Nonpulmonary influences on gas exchange

Comprehensive Physiology

Volumn 4, Issue 4, 2014, Pages 1455-1494

  Rodriguez Roisin, Roberto ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF BARCELONA   (Spain)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CARBON DIOXIDE; OXYGEN;

ANIMAL; ANOXIA; BLOOD; HEMODYNAMICS; HUMAN; LUNG GAS EXCHANGE; METABOLISM; OXYGEN CONSUMPTION; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY;

ANIMALS; ANOXIA; CARBON DIOXIDE; HEMODYNAMICS; HUMANS; OXYGEN; OXYGEN CONSUMPTION; PULMONARY GAS EXCHANGE;

EID: 84937511293     PISSN: None     EISSN: 20404603     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1002/cphy.c100001     Document Type: Article

References (267)

1. Adnot S, Kouyoumdjian C, Defouilloy C, Andrivet P, Sediame S, Herigault R, Fratacci MD. Hemodynamic and gas exchange responses to infusion of acetylcholine and inhalation of nitric oxide in patients with chronic obstructive lung disease and pulmonary hypertension. Am Rev Respir Dis 148:310-316, 1993.
2. Agusti AG, Barbera JA, Roca J, Wagner PD, Guitart R, Rodriguez-Roisin R. Hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction and gas exchange during exercise in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Chest 97:268-275, 1990.
3. Agusti AG, Cardus J, Roca J, Grau JM, Xaubet A, Rodriguez-Roisin R. Ventilation-perfusion mismatch in patients with pleural effusion: effects of thoracentesis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 156:1205-1209, 1997.
4. Agusti AG, Roca J, Gea J, Wagner PD, Xaubet A, Rodriguez-Roisin R. Mechanisms of gas-exchange impairment in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Am Rev Respir Dis 143:219-225, 1991.
5. Agusti AG, Roca J, Rodriguez-Roisin R, Xaubet A, Agusti-Vidal A. Different patterns of gas exchange response to exercise in asbestosis and idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Eur Respir J 1:510-516, 1988.
6. Albert RK, Hubmayr RD. The prone position eliminates compression of the lungs by the heart. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 161:1660-1665, 2000.
7. Alexander JK, Takezawa H, Bu-Nassar HJ, Yow EM. Studies on pulmonary blood flow in pneumococcal pneumonia. Cardiovasc Res Cent Bull 1:86-92, 1963.
8. Alexander MR, Dull WL, Kasik JE. Treatment of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease with orally administered theophylline. A double-blind, controlled study. JAMA 244:2286-2290, 1980.
9. Amato MB, Barbas CS, Medeiros DM, Magaldi RB, Schettino GP, Lorenzi-Filho G, Kairalla RA, Deheinzelin D, Munoz C, Oliveira R, Takagaki TY, Carvalho CR. Effect of a protective-ventilation strategy on mortality in the acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med 338:347-354, 1998.
10. Amato MBP, Marini JJ. Barotrauma, volutrauma and the ventilation of acute lung injury. In: Marini JJ, Slutsky AS, editors. Physiological Basis of Ventilatory Support. New York: Marcel Dekker, 1998, pp. 1187-1245.
11. Amoroso P, Wilson SR, Moxham J, Ponte J. Acute effects of inhaled salbutamol on the metabolic rate of normal subjects. Thorax 48:882-885, 1993.
12. Anderson SD, Daviskas E. The mechanism of exercise-induced asthma is. J Allergy Clin Immunol 106:453-459, 2000.
13. Andrivet P, Chabrier PE, Defouilloy C, Brun-Buisson C, Adnot S. Intravenously administered atrial natriuretic factor in patients with COPD. Effects on ventilation-perfusion relationships and pulmonary hemodynamics. Chest 106:118-124, 1994.
14. Anjou-Lindskog E, Broman L, Broman M, Holmgren A. Effects of oxygen on central haemodynamics and VA/Q distribution after coronary bypass surgery. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 27:378-384, 1983.
15. Anjou-Lindskog E, Broman L, Holmgren A, Wedelin B. Effects of prenalterol on central haemodynamics and VA/Q distribution early after open-heart surgery. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 27:142-148, 1983.
16. Annat GJ, Viale JP, Dereymez CP, Bouffard YM, Delafosse BX, Motin JP. Oxygen cost of breathing and diaphragmatic pressure-time index. Measurement in patients with COPD during weaning with pressure support ventilation. Chest 98:411-414, 1990.
17. Anthonisen NR, Martin RR. Regional lung function in pleural effusion. Am Rev Respir Dis 116:201-207, 1977.
18. Astin TW. The relationships between arterial blood oxygen saturation, carbon dioxide tension, and pH and airway resistance during 30 per cent oxygen breathing in patients with chronic bronchitis with airway obstruction. Am Rev Respir Dis 102:382-387, 1970.
19. Ballester E, Reyes A, Roca J, Guitart R, Wagner PD, Rodriguez-Roisin R. Ventilation-perfusion mismatching in acute severe asthma: Effects of salbutamol and 100% oxygen. Thorax 44:258-267, 1989.
20. Ballester E, Roca J, Ramis L, Wagner PD, Rodriguez-Roisin R. Pulmonary gas exchange in severe chronic asthma. Response to 100% oxygen and salbutamol. Am Rev Respir Dis 141:558-562, 1990.
21. Barbera JA, Peinado VI, Santos S, Ramirez J, Roca J, Rodriguez-Roisin R. Reduced expression of endothelial nitric oxide synthase in pulmonary arteries of smokers. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 164:709-713, 2001.
22. Barbera JA, Reyes A, Roca J, Montserrat JM, Wagner PD, Rodriguez-Roisin R. Effect of intravenously administered aminophylline on ventilation/perfusion inequality during recovery from exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am Rev Respir Dis 145:1328-1333, 1992.
23. Barbera JA, Riverola A, Roca J, Ramirez J, Wagner PD, Ros D, Wiggs BR, Rodriguez-Roisin R. Pulmonary vascular abnormalities and ventilation-perfusion relationships in mild chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. AmJ Respir Crit Care Med 149:423-429, 1994.
24. Barbera JA, Roca J, Ferrer A, Felez MA, Diaz O, Roger N, Rodriguez-Roisin R. Mechanisms of worsening gas exchange during acute exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Eur Respir J 10:1285-1291, 1997.
25. Barbera JA, Roca J, Ramirez J, Wagner PD, Ussetti P, Rodriguez-Roisin R. Gas exchange during exercise in mild chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Correlation with lung structure. Am Rev Respir Dis 144:520-525, 1991.
26. Barbera JA, Roger N, Roca J, Rovira I, Higenbottam TW, Rodriguez-Roisin R. Worsening of pulmonary gas exchange with nitric oxide inhalation in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Lancet 347:436-440, 1996.
27. Barer GR, Howard P, Shaw JW. Stimulus-response curves for the pulmonary vascular bed to hypoxia and hypercapnia. J Physiol 211:139-155, 1970.
28. Bein T, Reber A, Metz C, Jauch KW, Hedenstierna G. Acute effects of continuous rotational therapy on ventilation-perfusion inequality in lung injury. Intensive Care Med 24:132-137, 1998.
29. Benumof JL, Trousdale FR. Aminophylline does not inhibit canine hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction. Am Rev Respir Dis 126:1017-1019, 1982.
30. Beydon L, Cinotti L, Rekik N, Radermacher P, Adnot S, Meignan M, Harf A, Lemaire F. Changes in the distribution of ventilation and perfusion associated with separation from mechanical ventilation in patients with obstructive pulmonary disease. Anesthesiology 75:730-738, 1991.
31. Bisgard GE, Will JA. Glucagon and aminophylline as pulmonary vasodilators in the calf with hypoxic pulmonary hypertension. Chest 71:263-265, 1977.
32. Blanco I, Gimeno E, Munoz PA, Pizarro S, Rodriguez-Roisin R, Roca J, Barbera JA. Hemodynamic and gas exchange effects of sildenafil in patients with COPD and pulmonary hypertension. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 181:270-278, 2010.
33. Brandstetter RD, Cohen RP. Hypoxemia after thoracentesis. A predictable and treatable condition. JAMA 242:1060-1061, 1979.
34. Brannan JD, Anderson SD, Gomes K, King GG, Chan HK, Seale JP. Fexofenadine decreases sensitivity to and montelukast improves recovery from inhaled mannitol. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 163:1420-1425, 2001.
35. Brannan JD, Gulliksson M, Anderson SD, Chew N, Kumlin M. Evidence of mast cell activation and leukotriene release after mannitol inhalation. Eur Respir J 22:491-496, 2003.
36. Brannan JD, Koskela H, Anderson SD, Chew N. Responsiveness to mannitol in asthmatic subjects with exercise- and hyperventilation-induced asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 158:1120-1126, 1998.
37. Bratel T, Hedenstierna G, Nyquist O, Ripe E. The use of a vasodilator, felodipine, as an adjuvant to long-term oxygen treatment in COLD patients. Eur Respir J 3:46-54, 1990.
38. Breen PH, Schumacker PT, Sandoval J, Mayers I, Oppenheimer L, Wood LD. Increased cardiac output increases shunt: Role of pulmonary edema and perfusion. J Appl Physiol 59:1313-1321, 1985.
39. Brent BN, Mahler D, Berger HJ, Matthay RA, Pytlik L, Zaret BL. Augmentation of right ventricular performance in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease by terbutaline: A combined radionuclide and hemo-dynamic study. Am J Cardiol 50:313-319, 1982.
40. Brimioulle S, Kahn RJ. Effects of metabolic alkalosis on pulmonary gas exchange. Am Rev Respir Dis 141:1185-1189, 1990.
41. Brimioulle S, Lejeune P, Vachiery JL, Leeman M, Melot C, Naeije R. Effects of acidosis and alkalosis on hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction in dogs. Am J Physiol 258:H347-H353, 1990.
42. Brochard L, Roudot-Thoraval F, Roupie E, Delclaux C, Chastre J, Fernandez-Mondejar E, Clementi E, Mancebo J, Factor P, Matamis D, Ranieri M, Blanch L, Rodi G, Mentec H, Dreyfuss D, Ferrer M, BrunBuisson C, Tobin M, Lemaire F. Tidal volume reduction for prevention of ventilator-induced lung injury in acute respiratory distress syndrome. The Multicenter Trail Group on Tidal Volume reduction in ARDS. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 158:1831-1838, 1998.
43. Brower RG, Shanholtz CB, Fessler HE, Shade DM, White P, Jr., Wiener CM, Teeter JG, Dodd-o JM, Almog Y, Piantadosi S. Prospective, randomized, controlled clinical trial comparing traditional versus reduced tidal volume ventilation in acute respiratory distress syndrome patients. Crit Care Med 27:1492-1498, 1999.
44. Brown NE, Zamel N, Aberman A. Changes in pulmonary mechanics and gas exchange following thoracocentesis. Chest 74:540-542, 1978.
45. Carvalho CR, Barbas CS, Medeiros DM, Magaldi RB, Lorenzi FG, Kairalla RA, Deheinzelin D, Munhoz C, Kaufmann M, Ferreira M, Takagaki TY, Amato MB. Temporal hemodynamic effects of permissive hypercapnia associated with ideal PEEP in ARDS. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 156:1458-1466, 1997.
46. 1 receptor. Eur Respir J 26:442-448, 2005.
47. Castaing Y, Manier G, Guenard H. Improvement in ventilation-perfusion relationships by almitrine in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease during mechanical ventilation. Am Rev Respir Dis 134:910-916, 1986.
48. Castaing Y, Manier G, Varene N, Guenard H. Effects of oral almitrine on the distribution of VA/Q ratio in chronic obstructive lung diseases (author's transl). Bull Eur Physiopathol Respir 17:917-932, 1981.
49. Cazzola M, Califano C, Di PF, D'Amato M, Terzano C, Matera MG, D'Amato G, Marsico SA. Acute effects of higher than customary doses of salmeterol and salbutamol in patients with acute exacerbation of COPD. Respir Med 96:790-795, 2002.
50. Cazzola M, Di Marco F, Santus P, Boveri B, Verga M, Matera MG, Centanni S. The pharmacodynamic effects of single inhaled doses of formoterol, tiotropium and their combination in patients with COPD. Pulm Pharmacol Ther 17:35-39, 2004.
51. Chatte G, Sab JM, Dubois JM, Sirodot M, Gaussorgues P, Robert D. Prone position in mechanically ventilated patients with severe acute respiratory failure. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 155:473-478, 1997.
52. Coffey RL, Albert RK, Robertson HT. Mechanisms of physiological dead space response to PEEP after acute oleic acid lung injury. J Appl Physiol 55:1550-1557, 1983.
53. Corte P, Young IH. Ventilation-perfusion relationships in symptomatic asthma. Response to oxygen and clemastine. Chest 88:167-175, 1985.
54. Coupe MO, Guly U, Brown E, Barnes PJ. Nebulised adrenaline in acute severe asthma: Comparison with salbutamol. Eur J Respir Dis 71:227-232, 1987.
55. D'Alonzo GE, Bower JS, Dehart P, Dantzker DR. The mechanisms of abnormal gas exchange in acute massive pulmonary embolism. Am Rev Respir Dis 128:170-172, 1983.
56. Daly JJ, Howard P. Effect of intravenous aminophylline on the arterial oxygen saturation in chronic bronchitis. Thorax 20:324-326, 1965.
57. Dantzker DR. Gas exchange in the adult respiratory distress syndrome. Clin Chest Med 3:57-67, 1982.
58. Dantzker DR. The influence of cardiovascular function on gas exchange. Clin Chest Med 4:149-159, 1983.
59. Dantzker DR. Oxygen delivery and utilization. Appl Cardiopulm Pathophysiol 3:345-350, 1991.
60. Dantzker DR, Bower JS. Partial reversibility of chronic pulmonary hypertension caused by pulmonary thromboembolic disease. Am Rev Respir Dis 124:129-131, 1981a.
61. Dantzker DR, Bower JS. Pulmonary vascular tone improves VA/Q matching in obliterative pulmonary hypertension. J Appl Physiol 51:607-613, 1981b.
62. Dantzker DR, Brook CJ, Dehart P, Lynch JP, Weg JG. Ventilation-perfusion distributions in the adult respiratory distress syndrome. Am Rev Respir Dis 120:1039-1052, 1979.
63. Dantzker DR, Cowenhaven WM, Willoughby WJ, Kirsh MM, Bower JS. Gas exchange alterations associated with weaning from mechanical ventilation following coronary artery bypass grafting. Chest 82:674-677, 1982.
64. Dantzker DR, D'Alonzo GE. The effect of exercise on pulmonary gas exchange in patients with severe chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am Rev Respir Dis 134:1135-1139, 1986.
65. Dantzker DR, D'Alonzo GE, Bower JS, Popat K, Crevey BJ. Pulmonary gas exchange during exercise in patients with chronic obliterative pulmonary hypertension. Am Rev Respir Dis 130:412-416, 1984.
66. Dantzker DR, Lynch JP, Weg JG. Depression of cardiac output is a mechanism of shunt reduction in the therapy of acute respiratory failure. Chest 77:636-642, 1980.
67. Dantzker DR, Wagner PD, Tornabene VW, Alazraki NP, West JB. Gas exchange after pulmonary thromboemoblization in dogs. Circ Res 42:92-103, 1978.
68. Dantzker DR, Wagner PD, West JB. Instability of lung units with low VA/Q ratios during O2 breathing. J Appl Physiol 38:886-895, 1975.
69. Delcroix M, Melot C, Lejeune P, Leeman M, Naeije R. Effects of vasodilators on gas exchange in acute canine embolic pulmonary hyper-tension. Anesthesiology 72:77-84, 1990.
70. Delcroix M, Melot C, Lejeune P, Leeman M, Naeije R. Cyclooxygenase inhibition aggravates pulmonary hypertension and deteriorates gas exchange in canine pulmonary embolism. Am Rev Respir Dis 145:806-810, 1992.
71. Delcroix M, Melot C, Vachiery JL, Lejeune P, Leeman M, Vanderhoeft P, Naeije R. Effects of embolus size on hemodynamics and gas exchange in canine embolic pulmonary hypertension. J Appl Physiol 69:2254-2261, 1990.
72. Delcroix M, Melot C, Vanderhoeft P, Naeije R. Embolus size affects gas exchange in canine autologous blood clot pulmonary embolism. J Appl Physiol 74:1140-1148, 1993.
73. Delcroix M, Melot C, Vermeulen F, Naeije R. Hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction and gas exchange in acute canine pulmonary embolism. J Appl Physiol 80:1240-1248, 1996.
74. Dhand R, Tobin MJ. Inhaled bronchodilator therapy in mechanically ventilated patients. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 156:3-10, 1997.
75. Diaz O, Barbera JA, Marrades R, Chung KF, Roca J, Rodriguez-Roisin R. Inhibition of PAF-induced gas exchange defects by beta-adrenergic agonists in mild asthma is not due to bronchodilation. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 156:17-22, 1997.
76. Diaz O, Iglesia R, Ferrer M, Zavala E, Santos C, Wagner PD, Roca J, Rodriguez-Roisin R. Effects of noninvasive ventilation on pulmonary gas exchange and hemodynamics during acute hypercapnic exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 156:1840-1845, 1997.
77. Doerschuk CM, Allard MF, Oyarzun MJ. Evaluation of reexpansion pulmonary edema following unilateral pneumothorax in rabbits and the effect of superoxide dismutase. Exp Lung Res 16:355-367, 1990.
78. Domino KB, Lu Y, Eisenstein BL, Hlastala MP. Hypocapnia worsens arterial blood oxygenation and increases VA/Q heterogeneity in canine pulmonary edema. Anesthesiology 78:91-99, 1993.
79. Dreyfuss D, Djedaini K, Lanore JJ, Mier L, Froidevaux R, Coste F. A comparative study of the effects of almitrine bismesylate and lateral position during unilateral bacterial pneumonia with severe hypoxemia. Am Rev Respir Dis 146:295-299, 1992.
80. Echazarreta AL, Dahlen B, Garcia G, Agusti C, Barbera JA, Roca J, Dahlen SE, Rodriguez-Roisin R. Pulmonary gas exchange and sputum cellular responses to inhaled leukotriene D(4) in asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 164:202-206, 2001.
81. Echazarreta AL, Gomez FP, Ribas J, Sala E, Barbera JA, Roca J, Rodriguez-Roisin R. Pulmonary gas exchange responses to histamine and methacholine challenges in mild asthma. Eur Respir J 17:609-614, 2001.
82. Eklund A, Broman L, Broman M, Holmgren A. V/Q and alveolar gas exchange in pulmonary sarcoidosis. Eur Respir J 2:135-144, 1989.
83. Estenne M, Yernault JC, De TA. Mechanism of relief of dyspnea after thoracocentesis in patients with large pleural effusions. Am J Med 74:813-819, 1983.
84. Evans JW, Wagner PD. Limits on VA/Q distributions from analysis of experimental inert gas elimination. J Appl Physiol 42:889-898, 1977.
85. Farhi LE. Elimination of inert gas by the lung. Respir Physiol 3:1-11, 1967.
86. Farhi LE, Rahn H. A theoretical analysis of the alveolar-arterial O2 difference with special reference to the distribution effect. J Appl Physiol 7:699-703, 1955.
87. Feihl F, Eckert P, Brimioulle S, Jacobs O, Schaller MD, Melot C, Naeije R. Permissive hypercapnia impairs pulmonary gas exchange in the acute respiratory distress syndrome. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 162:209-215, 2000.
88. Felez MA, Roca J, Barbera JA, Santos C, Rotger M, Chung KF, Rodriguez-Roisin R. Inhaled platelet-activating factor worsens gas exchange in mild asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 150:369-373, 1994.
89. Ferrer A, Roca J, Wagner PD, Lopez FA, Rodriguez-Roisin R. Airway obstruction and ventilation-perfusion relationships in acute severe asthma. Am Rev Respir Dis 147:579-584, 1993.
90. Field S, Kelly SM, Macklem PT. The oxygen cost of breathing in patients with cardiorespiratory disease. Am Rev Respir Dis 126:9-13, 1982.
91. Fleury B, Murciano D, Talamo C, Aubier M, Pariente R, Milic-Emili J. Work of breathing in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in acute respiratory failure. Am Rev Respir Dis 131:822-827, 1985.
92. Freyschuss U, Hedlin G, Hedenstierna G. Ventilation-perfusion relationships during exercise-induced asthma in children. Am Rev Respir Dis 130:888-894, 1984.
93. Frostell CG, Blomqvist H, Hedenstierna G, Lundberg J, Zapol WM. Inhaled nitric oxide selectively reverses human hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction without causing systemic vasodilation. Anesthesiology 78:427-435, 1993.
94. Galie N, Manes A, Negro L, Palazzini M, Bacchi-Reggiani ML, Branzi A. A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials in pulmonary arterial hypertension. Eur Heart J 30:394-403, 2009.
95. Gattinoni L, Pelosi P, Vitale G, Pesenti A, D'Andrea L, Mascheroni D. Body position changes redistribute lung computed-tomographic density in patients with acute respiratory failure. Anesthesiology 74:15-23, 1991.
96. Gazioglu K, Kaltreider NL, Hyde RW. Effect of isoproterenol on gas exchange during air and oxygen breathing in patients with chronic pulmonary diseases. Am Rev Respir Dis 104:188-197, 1971.
97. Gea J, Roca J, Torres A, Agusti AG, Wagner PD, Rodriguez-Roisin R. Mechanisms of abnormal gas exchange in patients with pneumonia. Anesthesiology 75:782-789, 1991.
98. Ghofrani HA, Wiedemann R, Rose F, Schermuly RT, Olschewski H, Weissmann N, Gunther A, Walmrath D, Seeger W, Grimminger F. Sildenafil for treatment of lung fibrosis and pulmonary hypertension: A randomised controlled trial. Lancet 360:895-900, 2002.
99. Gillespie DJ, Didier EP, Rehder K. Ventilation-perfusion distribution after aortic valve replacement. Crit Care Med 18:136-140, 1990.
100. Gillespie DJ, Rehder K. Body position and ventilation-perfusion relationships in unilateral pulmonary disease. Chest 91:75-79, 1987.
101. Gillespie DJ, Rehder K. Effect of positional change on ventilation-perfusion distribution in unilateral pleural effusion. Intensive Care Med 15:266-268, 1989.
102. Gomez FP, Amado VM, Roca J, Torres A, Nicolas JM, Rodriguez-Roisin R, Barbera JA. Effect of nitric oxide inhalation on gas exchange in acute severe pneumonia. Respir Physiol Neurobiol 187:157-163, 2013.
103. Guenard H, Castaing Y, Melot C, Naeije R. Gas exchange during acute respiratory failure in patiens with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. In: Derenne JP, Whitelaw WA, Similowsky T, editors. Acute Respiratory Failure in Chronic Obstructive Ulmonary Disease. New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc., 1996, pp. 227-266.
104. Gunen H, Hacievliyagil SS, Yetkin O, Gulbas G, Mutlu LC, In E. The role of nebulised budesonide in the treatment of exacerbations of COPD. Eur Respir J 29:660-667, 2007.
105. Hales CA, Kazemi H. Hypoxic vascular response of the lung: Effect of aminophylline and epinephrine. Am Rev Respir Dis 110:126-132, 1974.
106. Halmagyi DF, Cotes JE. Reduction in systemic blood oxygen as a result of procedures affecting the pulmonary circulation in patients with chronic pulmonary disease. Clin Sci 18:475-489, 1959.
107. Hanly PJ, Roberts D, Dobson K, Light RB. Effect of indomethacin on arterial oxygenation in critically ill patients with severe bacterial pneumonia. Lancet 1:351-354, 1987.
108. Hedenstierna G, White FC, Mazzone R, Wagner PD. Redistribution of pulmonary blood flow in the dog with PEEP ventilation. J Appl Physiol 46:278-287, 1979.
109. Hickling KG. Lung-protective ventilation in acute respiratory distress syndrome: Protection by reduced lung stress or by therapeutic hyper-capnia? Am J Respir Crit Care Med 162:2021-2022, 2000.
110. Higgins RM, Cookson WO, Chadwick GA. Changes in blood gas levels after nebuhaler and nebulizer administration of terbutaline in severe chronic airway obstruction. Bull Eur Physiopathol Respir 23:261-264, 1987.
111. Hopewell PC, Murray JF. Effects of continuous positive-pressure ventilation in experimental pulmonary edema. J Appl Physiol 40:568-574, 1976.
112. Hopkins SR, Johnson EC, Richardson RS, Wagner H, De RM, Wagner PD. Effects of inhaled nitric oxide on gas exchange in lungs with shunt or poorly ventilated areas. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 156:484-491, 1997.
113. Hubmayr RD, Loosbrock LM, Gillespie DJ, Rodarte JR. Oxygen uptake during weaning from mechanical ventilation. Chest 94:1148-1155, 1988.
114. Hudson LD, Monti CM. Rationale and use of corticosteroids in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Med Clin North Am 74:661-690, 1990.
115. Huet Y, Lemaire F, Brun-Buisson C, Knaus WA, Teisseire B, Payen D, Mathieu D. Hypoxemia in acute pulmonary embolism. Chest 88:829-836, 1985.
116. Hui KK, Conolly ME, Tashkin DP. Reversal of human lymphocyte beta-adrenoceptor desensitization by glucocorticoids. Clin Pharmacol Ther 32:566-571, 1982.
117. Humbert M, Sitbon O, Simonneau G. Treatment of pulmonary arterial hypertension. N Engl J Med 351:1425-1436, 2004.
118. Ibanez J, Raurich JM, Abizanda R, Claramonte R, Ibanez P, Bergada J. The effect of lateral positions on gas exchange in patients with unilateral lung disease during mechanical ventilation. Intensive Care Med 7:231-234, 1981.
119. Ingram RH, Jr., Krumpe PE, Duffell GM, Maniscalco B. Ventilation-perfusion changes after aerosolized isoproterenol in asthma. Am Rev Respir Dis 101:364-370, 1970.
120. Inoue H, Inoue C, Okayama M, Sekizawa K, Hida W, Takishima T. Breathing 30 per cent oxygen attenuates bronchial responsiveness to methacholine in asthmatic patients. Eur Respir J 2:506-512, 1989.
121. Jernudd-Wilhelmsson Y, Hornblad Y, Hedenstierna G. Ventilation-perfusion relationships in interstitial lung disease. Eur J Respir Dis 68:39-49, 1986.
122. Jolliet P, Bulpa P, Ritz M, Ricou B, Lopez J, Chevrolet JC. Additive beneficial effects of the prone position, nitric oxide, and almitrine bismesylate on gas exchange and oxygen transport in acute respiratory distress syndrome. Crit Care Med 25:786-794, 1997.
123. Jones RM, Stockley RA, Bishop JM. Early effects of intravenous terbutaline on cardiopulmonary function in chronic obstructive bronchitis and pulmonary hypertension. Thorax 37:746-750, 1982.
124. Jounieaux V, Mayeux I. Oxygen cost of breathing in patients with emphysema or chronic bronchitis in acute respiratory failure. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 152:2181-2184, 1995.
125. Kaiser KG, Davies NJ, Rodriguez-Roisin R, Bencowitz HZ, Wagner PD. Efficacy of high-frequency ventilation in presence of extensive ventilation-perfusion mismatch. J Appl Physiol 58:996-1004, 1985.
126. Kaneko K, Milic-Emili J, Dolovich MB, Dawson A, Bates DV. Regional distribution of ventilation and perfusion as a function of body position. J Appl Physiol 21:767-777, 1966.
127. Katayama Y, Higenbottam TW, Diaz de Atauri MJ, Cremona G, Akamine S, Barbera JA, Rodriguez-Roisin R. Inhaled nitric oxide and arterial oxygen tension in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and severe pulmonary hypertension. Thorax 52:120-124, 1997.
128. Kato M, Staub NC. Response of small pulmonary arteries to unilobar hypoxia and hypercapnia. Circ Res 19:426-440, 1966.
129. Ketabchi F, Egemnazarov B, Schermuly RT, Ghofrani HA, Seeger W, Grimminger F, Shid-Moosavi M, Dehghani GA, Weissmann N, Sommer N. Effects of hypercapnia with and without acidosis on hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 297:L977-L983, 2009.
130. Khoukaz G, Gross NJ. Effects of salmeterol on arterial blood gases in patients with stable chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Comparison with albuterol and ipratropium. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 160:1028-1030, 1999.
131. Knudson RJ, Constantine HP. An effect of isoproterenol on ventilation-perfusion in asthmatic versus normal subjects. J Appl Physiol 22:402-406, 1967.
132. Krell WS, Rodarte JR. Effects of acute pleural effusion on respiratory system mechanics in dogs. J Appl Physiol 59:1458-1463, 1985.
133. Kumar SD, Brieva JL, Danta I, Wanner A. Transient effect of inhaled fluticasone on airway mucosal blood flow in subjects with and without asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 161:918-921, 2000.
134. Kumar SD, Emery MJ, Atkins ND, Danta I, Wanner A. Airway mucosal blood flow in bronchial asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 158:153-156, 1998.
135. Laffey JG, Tanaka M, Engelberts D, Luo X, Yuan S, Tanswell AK, Post M, Lindsay T, Kavanagh BP. Therapeutic hypercapnia reduces pulmonary and systemic injury following in vivo lung reperfusion. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 162:2287-2294, 2000.
136. Lagerstrand L, Larsson K, Ihre E, Zetterstrom O, Hedenstierna G. Pulmonary gas exchange response following allergen challenge in patients with allergic asthma. Eur Respir J 5:1176-1183, 1992.
137. Lamm WJ, Graham MM, Albert RK. Mechanism by which the prone position improves oxygenation in acute lung injury. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 150:184-193, 1994.
138. Laver MB, Morgan J, Bendixen HH, Radford EP, Jr. Lung volume, compliance, and arterial oxygen tensions during controlled ventilation. J Appl Physiol 19:725-733, 1964.
139. Leblais V, Delannoy E, Fresquet F, Begueret H, Bellance N, Banquet S, Allieres C, Leroux L, Desgranges C, Gadeau A, Muller B. beta-adrenergic relaxation in pulmonary arteries: Preservation of the endothelial nitric oxide-dependent beta2 component in pulmonary hypertension. Cardiovasc Res 77:202-210, 2008.
140. Leeman M, Naeije R, Lejeune P, Melot C. Influence of cyclo-oxygenase inhibition and of leukotriene receptor blockade on pulmonary vascular pressure/cardiac index relationships in hyperoxic and in hypoxic dogs. Clin Sci (Lond) 72:717-724, 1987.
141. Lemaire F, Matamis D, Lampron N, Teisseire B, Harf A. Intrapulmonary shunt is not increased by 100% oxygen ventilation in acute respiratory failure. Bull Eur Physiopathol Respir 21:251-256, 1985.
142. Lemaire F, Teboul JL, Cinotti L, Giotto G, Abrouk F, Steg G, quinMavier I, Zapol WM. Acute left ventricular dysfunction during unsuccessful weaning from mechanical ventilation. Anesthesiology 69:171-179, 1988.
143. Lemaire F, Teisseire B, Harf A. Oxygen exchange across the acutely injured lung. In: Zapol WM, Falke KJ, editors. Acute Lung Injury. New York: Marcel Dekker, 1985, pp. 521-553.
144. Libby DM, Briscoe WA, King TK. Relief of hypoxia-related bronchoconstriction by breathing 30 per cent oxygen. Am Rev Respir Dis 123:171-175, 1981.
145. Light RB. Intrapulmonary oxygen consumption in experimental pneumococcal pneumonia. J Appl Physiol 64:2490-2495, 1988.
146. Lynch JP, Mhyre JG, Dantzker DR. Influence of cardiac output on intrapulmonary shunt. J Appl Physiol 46:315-321, 1979.
147. Mahler DA, Matthay RA, Snyder PE, Wells CK, Loke J. Sustained-release theophylline reduces dyspnea in nonreversible obstructive airway disease. Am Rev Respir Dis 131:22-25, 1985.
148. Malolepszy J, Boszormenyi NG, Selroos O, Larsso P, Brander R. Safety of formoterol Turbuhaler at cumulative dose of 90 microg in patients with acute bronchial obstruction. Eur Respir J 18:928-934, 2001.
149. Mancini M, Zavala E, Mancebo J, Fernandez C, Barbera JA, Rossi A, Roca J, Rodriguez-Roisin R. Mechanisms of pulmonary gas exchange improvement during a protective ventilatory strategy in acute respiratory distress syndrome. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 164:1448-1453, 2001.
150. Manier G, Castaing Y. Influence of cardiac output on oxygen exchange in acute pulmonary embolism. Am Rev Respir Dis 145:130-136, 1992.
151. Manier G, Castaing Y. Contribution of multiple inert gas elimination technique to pulmonary medicine-4. Gas exchange abnormalities in pulmonary vascular and cardiac disease. Thorax 49:1169-1174, 1994.
152. Manier G, Castaing Y, Guenard H. Determinants of hypoxemia during the acute phase of pulmonary embolism in humans. Am Rev Respir Dis 132:332-338, 1985.
153. -monophosphate in asthma: Gas exchange and sputum cellular responses. Eur Respir J 31:1205-1212, 2008.
154. Matamis D, Lemaire F, Harf A, Teisseire B, Brun-Buisson C. Redistribution of pulmonary blood flow induced by positive end-expiratory pressure and dopamine infusion in acute respiratory failure. Am Rev Respir Dis 129:39-44, 1984.
155. McDonald DM. The ultrastructure and permeability of tracheo-bronchial blood vessels in health and disease. Eur Respir J Suppl 12:572s-585s, 1990.
156. McEvoy RD, Davies NJ, Mannino FL, Prutow RJ, Schumacker PT, Wagner PD, West JB. Pulmonary gas exchange during high-frequency ventilation. J Appl Physiol 52:1278-1287, 1982.
157. Mead J. Mechanical properties of lungs. Physiol Rev 41:281-330, 1961.
158. Melot C, Delcroix M, Closset J, Vanderhoeft P, Lejeune P, Leeman M, Naeije R. Starling resistor vs. distensible vessel models for embolic pulmonary hypertension. Am J Physiol 268:H817-H827, 1995.
159. Melot C, Hallemans R, Naeije R, Mols P, Lejeune P. Deleterious effect of nifedipine on pulmonary gas exchange in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am Rev Respir Dis 130:612-616, 1984.
160. Melot C, Lejeune P, Leeman M, Moraine JJ, Naeije R. Prostaglandin E1 in the adult respiratory distress syndrome. Benefit for pulmonary hypertension and cost for pulmonary gas exchange. Am Rev Respir Dis 139:106-110, 1989.
161. Mélot C, Naeije R. Pulmonary vascular disease. In: Roca J, Rodriguez-Roisin R, Naeije R, editors. Pulmonary and Peripheral Gas Exchange. New York: Marcel Dekker, 2000, pp. 229-261.
162. Mendes ES, Campos MA, Wanner A. Airway blood flow reactivity in healthy smokers and in ex-smokers with or without COPD. Chest 129:893-898 (erratum 2006;130:308), 2006.
163. Mithoefer JC, Ramirez C, Cook W. The effect of mixed venous oxygenation on arterial blood in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: The basis for a classification. Am Rev Respir Dis 117:259-264, 1978.
164. Moinard J, Manier G, Pillet O, Castaing Y. Effect of inhaled nitric oxide on hemodynamics and VA/Q inequalities in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. AmJRespirCritCareMed 149:1482-1487, 1994.
165. Montserrat JM, Barbera JA, Viegas C, Roca J, Rodriguez-Roisin R. Gas exchange response to intravenous aminophylline in patients with a severe exacerbation of asthma. Eur Respir J 8:28-33, 1995.
166. Morris HG. Mechanisms of glucocorticoid action in pulmonary disease. Chest 88:133S-141S, 1985.
167. Munoz PA, Gomez FP, Manrique HA, Roca J, Barbera JA, Young IH, Anderson SD, Rodriguez-Roisin R. Pulmonary gas exchange response to exercise- and mannitol-induced bronchoconstriction in mild asthma. J Appl Physiol 105:1477-1485, 2008.
168. Mure M, Glenny RW, Domino KB, Hlastala MP. Pulmonary gas exchange improves in the prone position with abdominal distension. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 157:1785-1790, 1998.
169. Mutoh T, Guest RJ, Lamm WJ, Albert RK. Prone position alters the effect of volume overload on regional pleural pressures and improves hypoxemia in pigs in vivo. Am Rev Respir Dis 146:300-306, 1992.
170. Naeije R, Hallemans R, Mols P, Melot C. Hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction in liver cirrhosis. Chest 80:570-574, 1981.
171. Naeije R, Melot C, Mols P, Hallemans R. Effects of vasodilators on hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction in normal man. Chest 82:404-410, 1982.
172. Neff TA, Buchanan BD. Tension pleural effusion. A delayed complication of pneumothorax therapy in tuberculosis. Am Rev Respir Dis 111:543-548, 1975.
173. Neumann P, Hedenstierna G. Ventilation-perfusion distributions in different porcine lung injury models. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 45:78-86, 2001.
174. Olschewski H, Ghofrani HA, Walmrath D, Schermuly R, TemmesfeldWollbruck B, Grimminger F, Seeger W. Inhaled prostacyclin and iloprost in severe pulmonary hypertension secondary to lung fibrosis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 160:600-607, 1999.
175. Pain MC, Charlton GC, Read J. Effect of intravenous aminophylline on distribution of pulmonary blood flow in obstructive lung disease. Am Rev Respir Dis 95:1005-1014, 1967.
176. Palmer KN, Diament ML. Spirometry and blood-gas tensions in bronchial asthma and chronic bronchitis. Lancet 2:383-384, 1967.
177. Palmer KN, Legge JS, Hamilton WF, Diament ML. Comparison of effect of salbutamol and isoprenaline on spirometry and blood-gas tensions in bronchial asthma. Br Med J 2:23-24, 1970.
178. Pappert D, Rossaint R, Slama K, Gruning T, Falke KJ. Influence of positioning on ventilation-perfusion relationships in severe adult respiratory distress syndrome. Chest 106:1511-1516, 1994.
179. Peinado VI, Pizarro S, Barbera JA. Pulmonary vascular involvement in COPD. Chest 134:808-814, 2008.
180. Pelosi P, Croci M, Calappi E, Mulazzi D, Cerisara M, Vercesi P, Vicardi P, Gattinoni L. Prone positioning improves pulmonary function in obese patients during general anesthesia. Anesth Analg 83:578-583, 1996.
181. Pelosi P, Crotti S, Brazzi L, Gattinoni L. Computed tomography in adult respiratory distress syndrome: What has it taught us? Eur Respir J 9:1055-1062, 1996.
182. Pelosi P, D'Andrea L, Vitale G, Pesenti A, Gattinoni L. Vertical gradient of regional lung inflation in adult respiratory distress syndrome. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 149:8-13, 1994.
183. Pelosi P, Tubiolo D, Mascheroni D, Vicardi P, Crotti S, Valenza F, Gattinoni L. Effects of the prone position on respiratory mechanics and gas exchange during acute lung injury. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 157:387-393, 1998.
184. Pepke-Zaba J, Higenbottam TW, nh-Xuan AT, Stone D, Wallwork J. Inhaled nitric oxide as a cause of selective pulmonary vasodilatation in pulmonary hypertension. Lancet 338:1173-1174, 1991.
185. Permutt S. Circulatory effects of weaning from mechanical ventilation: The importance of transdiaphragmatic pressure. Anesthesiology 69:157-160, 1988.
186. Perpina M, Benlloch E, Marco V, Abad F, Nauffal D. Effect of thoracentesis on pulmonary gas exchange. Thorax 38:747-750, 1983.
187. Pfeiffer B, Hachenberg T, Wendt M, Marshall B. Mechanical ventilation with permissive hypercapnia increases intrapulmonary shunt in septic and nonseptic patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome. Crit Care Med 30:285-289, 2002.
188. Polverino E, Gomez FP, Manrique H, Soler N, Roca J, Barbera JA, Rodriguez-Roisin R. Gas exchange response to short-acting beta2-agonists in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease severe exacerbations. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 176:350-355, 2007.
189. Putensen C, Mutz NJ, Putensen-Himmer G, Zinserling J. Spontaneous breathing during ventilatory support improves ventilation-perfusion distributions in patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 159:1241-1248, 1999.
190. Puybasset L, Rouby JJ, Mourgeon E, Cluzel P, Souhil Z, Law-Koune JD, Stewart T, Devilliers C, Lu Q, Roche S,. Factors influencing cardiopulmonary effects of inhaled nitric oxide in acute respiratory failure. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 152:318-328, 1995.
191. Ralph DD, Robertson HT, Weaver LJ, Hlastala MP, Carrico CJ, Hudson LD. Distribution of ventilation and perfusion during positive endexpiratory pressure in the adult respiratory distress syndrome. Am Rev Respir Dis 131:54-60, 1985.
192. Remolina C, Khan AU, Santiago TV, Edelman NH. Positional hypoxemia in unilateral lung disease. N Engl J Med 304:523-525, 1981.
193. Reyes A, Roca J, Rodriguez-Roisin R, Torres A, Ussetti P, Wagner PD. Effect of almitrine on ventilation-perfusion distribution in adult respiratory distress syndrome. Am Rev Respir Dis 137:1062-1067, 1988.
194. Rialp G, Betbese AJ, Perez-Marquez M, Mancebo J. Short-term effects of inhaled nitric oxide and prone position in pulmonary and extrapulmonary acute respiratory distress syndrome. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 164:243-249, 2001.
195. Rice KL, Leatherman JW, Duane PG, Snyder LS, Harmon KR, Abel J, Niewoehner DE. Aminophylline for acute exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. A controlled trial. Ann Intern Med 107:305-309, 1987.
196. Riding WD, Dinda P, Chatterjee SS. The bronchodilator and cardiac effects of five pressure-packed aerosols in asthma. Br J Dis Chest 64:37-45, 1970.
197. Ringsted CV, Eliasen K, Andersen JB, Heslet L, Qvist J. Ventilation-perfusion distributions and central hemodynamics in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Effects of terbutaline administration. Chest 96:976-983, 1989.
198. Rivara D, Bourgain JL, Rieuf P, Harf A, Lemaire F. Differential ventilation in unilateral lung disease: Effects on respiratory mechanics and gas exchange. Intensive Care Med 5:189-191, 1979.
199. Robinson TD, Freiberg DB, Regnis JA, Young IH. The role of hypoventilation and ventilation-perfusion redistribution in oxygen-induced hypercapnia during acute exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 161:1524-1529, 2000.
200. Roca J, Felez MA, Chung KF, Barbera JA, Rotger M, Santos C, Rodriguez-Roisin R. Salbutamol inhibits pulmonary effects of platelet activating factor in man. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 151:1740-1744, 1995.
201. Roca J, Wagner PD. Contribution of multiple inert gas elimination technique to pulmonary medicine. Principles and information content of the multiple inert gas elimination technique. Thorax 49: 815-824, 1994.
202. Rodriguez-Roisin R. Ventilation-perfusion relationships. In: Pinsky MR, Daihnaut JF, editors. Pathophysiologic Foundations of Critical Care. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins, 1993, pp. 389-413.
203. Rodriguez-Roisin R. Acute severe asthma: Pathophysiology and patho-biology of gas exchange abnormalities. Eur Respir J 10:1359-1371, 1997.
204. Rodriguez-Roisin R, Ballester E, Roca J, Torres A, Wagner PD. Mechanisms of hypoxemia in patients with status asthmaticus requiring mechanical ventilation. Am Rev Respir Dis 139:732-739, 1989.
205. Rodriguez-Roisin R, Bencowitz HZ, Ziegler MG, Wagner PD. Gas exchange responses to bronchodilators following methacholine challenge in dogs. Am Rev Respir Dis 130:617-626, 1984.
206. Rodriguez-Roisin R, Felez MA, Chung KF, Barbera JA, Wagner PD, Cobos A, Barnes PJ, Roca J. Platelet-activating factor causes ventilation-perfusion mismatch in humans. J Clin Invest 93:188-194, 1994.
207. Rodriguez-Roisin R, Ferrer A, Navajas D, Agusti AG, Wagner PD, Roca J. Ventilation-perfusion mismatch after methacholine challenge in patients with mild bronchial asthma. Am Rev Respir Dis 144:88-94, 1991.
208. Rodriguez-Roisin R, Roca J. Contributions of multiple inert gas elimination technique to pulmonary medicine.3. Bronchial asthma. Thorax 49:1027-1033, 1994.
209. Rodriguez-Roisin R, Wagner PD. Clinical relevance of ventilation-perfusion inequality determined by inert gas elimination. Eur Respir J 3:469-482, 1990.
210. Rodriguez-Roisin R, Drakulovic M, Rodriguez DA, Roca J, Barbera JA, Wagner PD. Ventilation-perfusion imbalance and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease staging severity. J Appl Physiol 106:1902-1908, 2009.
211. Roger N, Barbera JA, Roca J, Rovira I, Gomez FP, Rodriguez-Roisin R. Nitric oxide inhalation during exercise in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 156:800-806, 1997.
212. Rossaint R, Falke KJ, Lopez F, Slama K, Pison U, Zapol WM. Inhaled nitric oxide for the adult respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med 328:399-405, 1993.
213. Rossaint R, Gerlach H, Falke KJ. Inhalation of nitric oxide-a new approach in severe ARDS. Eur J Anaesthesiol 11:43-51, 1994.
214. Rossaint R, Gerlach H, Schmidt-Ruhnke H, Pappert D, Lewandowski K, Steudel W, Falke K. Efficacy of inhaled nitric oxide in patients with severe ARDS. Chest 107:1107-1115, 1995.
215. Rossi A, Santos C, Roca J, Torres A, Felez MA, Rodriguez-Roisin R. Effects of PEEP on VA/Q mismatching in ventilated patients with chronic airflow obstruction. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 149:1077-1084, 1994.
216. Rovira I, Chen TY, Winkler M, Kawai N, Bloch KD, Zapol WM. Effects of inhaled nitric oxide on pulmonary hemodynamics and gas exchange in an ovine model of ARDS. J Appl Physiol 76:345-355, 1994.
217. Salmeron S, Brochard L, Mal H, Tenaillon A, Henry-Amar M, Renon D, Duroux P, Simonneau G. Nebulized versus intravenous albuterol in hypercapnic acute asthma. A multicenter, double-blind, randomized study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 149:1466-1470, 1994.
218. Sandek K, Bratel T, Hellstrom G, Lagerstrand L. Ventilation-perfusion inequality and carbon dioxide sensitivity in hypoxaemic chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and effects of 6 months of long-term oxygen treatment (LTOT). Clin Physiol 21:584-593, 2001.
219. Sandoval J, Long GR, Skoog C, Wood LD, Oppenheimer L. Independent influence of blood flow rate and mixed venous PO2 on shunt fraction. J Appl Physiol 55:1128-1133, 1983.
220. Santolicandro A, Prediletto R, Fornai E, Formichi B, Begliomini E, Giannella-Neto A, Giuntini C. Mechanisms of hypoxemia and hypocapnia in pulmonary embolism. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 152:336-347, 1995.
221. Santos C, Ferrer M, Roca J, Torres A, Hernandez C, Rodriguez-Roisin R. Pulmonary gas exchange response to oxygen breathing in acute lung injury. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 161:26-31, 2000.
222. Schumacker PT, Rhodes GR, Newell JC, Dutton RE, Shah DM, Scovill WA, Powers SR. Ventilation-perfusion imbalance after head trauma. Am Rev Respir Dis 119:33-43, 1979.
223. Schumacker PT, Sznajder JI, Nahum A, Wood LD. Ventilation-perfusion inequality during constant-flow ventilation. J Appl Physiol 62:1255-1263, 1987.
224. Sprague RS, Ellsworth ML, Stephenson AH, Lonigro AJ. ATP: The red blood cell link to NO and local control of the pulmonary circulation. Am J Physiol 271:H2717-H2722, 1996.
225. Sprague RS, Thiemermann C, Vane JR. Endogenous endothelium-derived relaxing factor opposes hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction and supports blood flow to hypoxic alveoli in anesthetized rabbits. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 89:8711-8715, 1992.
226. Stewart TE, Meade MO, Cook DJ, Granton JT, Hodder RV, Lapinsky SE, Mazer CD, McLean RF, Rogovein TS, Schouten BD, Todd TR, Slutsky AS. Evaluation of a ventilation strategy to prevent barotrauma in patients at high risk for acute respiratory distress syndrome. Pressure-and Volume-Limited Ventilation Strategy Group. N Engl J Med 338:355-361, 1998.
227. Stockley RA, Finnegan P, Bishop JM. Effect of intravenous terbutaline on arterial blood gas tensions, ventilation, and pulmonary circulation in patients with chronic bronchitis and cor pulmonale. Thorax 32:601-605, 1977.
228. Tai E, Read J. Response of blood gas tensions to aminophylline and isoprenaline in patients with asthma. Thorax 22:543-549, 1967.
229. Teule GJ, Majid PA. Haemodynamic effects of terbutaline in chronic obstructive airways disease. Thorax 35:536-542, 1980.
230. Thompson WH, Nielson CP, Carvalho P, Charan NB, Crowley JJ. Controlled trial of oral prednisone in outpatients with acute COPD exacerbation. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 154:407-412, 1996.
231. Torre-Bueno JR, Wagner PD, Saltzman HA, Gale GE, Moon RE. Diffusion limitation in normal humans during exercise at sea level and simulated altitude. J Appl Physiol 58:989-995, 1985.
232. Torres A, Reyes A, Roca J, Wagner PD, Rodriguez-Roisin R. Ventilation-perfusion mismatching in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease during ventilator weaning. Am Rev Respir Dis 140:1246-1250, 1989.
233. Trapnell DH, Thurston JG. Unilateral pulmonary oedema after pleural aspiration. Lancet 1:1367-1369, 1970.
234. Tuxen DV. Detrimental effects of positive end-expiratory pressure during controlled mechanical ventilation of patients with severe airflow obstruction. Am Rev Respir Dis 140:5-9, 1989.
235. Utsonomiya T, Krausz MM, Levine L, Shepro D, Hechtman HB. Thromboxane mediation of cardiopulmonary effects of embolism. J Clin Invest 70:361-368, 1982.
236. Valentine DD, Hammond MD, Downs JB, Sears NJ, Sims WR. Distribution of ventilation and perfusion with different modes of mechanical ventilation. Am Rev Respir Dis 143:1262-1266, 1991.
237. Vettermann J, Brusasco V, Rehder K. Gas exchange and intrapulmonary distribution of ventilation during continuous-flow ventilation. J Appl Physiol 64:1864-1869, 1988.
238. Viale JP, Annat GJ, Bouffard YM, Delafosse BX, Bertrand OM, Motin JP. Oxygen cost of breathing in postoperative patients. Pressure support ventilation vs continuous positive airway pressure. Chest 93:506-509, 1988.
239. Viegas CA, Ferrer A, Montserrat JM, Barbera JA, Roca J, Rodriguez-Roisin R. Ventilation-perfusion response after fenoterol in hypoxemic patients with stable COPD. Chest 110:71-77 (erratum 1997; 111: 258), 1996.
240. Voelkel NF. Mechanisms of hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction. Am Rev Respir Dis 133:1186-1195, 1986.
241. Voswinckel R, Reichenberger F, Enke B, Kreckel A, Krick S, Gall H, Schermuly RT, Grimminger F, Rubin LJ, Olschewski H, Seeger W, Ghofrani HA. Acute effects of the combination of sildenafil and inhaled treprostinil on haemodynamics and gas exchange in pulmonary hypertension. Pulm Pharmacol Ther 21:824-832, 2008.
242. Wagner PD. Ventilation-perfusion inequality in catastrophic lung disease. In: Prakash O., editor. Applied Physiology in Clinical Respiratory Care. The Hague/Boston/London: Martinus Nijhoff, 1982, pp. 363-379.
243. Wagner PD, Dantzker DR, Dueck R, Clausen JL, West JB. Ventilation-perfusion inequality in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. J Clin Invest 59:203-216, 1977.
244. Wagner PD, Dantzker DR, Iacovoni VE, Tomlin WC, West JB. Ventilation-perfusion inequality in asymptomatic asthma. Am Rev Respir Dis 118:511-524, 1978.
245. Wagner PD, Hedenstierna G, Rodriguez-Roisin R. Gas exchange, expiratory flow obstruction and the clinical spectrum of asthma. Eur Respir J 9:1278-1282, 1996.
246. Wagner PD, Laravuso RB, Uhl RR, West JB. Continuous distributions of ventilation-perfusion ratios in normal subjects breathing air and 100 per cent O2. J Clin Invest 54:54-68, 1974.
247. Wagner PD, Rodriguez-Roisin R. Clinical advances in pulmonary gas exchange. Am Rev Respir Dis 143:883-888, 1991.
248. Wagner PD, Saltzman HA, West JB. Measurement of continuous distributions of ventilation-perfusion ratios: Theory. J Appl Physiol 36:588-599, 1974.
249. Wagner PD, Schaffartzik W, Prediletto R, Knight DR. Relationship among cardiac output, shunt, and inspired O2 concentration. J Appl Physiol 71:2191-2197, 1991.
250. Walmrath D, Schneider T, Pilch J, Grimminger F, Seeger W. Aerosolised prostacyclin in adult respiratory distress syndrome. Lancet 342:961-962, 1993.
251. Walmrath D, Schneider T, Pilch J, Schermuly R, Grimminger F, Seeger W. Effects of aerosolized prostacyclin in severe pneumonia. Impact of fibrosis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 151:724-730, 1995.
252. Walmrath D, Schneider T, Schermuly R, Olschewski H, Grimminger F, Seeger W. Direct comparison of inhaled nitric oxide and aerosolized prostacyclin in acute respiratory distress syndrome. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 153:991-996, 1996.
253. Weinberger SE, Schwartzstein RM, Weiss JW. Hypercapnia. N Engl J Med 321:1223-1231, 1989.
254. West JB. Ventilation-perfusion inequality and overall gas exchange in computer models of the lung. Respir Physiol 7:88-110, 1969.
255. West JB. Causes of carbon dioxide retention in lung disease. N Engl J Med 284:1232-1236, 1971.
256. West JB. State of the art: Ventilation-perfusion relationships. Am Rev Respir Dis 116:919-943, 1977.
257. Wetzel RC, Herold CJ, Zerhouni EA, Robotham JL. Hypoxic bronchodilation. J Appl Physiol 73:1202-1206, 1992.
258. Wilson SR, Amoroso P, Moxham J, Ponte J. Modification of the thermogenic effect of acutely inhaled salbutamol by chronic inhalation in normal subjects. Thorax 48:886-889, 1993.
259. Wong CS, Pavord ID, Williams J, Britton JR, Tattersfield AE. Bronchodilator, cardiovascular, and hypokalaemic effects of fenoterol, salbutamol, and terbutaline in asthma. Lancet 336:1396-1399, 1990.
260. Wysocki M, Delclaux C, Roupie E, Langeron O, Liu N, Herman B, Lemaire F, Brochard L. Additive effect on gas exchange of inhaled nitric oxide and intravenous almitrine bismesylate in the adult respiratory distress syndrome. Intensive Care Med 20:254-259, 1994.
261. Yoo OH, Ting EY. The effects of pleural effusion on pulmonary function. Am Rev Respir Dis 89:55-63, 1964.
262. Young I, Mazzone RW, Wagner PD. Identification of functional lung unit in the dog by graded vascular embolization. J Appl Physiol 49:132-141, 1980.
263. Young IH, Corte P, Schoeffel RE. Pattern and time course of ventilation-perfusion inequality in exercise-induced asthma. Am Rev Respir Dis 125:304-311, 1982.
264. Zavala E, Ferrer M, Polese G, Masclans JR, Planas M, Milic-Emili J, Rodriguez-Roisin R, Roca J, Rossi A. Effect of inverse I:E ratio ventilation on pulmonary gas exchange in acute respiratory distress syndrome. Anesthesiology 88:35-42, 1998.
265. Zhao L, Mason NA, Morrell NW, Kojonazarov B, Sadykov A, Maripov A, Mirrakhimov MM, Aldashev A, Wilkins MR. Sildenafil inhibits hypoxia-induced pulmonary hypertension. Circulation 104:424-428, 2001.
266. Zielinski J, Chatterjee SS. Effect of aminophylline on arterial blood gases in patients with exacerbation of chronic respiratory failure. Bull Physiopathol Respir (Nancy) 8:797-806, 1972.
267. Zwissler B, Kemming G, Habler O, Kleen M, Merkel M, Haller M, Briegel J, Welte M, Peter K. Inhaled prostacyclin (PG12) versus inhaled nitric oxide in adult respiratory distress syndrome. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 154:1671-1677, 1996.