A retrospective and prospective analysis of the west African Ebola virus disease epidemic: Robust national health systems at the foundation and an empowered WHO at the apex

The Lancet

Volumn 385, Issue 9980, 2015, Pages 1902-1909

  Gostin, Lawrence O ^a   Friedman, Eric A ^a  

^a GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY LAW CENTER   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; BEHAVIOR CHANGE; EBOLA HEMORRHAGIC FEVER; EMERGENCY HEALTH SERVICE; EPIDEMIC; GUINEA; HEALTH CARE FACILITY; HEALTH CARE PERSONNEL; HEALTH CARE PLANNING; HEALTH CARE POLICY; HEALTH CARE QUALITY; HEALTH CARE SYSTEM; HUMAN; LIBERIA; MEDICAL SOCIETY; ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT; PANDEMIC; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROSPECTIVE STUDY; PUBLIC HEALTH; PUBLIC-PRIVATE PARTNERSHIP; RETROSPECTIVE STUDY; SIERRA LEONE; UNITED NATIONS; WEST AFRICAN; WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION; AFRICA; EPIDEMICS; HEALTH; HEALTH CARE DELIVERY; HEMORRHAGIC FEVER, EBOLA; INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION;

AFRICA, WESTERN; DELIVERY OF HEALTH CARE; EPIDEMICS; GLOBAL HEALTH; HEALTH CARE REFORM; HEMORRHAGIC FEVER, EBOLA; HUMANS; INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION; NATIONAL HEALTH PROGRAMS; PROSPECTIVE STUDIES; RETROSPECTIVE STUDIES; WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION;

EID: 84929380159     PISSN: 01406736     EISSN: 1474547X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(15)60644-4     Document Type: Review

References (85)

1. Back to the start Ebola in Guinea Economist 2015 34
2. S Baize, D Pannetier, L Oestereich et al. Emergence of Zaire Ebola virus disease in Guinea N Engl J Med 371 2014 1418 1425
3. M Marchione Mission unaccomplished: containing Ebola in Africa Oct 18, 2014 Associated Press http://news.yahoo.com/mission-unaccomplished-containing-ebola-africa-140654240.html (accessed Feb 6, 2015).
4. K Sack, S Fink, P Belluck, A Nossiter Ebola's deadly escape The New York Times Dec 30, 2014 http://www.nytimes.com/2014/12/30/health/how-ebola-roared-back.html (accessed Feb 6, 2015).
5. N Nishi Quarantine for Ebola Lifted in Liberia Slum The New York Times Aug 30, 2014 http://www.nytimes.com/2014/08/30/world/africa/quarantine-for-ebola-lifted-in-liberia-slum.html (accessed April 22, 2015).
6. Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health Creating trust in the time of Ebola http://www.jhsph.edu/news/news-releases/2014/creating-trust-in-the-time-of-ebola.html (accessed Feb 6, 2015).
7. Integrated Regional Information Networks Overcoming Ebola stigma takes time http://www.irinnews.org/report/100775/overcoming-ebola-stigma-takes-time (accessed Feb 6, 2015).
8. Médecins Sans Frontières A mixed welcome for homecoming Ebola survivors http://www.doctorswithoutborders.org/article/mixed-welcome-homecoming-ebola-survivors (accessed Feb 6, 2015).
9. D Thompson Ebola's deadly spread in Africa driven by public health failures, cultural beliefs. National Geographic http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2014/07/140702-ebola-epidemic-fever-world-health-guinea-sierra-leone-liberia/ (accessed Feb 4, 2015).
10. Médecins Sans Frontières Ebola in west Africa: epidemic requires massive deployment of resources http://www.msf.org/article/ebola-west-africa-epidemic-requires-massive-deployment-resources (accessed Feb 9, 2015).
11. WHO Nigeria is now free of Ebola virus transmission http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/ebola/20-october-2014/en/index2.html; 2014 (accessed April 22, 2015).
12. WHO Governments of Guinea, Liberia, and Sierra Leone. EVD outbreak response plan in west Africa http://www.who.int/csr/disease/ebola/evd-outbreak-response-plan-west-africa-2014.pdf (accessed Oct 2, 2014).
13. UN Ebola virus disease outbreak: overview of needs and requirements https://docs.unocha.org/sites/dms/CAP/Ebola-outbreak-Sep-2014.pdf (accessed Oct 2, 2014).
14. WHO WHO statement on the meeting of the International Health Regulations emergency committee regarding the 2014 Ebola outbreak in west Africa http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/statements/2014/ebola-20140808/en/ (accessed Sept 28, 2014).
15. M Cheng, R Satter Emails: UN health agency resisted declaring Ebola emergency March 20, 2015 Associated Press http://bigstory.ap.org/article/ea7199795faa48989449131404b7043e/emails-un-health-agency-resisted-declaring-ebola-emergency (accessed March 20, 2015).
16. UN Security Council Resolution 2177 http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view-doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/2177%20(2014) (accessed Sept 28, 2014).
17. UN Security Council UN General Assembly Sixty-Ninth Session. Ebola - identical letters dated 17 September 2014 from the Secretary-General to Security Council/General Assembly. UN Doc. A/69/389-S/2014/679 http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view-doc.asp?symbol=A/69/389 (accessed Oct 2, 2014).
18. MI Meltzer, CY Atkins, S Santibanez et al. Estimating the future number of cases in the Ebola epidemic - Liberia and Sierra Leone, 2014-2015 MMWR Surveill Summ 63 2014 1 14
19. M Fernandez, D Philipps Ebola Patient Dies in Dallas, Fueling Alarm The New York Times Oct 9, 2014 http://www.nytimes.com/2014/10/09/us/ebola-us-thomas-eric-duncan.html (accessed April 22, 2015).
20. Two US nurses free of virus BBC News Oct 25, 2014 http://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-29749283 (accessed April 22, 2015).
21. LO Gostin, JG Hodge Jr, S Burris Is the United States prepared for Ebola? JAMA 312 2014 2497 2498
22. UN Nimble and flexible approach needed to bring new Ebola cases to zero - UN http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=49479#.VOdxakKzvMg (accessed Feb 20, 2015).
23. LO Gostin, HA Waxman, W Foege The president's national security agenda: curtailing Ebola, safeguarding the future JAMA 313 2015 27 28
24. C Clift Devil in the detail for WHO's Ebola resolution. Chatham House expert comment http://www.chathamhouse.org/expert/comment/16763 Jan 27, 2015 (accessed Feb 20, 2015).
25. UNMEER Funding the Ebola response https://ebolaresponse.un.org/funding-ebola-response (accessed March 16, 2015).
26. UNMEER Ebola outbreak: updated overview of needs and requirements for January-June 2015 http://ebolaresponse.un.org/sites/default/files/onr2015.pdf (accessed Feb 20, 2015).
27. B Dennis, LH Sun The new Ebola target number: zero cases. Washington Post http://www.washingtonpost.com/national/health-science/next-phase-in-ebola-fight-getting-to-zero/2015/02/04/4f5b3ed4-a570-11e4-a7c2-03d37af98440-story.html (accessed Feb 20, 2015).
28. WHO Ebola situation report http://apps.who.int/ebola/en/ebola-situation-report/situation-reports/ebola-situation-report-18-february-2015 Feb 18, 2015 (accessed Feb 20, 2015).
29. WHO Ebola situation report http://apps.who.int/ebola/current-situation/ebola-situation-report-22-april-2015-0 April 22, 2015 (accessed April 22, 2015).
30. LO Gostin, EA Friedman Ebola: a crisis in global health leadership Lancet 384 2014 1323 1325
31. Global Health Workforce Alliance and WHO A universal truth: no health without a workforce http://www.who.int/workforcealliance/knowledge/resources/GHWA-a-universal-truth-report.pdf?ua=1 (accessed March 16, 2015).
32. Center for Strategic and International Studies The road to recovery: rebuilding Liberia's health system http://csis.org/files/publication/120822-Downie-RoadtoRecovery-web.pdf (accessed March 16, 2015).
33. WHO Global Health Observatory data repository, absolute numbers, data by country http://apps.who.int/gho/data/node.main.A1443?lang=e (accessed Jan 20, 2015).
34. O'Neill Institute for National and Global Health Law O'Neill Institute: reflections from the frontline of the Ebola response with Dr. Dan Lucey http://apps.law.georgetown.edu/webcasts/eventDetail.cfm?eventID=2555 (accessed Feb 17, 2015).
35. WHO WHO Constitution http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hist/official-records/constitution.pdf (accessed Jan 3, 2015).
36. WHO WHO Executive Board special session on Ebola resolution. Ebola: ending the current outbreak, strengthening global preparedness and ensuring WHO's capacity to prepare for and respond to future large-scale outbreaks and emergencies with health consequences http://apps.who.int/gb/ebwha/pdf-files/EBSS3/EBSS3-R1-en.pdf (accessed Feb 25, 2015).
37. S Nebehay, B Lewis WHO slashes budget, jobs in new era of austerity. May 19, 2011. Reuters http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/05/19/us-who-idUSTRE74I5I320110519 (accessed March 16, 2015).
38. WHO Proposed programme budget 2014-2015 http://apps.who.int/gb/ebwha/pdf-files/WHA66/A66-7-en.pdf (accessed Sept 28, 2014).
39. S Fink Cuts at WHO hurt response to Ebola crisis. Sept 3, 2014. The New York Times http://www.nytimes.com/2014/09/04/world/africa/cuts-at-who-hurt-response-to-ebola-crisis.html (accessed Sept 28, 2014).
40. LO Gostin, EA Friedman Towards a framework convention on global health: a transformative agenda for global health justice Yale J Health Policy Law Ethics 13 2013 1 75 http://digitalcommons.law.yale.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1201&context=yjhple&sei-redir=1&referer=http%3A%2F%2Fus.yhs4.search.yahoo.com%2Fyhs%2Fsearch%3Fp%3DTowards%2Ba%2Bframework%2Bconvention%2Bon%26fr%3Dgoodsearch-yhsif%26b%3D1%26param1%3D915243895#search=%22Towards%20framework%20convention%22 (accessed April 23, 2015).
41. BH Hook The U.N. agency that bungled Ebola Wall Street J Oct 22, 2014
42. C Ellison Davos Ebola panel advances architecture for robust & responsive global health security http://blogs.oliverwyman.com/healthcare/2015/01/22/davos-ebola-panel-advances-architecture-for-robust-responsive-global-health-security/ Jan 22, 2015 (accessed Feb 26, 2015).
43. UN Development Group - Western and Central Africa A call for national and regional containment, recovery and prevention http://www.africa.undp.org/content/dam/rba/docs/Reports/ebola-west-africa.pdf (accessed March 16, 2015).
44. World Bank Summary on the Ebola Recovery Plan: Guinea http://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/ebola/brief/summary-on-the-ebola-recovery-plan-guinea (accessed April 22, 2015).
45. World Bank Summary on the Ebola Recovery Plan: Liberia http://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/ebola/brief/summary-on-the-ebola-recovery-plan-liberia-economic-stabilization-and-recovery-plan-esrp (accessed April 22, 2015).
46. World Bank Summary on the Ebola Recovery: Sierra Leone http://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/ebola/brief/summary-on-the-ebola-recovery-plan-sierra-leone (accessed April 22, 2015).
47. S Boseley World Health Organization admits botching response to Ebola outbreak. Oct 17, 2014. Guardian http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/oct/17/world-health-organisation-botched-ebola-outbreak (accessed Feb 9, 2015).
48. GL Burci, CH Vignes World Health Organization 2004 Kluwer Law International The Hague, London, New York 57
49. WHO Regional Committee for Europe Resolution: governance of the Regional Committee for Europe http://www.euro.who.int/-data/assets/pdf-file/0004/217741/63rs07e-Governance.pdf?ua=1 (accessed Feb 27, 2015).
50. WHO WHO reform: overview of reform implementation: report of the Secretariat http://apps.who.int/gb/ebwha/pdf-files/EB136/B136-7-en.pdf (accessed Feb 27, 2015).
51. WHO Streamlining of the work of the governing bodies and harmonization and alignment of the work of regional committees http://apps.who.int/gb/ebwha/pdf-files/EB132/B132-5Add3-en.pdf (accessed March 1, 2015).
52. WHO Framework of engagement with non-state actors: report by the Secretariat http://apps.who.int/gb/ebwha/pdf-files/EB136/B136-5-en.pdf (accessed March 3, 2015).
53. WHO Key issues for the development of a policy on engagement with nongovernmental organizations: Report by the Director-General http://apps.who.int/gb/ebwha/pdf-files/EB132/B132-5Add2-en.pdf?ua=1 (accessed March 3, 2015).
54. WHO Revised human resource strategy http://www.who.int/about/who-reform/ebpbac-hr-strategy.pdf?ua=1 (accessed Feb 28, 2015).
55. World Health Organization Too big to ail Economist 2014 13
56. Center for Strategic and International Studies Audio: creating UNMEER: a discussion with Anthony Banbury http://csis.org/multimedia/audio-creating-unmeer-discussion-anthony-banbury (accessed March 4, 2015).
57. United Nations United Nations Charter. Article 25 http://www.un.org/en/documents/charter/chapter5.shtml (accessed March 4, 2015).
58. World Bank Ebola: World Bank Group provides new financing to help Guinea, Liberia and Sierra Leone recover from Ebola emergency http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2015/04/17/ebola-world-bank-group-provides-new-financing-to-help-guinea-liberia-sierra-leone-recover-from-ebola-emergency (accessed April 22, 2015).
59. World Bank Ebola: World Bank Group mobilizes emergency funding to fight epidemic in west Africa http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2014/08/04/ebola-world-bank-group-mobilizes-emergency-funding-for-guinea-liberia-and-sierra-leone-to-fight-epidemic Aug 4, 2014 (accessed April 22, 2015).
60. World Bank Ebola: new World Bank Group study forecasts billions in economic loss if epidemic lasts longer, spreads in west Africa http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2014/10/08/ebola-new-world-bank-group-study-forecasts-billions-in-economic-loss-if-epidemic-lasts-longer-spreads-in-west-africa (accessed Feb 17, 2015).
61. UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs Ebola virus outbreak-west Africa. April 2014, Table B: total funding per donor (appeal plus other∗) as of March 6,2015 http://fts.unocha.org/reports/daily/ocha-R24-E16506-1503060301.pdf (accessed March 5, 2015).
62. US Department of Health and Human Services Global Health Security Agenda White House Event, Washington, DC http://www.globalhealth.gov/global-health-topics/global-health-security/ghswhitehouseevent Sept 26, 2014 (accessed March 24, 2015).
63. Editorial Cuba's impressive role on Ebola. The New York Times http://www.nytimes.com/2014/10/20/opinion/cubas-impressive-role-on-ebola.html (accessed March 5, 2015).
64. WHO Regional Office for Africa Uganda health workers supporting west Africa on Ebola response http://www.afro.who.int/en/uganda/press-materials/item/6898-uganda-health-workers-supporting-west-africa-on-ebola-response.html (accessed March 5, 2015).
65. South African Government News Agency West Africa: Ebola - second group of health workers sent to west Africa http://allafrica.com/stories/201502161557.html (accessed March 5, 2015).
66. Médecins Sans Frontières Pushed to the limit and beyond: a year into the largest ever Ebola outbreak http://www.msf.org/sites/msf.org/files/msf1yearebolareport-en-230315.pdf (accessed March 23, 2015).
67. Médecins Sans Frontières Ebola crisis update February 12, 2015 http://www.msf.org/article/ebola-crisis-update-12-february-2015 (accessed March 4, 2015).
68. Médecins Sans Frontières Ebola: to create awareness among a population, you must listen http://www.msf.org/article/ebola-%E2%80%9C-create-awareness-among-population-you-must-listen%E2%80%9D (accessed March 4, 2015).
69. Z Mullan Ebola vaccines: an uncertain future? Lancet Glob Health 3 2015 e113
70. WHO Report of the Review Committee on the functioning of the International Health Regulations (2005) in relation to the pandemic (H1N1) 2009 http://apps.who.int/gb/ebwha/pdf-files/WHA64/A64-10-en.pdf (accessed March 6, 2015).
71. WHO International Health Regulations (2005). Article 4 http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2008/9789241580410-eng.pdf (accessed March 6, 2015).
72. Lancet Ebola: what lessons for the International Health Regulations? Lancet 384 2014 1321
73. S Boseley World Bank pledges $100m to send health workers to Ebola-hit countries. The Guardian http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/oct/30/world-bank-invests-foreign-health-workers-ebola (accessed March 8, 2015).
74. S Nebehay Ebola still spreading in western Sierra Leone, Guinea's forest. Reuters http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/12/09/us-health-ebola-who-idUSKBN0JM24X20141209 (accessed March 8, 2015).
75. WHO Global Outbreak & Alert Response Network (GOARN) http://www.who.int/csr/outbreaknetwork/en/ (accessed Feb 25, 2015).
76. Statement of the Co-Chairs Ebola: "From Emergency to Recovery"; Brussels, Belgium; March 3, 2015 https://ebolaresponse.un.org/sites/default/files/statement-of-the-co-chairs-brussels-3-march-2015.pdf (accessed March 9, 2015).
77. Ebola: Liberia's Johnson Sirleaf urges 'Marshall Plan.' BBC News http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-31705594 (accessed March 9, 2015).
78. World Bank Pandemic emergency facility: frequently asked questions http://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/pandemics/brief/pandemic-emergency-facility-frequently-asked-questions (accessed March 9, 2015).
79. World Bank World Bank Group President: world is 'dangerously unprepared' for future pandemics http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2015/01/27/world-bank-group-president-world-dangerously-unprepared-future-pandemics (accessed March 9, 2015).
80. DT Jamison, LH Summers, G Alleyne et al. Global health 2035: a world converging within a generation Lancet 382 2013 1898 1955
81. Taskforce on Innovative International Financing for Health Systems Constraints to scaling up and costs: Working Group 1 report http://www.internationalhealthpartnership.net/fileadmin/uploads/ihp/Documents/Results-Evidence/HAE-results-lessons/WORKING%20GROUP%201%20REPORT%20-%20Constraints%20to%20Scaling%20Up%20and%20Costs.pdf (accessed Feb 12, 2015).
82. Dieleman JL, Graves C, Johnson E, et al. Tracking development assistance for health from source to health focus area, 1990-2014. JAMA (in press).
83. LO Gostin Ebola: towards an International Health Systems Fund Lancet 384 2014 e49 e51
84. B Rivers Recommended country-by-country donations to the Global Fund. Global Fund Observer http://www.aidspan.org/gfo-article/recommended-country-country-donations-global-fund May 21, 2004 (accessed March 21, 2015).
85. UN General Assembly Declaration of Commitment on HIV/AIDS. Resolution S-26/2 http://www.un.org/ga/aids/docs/aress262.pdf June 27, 2001 (accessed April 23, 2015).