메뉴 건너뛰기




Volumn 50, Issue 2, 2001, Pages 217-247

The representation of women in politics: From quotas to parity in elections

(1)  Lenoir, Noëlle a  

a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords


EID: 84937345530     PISSN: 00205893     EISSN: 14716895     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/iclq/50.2.217     Document Type: Article
Times cited : (17)

References (78)
  • 1
    • 0005355696 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Paris: Editions de l'Atelier/Editions Ouvrières
    • William Guéraiche, Les Femmes et la République. Paris: Editions de l'Atelier/Editions Ouvrières, 1999 (p.39).
    • (1999) Les Femmes et la République , pp. 39
    • Guéraiche, W.1
  • 2
    • 0003406117 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See in particular, with regard to the United States Free Press Paperbacks
    • See in particular, with regard to the United States, Sarah M. Evans's work, A History of Women in America, Free Press Paperbacks, 1997.
    • (1997) work, A History of Women in America
    • Evans's, S.M.1
  • 3
    • 85023096650 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See in particular, with regard to the United Kingdom, the publications of the Fabian Society, and in particular available on the Society's web site at
    • See in particular, with regard to the United Kingdom, the publications of the Fabian Society, and in particular “The Long March to Equality”, available on the Society's web site at
    • “The Long March to Equality”
  • 5
    • 0002068256 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Letter from Europe, Liberty, Equality, Sorority, French women get a revolution of their own
    • in See 29 May
    • See Jane Kramer, “Letter from Europe, Liberty, Equality, Sorority, French women get a revolution of their own”, in The New Yorker, 29 May 2000.
    • (2000) The New Yorker
    • Kramer, J.1
  • 6
    • 0003962632 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • It would be wrong to believe that women have the right to vote everywhere in the world. Thus, a British newspaper reports that the High Court of Justice of Kuwait rejected the call by an association of women pleading that the refusal to grant this right to women was unconstitutional 8 July
    • It would be wrong to believe that women have the right to vote everywhere in the world. Thus, a British newspaper reports that the High Court of Justice of Kuwait rejected the call by an association of women pleading that the refusal to grant this right to women was unconstitutional (The Economist, 8 July 2000).
    • (2000) The Economist
  • 7
    • 84869378989 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Le sexe ou le rang? La condition des femmes selon la philosophie des Lumières
    • in Ch. Fauré ed., 1st ed. Paris: PUF, Mar.
    • Catherine Larrère, “Le sexe ou le rang? La condition des femmes selon la philosophie des Lumières”, in Encyclopédie politique and et historique des femmes, Ch. Fauré ed., 1st ed. Paris: PUF, Mar. 1997.
    • (1997) Encyclopédie politique and et historique des femmes
    • Larrère, C.1
  • 9
    • 85023090078 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Le Droit en douceur
    • See Aix-Marseilles: PUF
    • See Gustavo Zagrebelski, “Le Droit en douceur”, Aix-Marseilles: PUF, Economica, 2000.
    • (2000) Economica
    • Zagrebelski, G.1
  • 10
    • 85023126010 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • La notion de citoyen sous la Révolution française
    • in Comments on the report of the Constitutional Committee, 2 Oct. 1789, quoted by Burgundy University publications, Editions Universitaires de Dijon, Oct
    • Comments on the report of the Constitutional Committee, 2 Oct. 1789, quoted by Michel Troper “La notion de citoyen sous la Révolution française”, in La Constitution de Van III ou l'ordre républicain, Burgundy University publications, Editions Universitaires de Dijon, Oct. 1998.
    • (1998) La Constitution de Van III ou l'ordre républicain
    • Troper, M.1
  • 12
    • 85023059291 scopus 로고
    • pour legalité politique des hommes et des femmes
    • in Complete Works Text 19 published at the time in the
    • Text 19, “pour legalité politique des hommes et des femmes”, 1790, in Complete Works, volume X (published at the time in the “Journal de la Société de 1789”).
    • (1790) “Journal de la Société de 1789” , vol.X
  • 14
    • 84868391877 scopus 로고
    • See Paris: Editions Mercure de France
    • See Olympe de Gouges, Oeuvres. Paris: Editions Mercure de France, 1986.
    • (1986) Oeuvres
    • de Gouges, O.1
  • 15
    • 85023044230 scopus 로고
    • Democracy in America
    • Tocqueville further affirms in that Paris
    • Tocqueville further affirms in “Democracy in America” that “democratic people must preserve virile manners …” Paris, 1842 (Volume IV, p.346).
    • (1842) “democratic people must preserve virile manners …” , vol.IV , pp. 346
  • 16
    • 85022987481 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • L'action des femmes sous la Révolution américaine
    • in Christiane Fauré
    • “L'action des femmes sous la Révolution américaine”, in Christiane Fauré, “Democracy in America” “democratic people must preserve virile manners …”.
    • “democratic people must preserve virile manners …”
  • 19
    • 85023006937 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See the very interesting work of The author mentions in particular President Wilson's arrival in 1916 at a meeting of one of the principal female organisations: the “National Woman Suffrage Association”. “I have not come to ask you to be patient, because you have been, but I have come to congratulate you that there has been a force behind you that will beyond any peradventure be triumphant and for which you can afford a little while to wait”, he said to reassure members on the future success of their demands. (When the 19th Amendment to the Constitution in 1920 was passed, 11 States had already granted women the right to vote.) It should be noted that in New Zealand, another common law country, women acquired the right to vote in 1893
    • See the very interesting work of Sarah Evans, No constitutional right to be ladies. The author mentions in particular President Wilson's arrival in 1916 at a meeting of one of the principal female organisations: the “National Woman Suffrage Association”. “I have not come to ask you to be patient, because you have been, but I have come to congratulate you that there has been a force behind you that will beyond any peradventure be triumphant and for which you can afford a little while to wait”, he said to reassure members on the future success of their demands. (When the 19th Amendment to the Constitution in 1920 was passed, 11 States had already granted women the right to vote.) It should be noted that in New Zealand, another common law country, women acquired the right to vote in 1893.
    • No constitutional right to be ladies
    • Evans, S.1
  • 20
    • 85023146110 scopus 로고
    • this sentimental leprosy spoiled many women who, without their claim to genius, would have been charming
    • “George Sand's illustration had the main purpose of gaining recognition for the fact that France had an excessive number of superior women” after considering it regrettable that in Paris
    • “George Sand's illustration had the main purpose of gaining recognition for the fact that France had an excessive number of superior women” after considering it regrettable that “this sentimental leprosy spoiled many women who, without their claim to genius, would have been charming”, in La Muse du Département, Paris, 1843.
    • (1843) La Muse du Département
  • 22
    • 85023006451 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • In “La Voix des Femmes”, Eugénie Niboyet published a letter calling readers to vote for George Sand, thinking that she would be “accepted by men”. Quoted in the work devoted to G. Sand by
    • In “La Voix des Femmes”, Eugénie Niboyet published a letter calling readers to vote for George Sand, thinking that she would be “accepted by men”. Quoted in the work devoted to G. Sand by Michelle Perrot, Paris: Imprimerie Nationale, 1997, p.531.
    • (1997) Paris: Imprimerie Nationale , pp. 531
    • Perrot, M.1
  • 23
    • 85023019364 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Michelle Perrot reproduced a text published posthumously which enlightens us on the positions of G. Sand, showing that she intended to plead for equality in marriage, while seeking to dissuade women from standing as candidates
    • Michelle Perrot reproduced a text published posthumously which enlightens us on the positions of G. Sand, showing that she intended to plead for equality in marriage, while seeking to dissuade women from standing as candidates, “as they might be taken seriously” (p.542).
    • “as they might be taken seriously” , pp. 542
  • 25
    • 85023138894 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • In Cass. 6 Apr. 1914 S. 1915.1.64, the Cour de cassation held that “the exercise of civil rights is independent of the quality of citizen, which confers solely political rights … the Constitution of 4 Nov. 1848, by substituting the universal suffrage for the restricted or electoral-tax-based suffrage, from which women were excluded, never extended to non-male citizens … the right to elect the representatives of the country to the various electoral offices … this is clear, not only from the text of the Constitution of 1848 and of the electoral laws which followed it, but more still from their spirit, attested by the legislative history, and also by the fact that it has been applied without interruption since the universal suffrage was introduced”
    • In Cass. 6 Apr. 1914, Delle Halbwachs, S. 1915.1.64, the Cour de cassation held that “the exercise of civil rights is independent of the quality of citizen, which confers solely political rights … the Constitution of 4 Nov. 1848, by substituting the universal suffrage for the restricted or electoral-tax-based suffrage, from which women were excluded, never extended to non-male citizens … the right to elect the representatives of the country to the various electoral offices … this is clear, not only from the text of the Constitution of 1848 and of the electoral laws which followed it, but more still from their spirit, attested by the legislative history, and also by the fact that it has been applied without interruption since the universal suffrage was introduced”.
    • Delle Halbwachs
  • 27
    • 85023052676 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See the report on parity 2 Dec. by Catherine Tasca, then Chair of the
    • See the report on parity (No. 1240, 2 Dec. 1998, p.11) by Catherine Tasca, then Chair of the Legal Affairs Committee of the National Assembly.
    • (1998) Legal Affairs Committee of the National Assembly , Issue.1240 , pp. 11
  • 28
    • 85023063081 scopus 로고
    • of 7 July
    • J.O. Sénat, Sitting of 7 July 1932, pp.1029 ff.
    • (1932) Sitting , pp. 1029
    • Sénat, J.O.1
  • 30
    • 85023113512 scopus 로고
    • See his treatise referred to above of in the chapter entitled
    • See his treatise referred to above of 1927, in the chapter entitled “National Sovereignty”.
    • (1927) “National Sovereignty”
  • 31
    • 85023146806 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Editions
    • Editions Dalloz, pp.312 ff.
    • Dalloz1
  • 32
    • 85023079665 scopus 로고
    • of 20 Feb. Deputy, had already moved in this direction, in particular in a He became infamous for serving as Minister for Justice under Marshal Pétain's Vichy régime introduced in France in 1940. His progressive standpoint on women's political rights probably explains that the draft constitution of Pétain (which never succeeded) would have extended the right to vote and stand for election to women as well as to men
    • Joseph Barthélémy, Deputy, had already moved in this direction, in particular in a report to the Chamber of Deputies of 20 Feb. 1923 (No. 5610). He became infamous for serving as Minister for Justice under Marshal Pétain's Vichy régime introduced in France in 1940. His progressive standpoint on women's political rights probably explains that the draft constitution of Pétain (which never succeeded) would have extended the right to vote and stand for election to women as well as to men.
    • (1923) report to the Chamber of Deputies , Issue.5610
    • Barthélémy, J.1
  • 33
    • 85023058063 scopus 로고
    • Paris Documentation Française in It is odd to observe in certain law manuals comments on the “intrinsic” characteristics of the female nature which are alleged to influence their voting patterns, where anti-feminist undertones are scarcely concealed. The same arguments are always used to decry women's lack of political maturity: “… women do not vote for women, a constituency set aside for a woman is a lost constituency, etc” quotes these prejudices which still appear in law textbooks in 2000, updated to include the parity provisions
    • It is odd to observe in certain law manuals comments on the “intrinsic” characteristics of the female nature which are alleged to influence their voting patterns, where anti-feminist undertones are scarcely concealed. The same arguments are always used to decry women's lack of political maturity: “… women do not vote for women, a constituency set aside for a woman is a lost constituency, etc”. Gisèle Halimi, in Le Préambule de la Constitution de 1946, un contrat de société, Paris, 1994, Documentation Française, p.39, quotes these prejudices which still appear in law textbooks in 2000, updated to include the parity provisions.
    • (1994) Le Préambule de la Constitution de 1946, un contrat de société , pp. 39
    • Halimi, G.1
  • 34
    • 85023046728 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See the decision of this Court of 16 July 1971 on freedom of association (CC decision n°
    • See the decision of this Court of 16 July 1971 on freedom of association (CC decision n° 71–44 DC, Rec. p.29
    • DC, Rec , vol.71-44 , pp. 29
  • 36
    • 85023101747 scopus 로고
    • With the almost unique but considerable exception of Jules Laferrière's textbook; in his work referred to above on Constitutional Law, he devotes almost 10 pages to the question of the vote for women, studying it most delicately in terms of comparative law and of political history. Reference can also be made to Professor Robert Pelloux's article on the Preamble to the 1946 Constitution, a locus classicus The author stresses that the recognition of women's rights “equal to those of man” represents “a considerable extension … owing to the tradition of masculinity strongly anchored in our public law”. But he devotes no more than 15 lines or so to the subject
    • With the almost unique but considerable exception of Jules Laferrière's textbook; in his work referred to above on Constitutional Law, he devotes almost 10 pages to the question of the vote for women, studying it most delicately in terms of comparative law and of political history. Reference can also be made to Professor Robert Pelloux's article on the Preamble to the 1946 Constitution, a locus classicus (Revue de Droit Public, 1947, p.347). The author stresses that the recognition of women's rights “equal to those of man” represents “a considerable extension … owing to the tradition of masculinity strongly anchored in our public law”. But he devotes no more than 15 lines or so to the subject.
    • (1947) Revue de Droit Public , pp. 347
  • 37
    • 85023078355 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Of the 35 needed, only 11 responded (see
    • Of the 35 needed, only 11 responded (see Sarah Evans, Revue de Droit Public.).
    • Revue de Droit Public
    • Evans, S.1
  • 38
    • 85022988051 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • La parité entre hommes et femmes dans l'accès aux fonctions électives. Faut-il réviser la Constitution?
    • in The new constitutional provisions adopted in Portugal at the revision of 3 Sept. 1997 might enable the law to establish positive discrimination in political life. While Article 9 entrusts to the public authorities the responsibility for “promoting equality between men and women”, article 112, like the French constitutional reform on parity, requires the law to “promote equality in the exercise of civic and political rights”. But no electoral legislation has so far been enacted to give concrete expression to this objective (see PUF
    • The new constitutional provisions adopted in Portugal at the revision of 3 Sept. 1997 might enable the law to establish positive discrimination in political life. While Article 9 entrusts to the public authorities the responsibility for “promoting equality between men and women”, article 112, like the French constitutional reform on parity, requires the law to “promote equality in the exercise of civic and political rights”. But no electoral legislation has so far been enacted to give concrete expression to this objective (see Gwenaële Calves, “La parité entre hommes et femmes dans l'accès aux fonctions électives. Faut-il réviser la Constitution?” in CURAPP, Questions sensibles, PUF, 1998).
    • (1998) CURAPP, Questions sensibles
    • Calves, G.1
  • 39
    • 85023002618 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 31 Dec. Rec. In general, positive discrimination is not provided for only at internal constitutional level but also in international law. The concept of positive discrimination in employment also appears in article 141(4) of the Treaty establishing the European Community, which provides: “With a view to ensuring full equality in practice between men and women in working life, the principle of equal treatment shall not prevent any Member State from maintaining or adopting measures providing for specific advantages in order to make it easier for the under-represented sex to pursue a vocational activity or to prevent or compensate for disadvantages in professional careers”. In its decision on the Treaty of Amsterdam (CC decision n° the Conseil Constitutionnel made no comment on these provisions but recognised that they were constitutional
    • In general, positive discrimination is not provided for only at internal constitutional level but also in international law. The concept of positive discrimination in employment also appears in article 141(4) of the Treaty establishing the European Community, which provides: “With a view to ensuring full equality in practice between men and women in working life, the principle of equal treatment shall not prevent any Member State from maintaining or adopting measures providing for specific advantages in order to make it easier for the under-represented sex to pursue a vocational activity or to prevent or compensate for disadvantages in professional careers”. In its decision on the Treaty of Amsterdam (CC decision n° 97–394 DC, 31 Dec. 1997, Rec. p.344), the Conseil Constitutionnel made no comment on these provisions but recognised that they were constitutional.
    • (1997) DC , pp. 344
  • 40
    • 85023063763 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Les aspects juridiques et éthiques de la contraception
    • in See collective work published by Editions Odile Jacob Paris (forthcoming in English
    • See Noëlle Lenoir “Les aspects juridiques et éthiques de la contraception” in La Contraception, Liberté ou Contrainte, collective work published by Editions Odile Jacob, 1999, Paris (forthcoming in English).
    • (1999) La Contraception, Liberté ou Contrainte
    • Lenoir, N.1
  • 41
    • 84880071813 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Under the Civil Code married women lacked capacity at civil law. Only gradually did a series of Acts (1938, 1945 and 1985, in particular) remove the inferior status of married women
    • Under the Civil Code (Code Napoléon), married women lacked capacity at civil law. Only gradually did a series of Acts (1938, 1945 and 1985, in particular) remove the inferior status of married women.
    • Code Napoléon
  • 42
    • 84879243932 scopus 로고
    • Le vote des femmes en France (1945–1993)
    • Aug. in See in particular The author proceeds on the basis of, in particular, the analyses of electoral sociology of the Political Science professor, Alain Lancelot (subsequently appointed to the French Conseil Constitutionnel
    • See in particular, Janine Mossuz-Lavau, “Le vote des femmes en France (1945–1993)”, in Revue Française de Sciences Politiques No. 4, Aug. 1993, p.673. The author proceeds on the basis of, in particular, the analyses of electoral sociology of the Political Science professor, Alain Lancelot (subsequently appointed to the French Conseil Constitutionnel).
    • (1993) Revue Française de Sciences Politiques , Issue.4 , pp. 673
    • Mossuz-Lavau, J.1
  • 44
    • 85023045425 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Loi n° 2000–493 of 6 June 2000 to promote equal access of women and men to electoral office 7 June
    • Loi n° 2000–493 of 6 June 2000 to promote equal access of women and men to electoral office (Journal Officiel 7 June 2000, p.8560).
    • (2000) Journal Officiel , pp. 8560
  • 45
    • 0004135912 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Femmes/Hommes, pour la Parité
    • The word “parity” is never used. It appears neither in the Constitutional Act nor in the Electoral Act that establish it. But the term is so often used by lawyers and political economists in their comments on the reform that there is no escaping it. See, for example Paris
    • The word “parity” is never used. It appears neither in the Constitutional Act nor in the Electoral Act that establish it. But the term is so often used by lawyers and political economists in their comments on the reform that there is no escaping it. See, for example, Janine Mossuz-Lavau, “Femmes/Hommes, pour la Parité”, Editions des Presses de la Fondation Nationale des Sciences Politiques, 1998, Paris).
    • (1998) Editions des Presses de la Fondation Nationale des Sciences Politiques
    • Mossuz-Lavau, J.1
  • 46
    • 85023129847 scopus 로고
    • CC decision n° 82–146 of 18 Nov.
    • CC decision n° 82–146 of 18 Nov. 1982, Rec. 66
    • (1982) Rec , pp. 66
  • 48
    • 0039758746 scopus 로고
    • Les hommes politiques, les “-sages-” (?) … et les femmes-
    • See his article entitled in
    • See his article entitled “Les hommes politiques, les “-sages-” (?) … et les femmes-”, in Droit Social, 1983 p.131.
    • (1983) Droit Social , pp. 131
  • 49
    • 85023009098 scopus 로고
    • Gazzetta Ufficiale
    • Published in the First Special Series of 20 Sept.
    • Published in the Gazzetta Ufficiale, First Special Series, No. 39 of 20 Sept. 1995 (Droit Social).
    • (1995) Droit Social , Issue.39
  • 50
    • 85023086570 scopus 로고
    • See in
    • See in “Foro Italiano”: I, 3386, 1995
    • (1995) “Foro Italiano” , vol.I , pp. 3386
  • 51
    • 85023062486 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Le principe d'egalité dans la doctrine et dans la jurisprudence italiennes
    • quoted by Alessandro Pissorusso in his article published in on the principle of equality (Paris, Documentation Française
    • quoted by Alessandro Pissorusso in his article “Le principe d'egalité dans la doctrine et dans la jurisprudence italiennes” published in Etudes et Documents du Conseil d'Etat No. 48 on the principle of equality (Paris, Documentation Française, 1996).
    • (1996) Etudes et Documents du Conseil d'Etat , Issue.48
  • 53
    • 85023072240 scopus 로고
    • A survey done a few years ago by a polling institute on behalf of the National Council of French Women showed that women were almost as likely to stand as non-party independent candidates (See Paris, Mar.
    • A survey done a few years ago by a polling institute on behalf of the National Council of French Women showed that women were almost as likely to stand as non-party independent candidates (See “Parité Infos”, No. 1, Paris, Mar. 1993).
    • (1993) “Parité Infos” , Issue.1
  • 56
    • 85023002152 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The exception is Strasbourg, where the mayor is Ms Catherine Trautmann, former Minister for Culture and Communication in Lionel Jospin's government. See
    • The exception is Strasbourg, where the mayor is Ms Catherine Trautmann, former Minister for Culture and Communication in Lionel Jospin's government. See Bernard Roman's report “Parité Infos”.
    • report “Parité Infos”
    • Roman's, B.1
  • 57
    • 34249001230 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See the statistics on on the Council of Europe's website http://stars.coe.fr/equality/tableau2.htm
    • See the statistics on “Women in Parliament” on the Council of Europe's website http://stars.coe.fr/equality/tableau2.htm.
    • “Women in Parliament”
  • 58
    • 85023070905 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • La percée des femmes aux élections législatives de 1997
    • in See June-Aug.
    • See Janine Mossuz Lavau, “La percée des femmes aux élections législatives de 1997”, in Revue Française de Sciences Politiques, No. 3 and 4, June-Aug. 1997, p.469.
    • (1997) Revue Française de Sciences Politiques , Issue.3-4 , pp. 469
    • Mossuz Lavau, J.1
  • 59
    • 85023094987 scopus 로고
    • to promote balanced distribution of men and women on lists of candidates for election
    • Act of 24 May 1994 published in the on 1 July
    • Act of 24 May 1994 “to promote balanced distribution of men and women on lists of candidates for election”, published in the Moniteur Belge on 1 July 1994.
    • (1994) Moniteur Belge
  • 60
    • 85023032240 scopus 로고
    • La parité sexuelle sur les listes de candidat(e)s
    • See in
    • See Marc Verdussen, “La parité sexuelle sur les listes de candidat(e)s”, in Revue Belge de Droit constitutionnel, 1994, p.33.
    • (1994) Revue Belge de Droit constitutionnel , pp. 33
    • Verdussen, M.1
  • 61
    • 85023100618 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See the information paper, submitted for the parliamentary delegation for women's rights and equal opportunities between men and women by registered on 12 Jan.
    • See the information paper, submitted for the parliamentary delegation for women's rights and equal opportunities between men and women by Odette Casanova, female Deputy. Report of the National Assembly, registered on 12 Jan. 2000, p.12.
    • (2000) female Deputy. Report of the National Assembly , pp. 12
    • Casanova, O.1
  • 63
    • 85023106950 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Mujer y Constitución en España
    • See the contribution by Dominique Rousseau on parity in France in the Spanish work Madrid
    • See the contribution by Dominique Rousseau on parity in France in the Spanish work “Mujer y Constitución en España”, Centro de Estudios Politicos y Constitucionales, Madrid 2000.
    • (2000) Centro de Estudios Politicos y Constitucionales
  • 64
    • 85023043421 scopus 로고
    • Since 1995, political parties have not been allowed to be financed by private-sector companies but only by their members (for a limited amount) and by the State. The State each year gives them assistance in two portions: one is calculated according to the number of seats obtained by the party in the National Assembly; the other is evaluated according to the number of votes cast for them at the general election (loi organique no. 95–62 of 19 Jan.
    • Since 1995, political parties have not been allowed to be financed by private-sector companies but only by their members (for a limited amount) and by the State. The State each year gives them assistance in two portions: one is calculated according to the number of seats obtained by the party in the National Assembly; the other is evaluated according to the number of votes cast for them at the general election (loi organique no. 95–62 of 19 Jan. 1995, J.O. p.1005)
    • (1995) J.O , pp. 1005
  • 65
    • 85023125942 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Parité constitutionnelle et égalité républicaine, à propos de la loi constitutionnelle n° 99–569 du 8 juillet 1999
    • article in See for example Mar.-Apr.
    • See for example, Michel Clapié's article, “Parité constitutionnelle et égalité républicaine, à propos de la loi constitutionnelle n° 99–569 du 8 juillet 1999”, in Revue Administrative No. 314, Mar.-Apr. 2000.
    • (2000) Revue Administrative , Issue.314
    • Clapié's, M.1
  • 66
    • 84948583746 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See the arguments in the articles published in the review “Le Débat” of May-August 1998 and in the press, in particular by Elisabeth Badinter, against parity, and Sylviane Agazincski, for it. Also see the chronicles published in the report of the Conseil d'Etat of 1996
    • See the arguments in the articles published in the review “Le Débat” of May-August 1998 and in the press, in particular by Elisabeth Badinter, against parity, and Sylviane Agazincski, for it. Also see the chronicles published in the report of the Conseil d'Etat of 1996 (Revue Administrative)
    • Revue Administrative
  • 67
  • 68
    • 85023062485 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • CC decision n° 2000–429 note Jean-Eric Schoettl on the Act to promote equal access of women and men to electoral office
    • CC decision n° 2000–429 DC, AJDA 2000, 653, note Jean-Eric Schoettl on the Act to promote equal access of women and men to electoral office.
    • (2000) DC, AJDA , pp. 653
  • 69
    • 85023054524 scopus 로고
    • RFDA CC decision n° 91–290 note Genevois
    • CC decision n° 91–290 DC, Rec. 50 RFDA 1991, 407, note Genevois.
    • (1991) DC, Rec , vol.50 , pp. 407
  • 70
    • 85023014378 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • CC decision n° 99–412 DC obs. Ferdinand Soucramanien. The Treaty had been referred to the Council by the President of the Republic and the Prime Minister before ratification, for constitutional review under Article 54 of the Constitution
    • CC decision n° 99–412 DC, RDP 1999, 987, obs. Ferdinand Soucramanien. The Treaty had been referred to the Council by the President of the Republic and the Prime Minister before ratification, for constitutional review under Article 54 of the Constitution.
    • (1999) RDP , pp. 987
  • 71
    • 85023132960 scopus 로고
    • See Claude Servan-Schreiber's editorial in Mar.
    • See Claude Servan-Schreiber's editorial in Parité Info, No. 1, Mar. 1993).
    • (1993) Parité Info , Issue.1
  • 72
    • 85023003083 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Au pouvoir citoyennes!
    • See For Françoise Gaspard, the purpose of parity is to call into question the abstract universalism which is a misleading mask, concealing the sovereignty of men in public life. In opposition to abstract universality, she argues, the principle that “the female citizen is not reducible to the male citizen” has to be posited
    • See Françoise Gaspard, “Au pouvoir citoyennes!” (Parité Info), p.36. For Françoise Gaspard, the purpose of parity is to call into question the abstract universalism which is a misleading mask, concealing the sovereignty of men in public life. In opposition to abstract universality, she argues, the principle that “the female citizen is not reducible to the male citizen” has to be posited.
    • Parité Info , pp. 36
    • Gaspard, F.1
  • 74
    • 85023052673 scopus 로고
    • judgment of 9 Oct. series A No. 32
    • ECHR case Airey v. Ireland, judgment of 9 Oct. 1979, series A No. 32.
    • (1979)
  • 75
    • 85023139185 scopus 로고
    • judgment of 13 June series A No. 31
    • ECHR case Marckx v. Belgium, judgment of 13 June 1979, series A No. 31.
    • (1979)
  • 76
    • 52649166192 scopus 로고
    • The Effectiveness of European Equality law: National Mechanism for Enforcing Gender Equality Law in the light of European Requirements
    • See
    • See C. McCrudden, “The Effectiveness of European Equality law: National Mechanism for Enforcing Gender Equality Law in the light of European Requirements” 1993, 13 JO LS 320.
    • (1993) JO LS , vol.13 , pp. 320
    • McCrudden, C.1
  • 77
    • 85023002851 scopus 로고
    • Entered into force with regard to France 13 Jan. 1984, published in the of 12 Mar.
    • Entered into force with regard to France 13 Jan. 1984, published in the Journal Officiel by decree 84–193 of 12 Mar. 1984.
    • (1984) Journal Officiel by decree , vol.84-193
  • 78
    • 84898561502 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • the meaning of citizenship
    • in See in this connection Dec.
    • See in this connection Linda K. Kerber, “the meaning of citizenship” in Journal of American History, Dec. 1997.
    • (1997) Journal of American History
    • Kerber, L.K.1


* 이 정보는 Elsevier사의 SCOPUS DB에서 KISTI가 분석하여 추출한 것입니다.