriculture: an agrarian revolution gathers momentum in Africa. Soil and Tillage Research, 61, 93–108.
53. Fuglie, K. O. (2007). Priorities for sweetpotato research in developing countries: results of a survey. HortScience, 42(5), 1200–1206.
54. García-Ponce, E., Gómez-Macpherson, H., Diallo, O., Djibril, M., Baba, C., Porcel, O., Mathieu, B., Comas, J., Mateos, L., & Connor, D. J. (2013). Contribution of sorghum to productivity of small-holder irrigation schemes: on-farm research in the Senegal River Valley, Mauritania. Agricultural Systems, 115, 72–82.
55. Garí, J.A. (2002). Review of the African millet diversity. International workshop on fonio, food security and livelihood among the rural poor in West Africa. IPGRI/IFAD, Bamako, Mali, 19–22 November 2001.
56. Gerpacio, R., & Pingali, P. (2007). Tropical and subtropical maize in Asia. Mexico: CIMMYT. Retrieved from http://repository.cimmyt.org/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10883/800/90044.pdf?sequence=1
57. Gibbon, D., Dixon, J., & Flores, D. (2007). Beyond drought tolerant maize: Study of additional priorities in maize. Report to CGIAR Generation Challenge Program. CIMMYT Impacts, Targeting and Assessment Unit, CIMMYT. México DF, México.
58. Giller, K. E., Rowe, E. C., de Ridder, N., & van Keulen, H. (2006). Resource use dynamics and interactions in the tropics: scaling up in space and time. Agricultural Systems, 88, 8–27.
59. Gnonlonfin, G. J. B., Hell, K., Adjovi, Y., Fandohan, P., Koudande, D. O., Mensah, G. A., & Brimer, L. (2013). A review on aflatoxin contamination and its implications in the developing world: a sub-Saharan African perspective. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 53(4), 349–365.
60. Gómez, M. I., Barrett, C. B., Buck, L. E., De Groote, H., Ferris, S., Gao, H. O., & Yang, R. Y. (2011). Research principles for developing country food value chains. Science, 332(6034), 1154–1155.
61. Goswami, S. B., Sen, H., & Jana, P. K. (1995). Tuberization and yield potential of sweetpotato cultivars as influenced by water management practices. Journal of Root Crops, 21, 77–81.
62. Gregory, P. J., Ingram, J. S. I., & Brklacich, M. (2005). Climate change and food security. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, 360, 2139–2148.
63. Gupta, A. (2012). Pesticide use in South and South-East Asia: environmental public health and legal concerns. American Journal of Environmental Sciences, 8(2), 152–157.
64. Gupta, R., & Sayre, K. (2007). Conservation agriculture in South Asia. Journal of Agricultural Science, 145, 207–214.
65. Haussmann, B. I., Fred-Rattunde, H., Weltzien‐Rattunde, E., Traoré, P. S. C., Vom Brocke, K., & Parzies, H. K. (2012). Breeding strategies for adaptation of pearl millet and sorghum to climate variability and change in West Africa. Journal of Agronomy and Crop Science, 198(5), 327–339.
66. Heong, K. L., & Schoenly, K. G. (1998). Impact of insecticides on herbivore-natural enemy communities in tropical rice ecosystems. In P. T. Haskell & P. McEwen (Eds.), Ecotoxicology: Pesticides and beneficial organisms (pp. 381–403). London: Chapman and Hall.
67. Hershey, C.H., & Howeler, R.H. (2000). Cassava in Asia: Designing crop research for competitive markets. In Cassava’s potential in Asia in the 21st Century: Present situation and future research and development needs. Proceedings 6th Regional Workshop, held in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam, pp. 110–146.
68. Hobbs, P. R., Sayre, K., & Gupta, R. (2008). The role of conservation agriculture in sustainable agriculture. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, B: Biological Sciences, 363, 543–555.
69. Hodges, R. J., Buzby, J. C., & Bennett, B. (2011). Postharvest losses and waste in developed and less developed countries: opportunities to improve resource use. The Journal of Agricultural Science, 149(S1), 37–45.
70. Howeler, R.H. (2000). Cassava agronomy research in Asia: Has it benefited cassava farmers? In Cassava’s potential in Asia in the 21st Century: Present situation and future research and development needs. Proceedings 6th Regional Workshop, held in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam, pp. 345–382.
71. Howeler, R. H. (2002). Cassava mineral nutrition and fertilization. In R. J. Hillocks, J. M. Thresh, & A. Bellotti (Eds.), Cassava: Biology, production and utilization (pp. 115–147). Wallingford: CABI Publishing.
72. IRRI. (2004). IRRI’s Environmental Agenda: an approach toward sustainable development (International Rice Research Institute (IRRI)). Philippines: Manila.
73. Jarvis, A., Ramirez-Villegas, J., Campo, B. V. H., & Navarro-Racines, C. (2012). Is cassava the answer to African climate change adaptation? Tropical Plant Biology, 5(1), 9–29.
74. Jeger, M. J., Gilijamse, E., Bock, C. H., & Frinking, H. (1998). The epidemiology, variability and control of the downy mildews of pearl millet and sorghum, with particular reference to Africa. Plant Pathology, 47, 544–569.
75. John, A., & Fielding, M. (2014). Rice production constraints and ‘new’ challenges for South Asian smallholders: insights into de facto research priorities. Agriculture & Food Security, 3(1), 18.
76. Joshi, P. K., Singh, N. P., Singh, N. N., Gerpacio, R. V., & Pingali, P. L. (2005). Maize in India: Production systems, constraints, and research priorities. México: CIMMYT.
77. Kanampiu, F., Ransom, J., Gressel, J., Jewell, D., Friesen, D., Grimanelli, D., & Hoisington, D. (2002). Appropriateness of biotechnology to African agriculture: Striga and maize as paradigms. Plant Cell, Tissue and Organ Culture, 69(2), 105–110.
78. Karim, O. R., & Fasasi, O. S. (2009). Gari yield and chemical composition of cassava roots stored using traditional methods. In African Crop Science Conference Proceedings Vol. 9, pp. 329–332.
79. Keating, B. A., Carberry, P. S., Bindraban, P. S., Asseng, S., Meinke, H., & Dixon, J. (2010). Eco-efficient agriculture: concepts, challenges, and opportunities. Crop Science, 50, S-109–S-119.
80. Khan, Z., Midega, C., Pittchar, J., Pickett, J., & Bruce, T. (2011). Push-pull technology: a conservation agriculture approach for integrated management of insect pests, weeds and soil health in Africa. International Journal of Agricultural Sustainability, 9(1), 162–170.
81. Kijima, Y., Otsuka, K., & Sserunkuuma, D. (2011). An inquiry into constraints on a green revolution in Sub-Saharan Africa: the case of NERICA rice in Uganda. World Development, 39(1), 77–86.
82. Knox, J., Hess, T., Daccache, A., & Wheeler, T. (2012). Climate change impacts on crop productivity in Africa and South Asia. Environmental Research Letters, 7(3), 034032.
83. Kyamanywa, S., Kashaija, I.N., Getu, E., Amata, R., Senkesha, N., & Kullaya, A. (2011). Enhancing food security through improved seed systems of appropriate varieties of cassava, potato and sweetpotato resilient to climate change in Eastern Africa. Retrieved from http://cgspace.cgiar.org/bitstream/handle/10568/10817/Project2_Cassava.pdf?sequence=6
84. Lal, R. (2005). World crop residues production and implications of its use as a biofuel. Environment International, 31(4), 575–584.
85. Lal, R. (2009). Soil degradation as a reason for inadequate human nutrition. Food Security, 1(1), 45–57.
86. Larson, D. F., Otsuka, K., Kajisa, K., Estudillo, J., & Diagne, A. (2010). Can Africa replicate Asia’s green revolution in rice? Washington DC: World Bank, Development Research Group, Agriculture and Rural Development Team.
87. Lebot, V. (2009). Tropical root and tuber crops: Cassava, sweetpotato, yam and aroids. Crop Production Science in Horticulture No, 17. CABI Publishing, Wallingford.
88. Legg, J. P., Owor, B., Sseruwagi, P., & Ndunguru, J. (2006). Cassava mosaic virus disease in East and Central Africa: epidemiology and management of a regional pandemic. Advances in Virus Research, 67, 355–418.
89. Legg, J. P., Jeremiah, S. C., Obiero, H. M., Maruthi, M. N., Ndyetabula, I., Okao-Okuja, G., & Lava Kumar, P. (2011). Comparing the regional epidemiology of the cassava mosaic and cassava brown streak virus pandemics in Africa. Virus Research, 159(2), 161–170.
90. Legg, J., Somado, E. A., Barker, I., Beach, L., Ceballos, H., Cuellar, W., Elkhoury, W., Gerling, D., et al. (2014). A global alliance declaring war on cassava viruses in Africa. Food Security, 6(2), 231–248.
91. Li, X., Waddington, S. R., Dixon, J., Joshi, A. K., & de Vicente, M. C. (2011). The relative importance of drought and other water related constraints for major food crops in South Asian farming systems. Food Security, 3(1), 19–33.
92. Lobell, D. B., Schlenker, W., & Costa-Roberts, J. (2011a). Climate trends and global crop production since 1980. Science, 333(6042), 616–620.
93. Lobell, D. B., Bänziger, M., Magorokosho, C., & Vivek, B. (2011b). Nonlinear heat effects on African maize as evidenced by historical yield trials. Nature Climate Change, 1(1), 42–45.
94. Low, J., Lynam, J., Lemaga, B., Crissman, C., Barker, I., Thiele, G., Namanda, S., et al. (2009). Sweetpotato in Sub-Saharan Africa. In G. Loebenstein & G. Thottappilly (Eds.), The sweetpotato (pp. 359–390). Dordrecht: Springer.
95. Mapfumo, P., Mtambanengwe, F., Giller, K. E., & Mpepereki, S. (2005). Tapping indigenous herbaceous legumes for soil fertility management by resource-poor farmers in Zimbabwe. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 109(3–4), 221–233.
96. Mejia, D. (2004). Rice-post harvest system: An efficient approach. Rome: FAO.
97. Melifonwu, A. A. (1994). Weeds and their control in cassava. African Crop Science Journal, 2(4), 519–530.
98. Michels, K., Sivakumar, M. V. K., & Allison, B. E. (1993). Wind erosion in the Southern Sahelian Zone and induced constraints to pearl millet production. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, 67(1), 65–77.
99. Mohamed, A. B., Van Duivenbooden, N., & Abdoussallam, S. (2002). Impact of climate change on agricultural production in the Sahel–Part 1. Methodological approach and case study for millet in Niger. Climatic Change, 54(3), 327–348.
100. Mueller, N. D., Gerber, J. S., & Johnston, M. (2012). Closing yield gaps through nutrient and water management. Nature, 490, 254–257.
101. Murty, M.V.R., Singh, P., Wani, S.P., Khairwal, I.S., & Srinivas, K. (2007). Yield gap analysis of sorghum and pearl millet in India using simulation modelling. Global Theme on Agroecosystems Report No 37, ICRISAT, Patancheru.
102. Mutava, R. N., Prasad, P. V. V., Tuinstra, M. R., Kofoid, K. D., & Yu, J. (2011). Characterization of sorghum genotypes for traits related to drought tolerance. Field Crops Research, 123(1), 10–18.
103. Nedunchezhiyan, M. (2011). Evaluation of sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas) based strip intercropping systems for yield, competition indices and nutrient uptake. Indian Journal of Agronomy, 56(2), 98–103.
104. Norton, G., Heong, K. L., Johnson, D., & Savary, S. (2010). Rice pest management: issues and opportunities. In S. Pandey, D. Byerlee, D. Dawe, A. Dobermann, M. Samarendu, S. Rozelle, & B. Hardy (Eds.), Rice in the global economy: Strategic research and policy issues for food security (p. 333). Manila: IRRI.
105. Oerke, E. C. (2006). Crop losses to pests. Journal of Agricultural Science, 144(1), 31–43.
106. Oerke, E. C., & Dehne, H. W. (2004). Safeguarding production—losses in major crops and the role of crop protection. Crop Protection, 23(4), 275–285.
107. Oluwole, O., & Cheke, R. A. (2009). Health and environmental impacts of pesticide use practices: a case study of farmers in Ekiti State, Nigeria. International Journal of Agricultural Sustainability, 7(3), 153–163.
108. Onwueme, I. C. (2002). Cassava in Asia and the Pacific. In R. J. Hillocks, J. M. Thresh, & A. Bellotti (Eds.), Cassava: Biology, production and utilization (pp. 55–65). Wallingford: CABI Publishing.
109. Paavola, J. (2008). Livelihoods, vulnerability and adaptation to climate change in Morogoro, Tanzania. Environmental Science & Policy, 11(7), 642–654.
110. Paeth, H., Capo-Chichi, A., & Endlicher, W. (2008). Climate change and food security in tropical West Africa—a dynamic-statistical modelling approach. Erdkunde, 62, 101–115.
111. Pampolino, M. F., Manguiat, I. J., Ramanathan, S., Gines, H. C., Tan, P. S., Chi, T. T. N., & Buresh, R. J. (2007). Environmental impact and economic benefits of site-specific nutrient management (SSNM) in irrigated rice systems. Agricultural Systems, 93(1), 1–24.
112. Pandey, S., Byerlee, D. R., Dawe, D., Dobermann, A., Mohanty, S., Rozelle, S., & Hardy, B. (2010). Rice in the global economy: strategic research and policy issues for food security. International Rice Research Institute, Los Baños (Philippines).
113. Patil, B. L., & Fauquet, C. M. (2009). Cassava mosaic geminiviruses: actual knowledge and perspectives. Molecular Plant Pathology, 10(5), 685–701.
114. Peng, S., Buresh, R. J., Huang, J., Yang, J., Zou, Y., Zhong, X., & Wang, G. (2006). Strategies for overcoming low agronomic nitrogen use efficiency in irrigated rice systems in China. Field Crops Research, 96(1), 37–47.
115. Peters, J. (2000). Control of yam diseases in forest margin farming systems in Ghana. Final technical report. DFID. Available at: http://www.dfid.gov.uk/r4d/PDF/Outputs/CropProtection/R6691_FTR.pdf
116. Pfwaster, S., Bayer, P., Koehler, A., & Hellweg, S. (2011). Environmental impacts of water use in global crop production: hotspots and trade-offs with land use. Environmental Science & Technology, 45(13), 5761–5768.
117. Phalan, P., Onial, M., Balmford, A., & Green, R. E. (2011). Reconciling food production and biodiversity conservation: land sharing and land sparing compared. Science, 333(6047), 1289–1291.
118. Phalan, B., Bertzky, M., Butchart, S. H., Donald, P. F., Scharlemann, J. P., Stattersfield, A. J., & Balmford, A. (2013). Crop expansion and conservation priorities in tropical countries. PLoS One, 8(1), e51759.
119. Pingali, P.L. (1995). Impact of pesticides on farmer health and the rice environment: an overview of results from a multidisciplinary study in the Philippines. In Impact of pesticides on farmer health and the rice environment. (pp. 3–21). Springer, Dordrecht.
120. Pingali, P. L. (2012). Green revolution: impacts, limits, and the path ahead. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 109(31), 12302–12308.
121. Pingali, P.L., & Pandey, S. (2000). Meeting world maize needs: Technological opportunities and priorities for the public sector. CIMMYT, Mexico. Retrieved from http://apps.cimmyt. org/Research/Economics/map/facts_trends/maizeft9900/pdfs/maizeft9900_Part1a.pdf
122. Poppy, G. M., Jepson, P. C., Pickett, J. A., & Birkett, M. A. (2014). Achieving food and environmental security: new approaches to close the gap. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, B: Biological Sciences, 369(1639), 20120272.
123. Pray, C. E., & Nagarajan, L. (2009). Pearl millet and sorghum improvement in India. Washington DC: IFPRI Discussion Papers.
124. Pretty, J. N., Noble, A. D., Bossio, D., Dixon, J., Hine, R. E., Penning de Vries, F. W. T., & Morison, J. I. L. (2006). Resource-conserving agriculture increases yields in developing countries. Environmental Science & Technology, 40(4), 1114–1119.
125. Pretty, J., Toulmin, C., & Williams, S. (2011). Sustainable intensification in African agriculture. International Journal of Agricultural Sustainability, 9(1), 5–24.
126. Reay, D. S., Davidson, E. A., Smith, K. A., Smith, P., Melillo, J. M., Dentener, F., & Crutzen, P. J. (2012). Global agriculture and nitrous oxide emissions. Nature Climate Change, 6, 410–416.
127. Ringler, C., Zhu, T., Cai, X., Koo, J., & Wang, D. (2010). Climate change impacts on food security in Sub-Saharan Africa. IFPRI Discussion Paper. Retrieved from http://www.parcc-web.org/parcc-project/documents/2012/12/climate-change-impacts-on-food-security-in-sub-saharan-africa.pdf
128. Rodenburg, J., Zwart, S. J., Kiepe, P., Narteh, L. T., Dogbe, W., & Wopereis, M. C. (2014). Sustainable rice production in African inland valleys: seizing regional potentials through local approaches. Agricultural Systems, 123, 1–11.
129. Rurinda, J., Mapfumo, P., van Wijk, M. T., Mtambanengwe, F., Rufino, M. C., Chikowo, R., & Giller, K. E. (2014). Comparative assessment of maize, finger millet and sorghum for household food security in the face of increasing climatic risk. European Journal of Agronomy, 55, 29–41.
130. Schlenker, W., & Lobell, D. B. (2010). Robust negative impacts of climate change on African agriculture. Environmental Research Letters, 5(1), 014010.
131. Shiferaw, B., Prasanna, B. M., Hellin, J., & Bänziger, M. (2011). Crops that feed the world 6. Past successes and future challenges to the role played by maize in global food security. Food Security, 3(3), 307–327.
132. Singh, P., Agrawal, P.K., Bhatia, V.S., Murthy, M.V.R., Pala, M., Oweis, T., Benli, B., Rao, K.P.C., & Wani, S.P. (2009). Yield gap analysis: Modelling of achievable yields at farm level. In Rainfed agriculture: Unlocking the potential. comprehensive assessment of water management in agriculture series 7 (pp. 81–123). Wallingford: CABI Publishing.
133. Singleton, G. (2003). Impact of rodents on rice production in Asia. IRRI discussion papers. Manila: International Rice Research Institute (IRRI).
134. Smith, P., Martino, D., Cai, Z., Gwary, D., Janzen, H., Pushpam, K., McCarl, B., et al. (2008). Greenhouse gas mitigation in agriculture. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, B: Biological Sciences, 363(1492), 789–813.
135. Snapp, S. S., Mafongoya, P. L., & Waddington, S. (1998). Organic matter technologies for integrated nutrient management in smallholder cropping systems of southern Africa. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 71, 185–200.
136. Snapp, S. S., Blackie, M. J., Gilbert, R. A., Bezner-Kerr, R., & Kanyama-Phiri, G. Y. (2010). Biodiversity can support a greener revolution in Africa. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 107, 20840–20845.
137. Srivastava, A. K., Gaiser, T., Paeth, H., & Ewert, F. (2012). The impact of climate change on yam (Dioscorea alata) yield in the savanna zone of West Africa. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 153, 57–64.
138. Stathers, T. E., Rees, D., Kabi, S., Mbilinyi, L., Smit, N., Kiozya, H., & Jeffries, D. (2003). Sweetpotato infestation by Cylas spp. in East Africa I. Cultivar differences in field infestation and the role of plant factors. International Journal of Pest Management, 49(2), 131–140.
139. Stevenson, J. R., Serraj, R., & Cassman, K. G. (2014). Evaluating conservation agriculture for small-scale farmers in Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 187, 1–10.
140. Strange, R. N., & Scott, P. R. (2005). Plant disease: a threat to global food security. Annual Review of Phytopathology, 43, 83–116.
141. Subbarao, G. V., Renard, C., Payne, W. A., & Bationo, A. (2000). Long-term effects of tillage, phosphorous fertilization and crop rotation on pearl millet-cowpea productivity in the West African Sahel. Experimental Agriculture, 36(2), 243–264.
142. Sultan, B., Roudier, P., Quirion, P., Alhassane, A., Muller, B., Dingkuhn, M., & Baron, C. (2013). Assessing climate change impacts on sorghum and millet yields in the Sudanian and Sahelian savannas of West Africa. Environmental Research Letters, 8(1), 14–40.
143. Tari, I., Laskay, G., Takacs, Z., & Poor, P. (2013). Response of Sorghum to abiotic stresses: a review. Journal of Agronomy and Crop Science, 199(4), 264–274.
144. Tefera, T. (2012). Post-harvest losses in African maize in the face of increasing food shortage. Food Security, 4(2), 267–277.
145. Thierfelder, C., Cheesman, S., & Rusinamhodzi, L. (2012). A comparative analysis of conservation agriculture systems: benefits and challenges of rotations and intercropping in Zimbabwe. Field Crops Research, 137, 327–250.
146. Thornton, P. (2012). Recalibrating food production in the developing world: Global warming will change more than just the climate. CGIAR. Retrieved from http://cgspace.cgiar.org/bitstream/handle/10568/24696/CCAFS_PB06-Recalibrating%20Food%20Production.pdf
147. Tilman, D., Balzer, C., Hill, J., & Befort, B. L. (2011). Global food demand and the sustainable intensification of agriculture. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108(50), 20260–20264.
148. Timsina, J., Jat, M. L., & Majumdar, K. (2010). Rice-maize systems of South Asia: current status, future prospects and research priorities for nutrient management. Plant and Soil, 335(1–2), 65–82.
149. Timsina, J., Buresh, R. J., Dobermann, A., & Dixon, J. (2011). Rice-maize systems in Asia: Current situation and potential. Manila: IRRI.
150. Tittonell, P., Vanlauwe, B., Corbeels, M., & Giller, K. E. (2008). Yield gaps, nutrient use efficiencies and response to fertilizers by maize across heterogeneous smallholder farms of western Kenya. Plant and Soil, 313, 19–37.
151. Tuong, T. P., Bouman, B. A. M., & Mortimer, M. (2005). More rice, less water—integrated approaches for increasing water productivity in irrigated rice-based systems in Asia. Plant Production Science, 8, 231–240.
152. Twomlow, S., Rohrbach, D., Dimes, J., Rusike, J., Mupangwa, W., Ncube, B., Hove, L., Moyo, M., Mashingaidze, N., & Mahposa, P. (2010). Micro-dosing as a pathway to Africa’s Green Revolution: evidence from broad-scale on-farm trials. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems, 88(1), 3–15.
153. Uphoff, N., Kassam, A., & Stoop, W. (2008). A critical assessment of a desk study comparing crop production systems: the example of the ‘System of Rice Intensification’ versus ‘Best Management Practice’. Field Crops Research, 108, 109–114.
154. Valbuena, D., Erenstein, O., Homann-Kee Tui, S., Abdoulaye, T., Claessens, L., Duncan, A. J., & van Wijk, M. T. (2012). Conservation agriculture in mixed crop–livestock systems: scoping crop residue trade-offs in Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia. Field Crops Research, 132, 175–184.
155. Valverde, R. A., Clark, C. A., & Valkonen, J. P. (2007). Viruses and virus disease complexes of sweetpotato. Plant Viruses, 1(1), 116–126.
156. van Ittersum, M. K., Cassman, K. G., Grassini, P., Wolf, J., Tittonell, P., & Hochman, Z. (2013). Yield gap analysis with local to global relevance—a review. Field Crops Research, 143, 4–17.
157. Vanlauwe, B., Bationo, A., Chianu, J., Giller, K. E., Merckx, R., Mokwunye, U., Ohiokpehai, O., Pypers, P., Tabo, R., Shepherd, K. D., Smaling, E. M. A., Woomer, P. L., & Sanginga, N. (2010). Integrated soil fertility management: operational definition and consequences for implementation and dissemination. Outlook on Agriculture, 39(1), 17–24.
158. Wada, Y., van Beek, L. P., van Kempen, C. M., Reckman, J. W., Vasak, S., & Bierkens, M. F. (2010). Global depletion of groundwater resources. Geophysical Research Letters, 37(20), L20402.
159. Waddington, S.R., Edmeades, G.O., Chapman, S.C. & Barreto, H.J. (1995). Where to with agricultural research for drought-prone maize environments? In: Maize Research for Stress Environments (Jewell, D.C., Waddington, S.R., Ransom, J.K. and Pixley, K.V., eds.), Proceedings of the Fourth Eastern and Southern Africa Regional Maize Conference, Harare, Zimbabwe. (pp. 129–152). CIMMYT, Mexico, D.F., Mexico.
160. Waddington, S. R., Mekuria, M., Siziba, S., & Karigwindi, J. (2007). Long-term yield sustainability and financial returns from grain legume-maize intercrops on a sandy soil in subhumid north central Zimbabwe. Experimental Agriculture, 43(4), 489–503.
161. Waddington, S. R., Li, X., Dixon, J., Hyman, G., & de Vicente, M. C. (2010). Getting the focus right: production constraints for six major food crops in Asian and African farming systems. Food Security, 2(1), 27–48.
162. Waha, K., Müller, C., Bondeau, A., Dietrich, J. P., Kurukulasuriya, P., Heinke, J., & Lotze-Campen, H. (2013). Adaptation to climate change through the choice of cropping system and sowing date in sub-Saharan Africa. Global Environmental Change, 23(1), 130–143.
163. Williams, R. J., & Rao, K. N. (1981). A review of sorghum grain molds. International Journal of Pest Management, 27(2), 200–211.
164. Williamson, S., Ball, A., & Pretty, J. (2008). Trends in pesticide use and drivers for safer pest management in four African countries. Crop Protection, 27(10), 1327–1334.
165. Witcombe, J.R., & Beckerman, S.R. (1987). Proceedings of the International Pearl Millet Workshop, International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics, Andhra Pradesh, India, 7–11 Apr 1986.
166. Witt, C., Buresh, R. J., Peng, S., Balsubramanian, V., & Doberman, A. (2007). Nutrient management. In T. Fairhurst, C. Witt, R. Buresh, & A. Doberman (Eds.), Rice: A practical guide to nutrient management. Manila: International Rice Research Institute (IRRI).
167. World Bank. (2011). Missing food: the case of postharvest grain losses in Sub-Saharan Africa. Retrieved from http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTARD/Resources/MissingFoods10_web.pdf
168. Wydra, K., & Verdier, V. (2002). Occurrence of cassava diseases in relation to environmental, agronomic and plant characteristics. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 93(1–3), 211–226.
169. Yan, X., Akiyama, H., Yagi, K., & Akimoto, H. (2009). Global estimations of the inventory and mitigation potential of methane emissions from rice cultivation conducted using the 2006 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Guidelines. Global Biogeochemical Cycles, 23, GB2002.
170. Yusuf, R. O., Noor, Z. Z., Abba, A. H., Hassan, M. A. A., & Din, M. F. M. (2012). Methane emission by sectors: a comprehensive review of emission sources and mitigation methods. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 16(7), 5059–5070.