Integrated Assessment of Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining in Ghana-Part 1: Human Health Review

International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health

Volumn 12, Issue 5, 2015, Pages 5143-5176

  Basu, Niladri ^a   Clarke, Edith ^b   Green, Allyson ^c   Calys Tagoe, Benedict ^d   Chan, Laurie ^e   Dzodzomenyo, Mawuli ^f   Fobil, Julius ^f   Long, Rachel N ^c   Neitzel, Richard L ^c   Obiri, Samuel ^g   Odei, Eric ^b   Ovadje, Lauretta ^c   Quansah, Reginald ^f   Rajaee, Mozhgon ^c   Wilson, Mark L ^c  

^a MCGILL UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

^b GHANA HEALTH SERVICE   (Ghana)

^c UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN SCHOOL OF PUBLIC HEALTH   (United States)

^d KORLE BU TEACHING HOSPITAL   (Ghana)

^e UNIVERSITY OF OTTAWA   (Canada)

^f UNIVERSITY OF GHANA   (Ghana)

^g CSIR WATER RESEARCH INSTITUTE   (Ghana)

Author keywords

Ghana; Gold; Heavy metals; Mercury; Minamata Convention; Mining; Noise; Occupational injuries; Research; Water

Indexed keywords

ARTISANAL MINING; GOLD MINE; HEAVY METAL; INJURY; INTEGRATED APPROACH; MERCURY (ELEMENT); OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE; PUBLIC HEALTH; RESEARCH; SMALL SCALE MINING; WATER;

CARDIOVASCULAR FUNCTION; ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE; ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH; ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT; ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING; ENVIRONMENTAL PLANNING; EVIDENCE BASED PRACTICE; GHANA; HEALTH HAZARD; HEALTH IMPACT ASSESSMENT; HEALTH PROMOTION; HUMAN; MINING; NOISE POLLUTION; NUTRITIONAL STATUS; OCCUPATIONAL ACCIDENT; OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE; OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH; PRACTICE GUIDELINE; RESPIRATORY FUNCTION; REVIEW; SANITATION; SEXUAL HEALTH; SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY; ANALYSIS; ECONOMICS; OCCUPATIONAL DISEASES; PROCEDURES; PUBLIC HEALTH; WATER POLLUTION;

GHANA;

GOLD; MERCURY;

GHANA; GOLD; HUMANS; MERCURY; MINING; OCCUPATIONAL DISEASES; OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH; PUBLIC HEALTH; WATER POLLUTION, CHEMICAL;

EID: 84929359066     PISSN: 16617827     EISSN: 16604601     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3390/ijerph120505143     Document Type: Review

References (140)

1. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). Summary of Supply, Trade and Demand Information on Mercury; UNEP: Geneva, Swizerland, 2006.
2. Spiegel, S.J.; Viega, M.M. Global Impacts of Mercury Supply and Demand in Small-Scale Gold Mining; The UNEP Governing Council Meeting: Nairobi, Kenya, 2006.
3. Hilson, G.M. Harvesting mineral riches: 1000 Years of gold mining in Ghana. Resour. Policy 2002, 28, 13-26.
4. Massachusetts Institute of Technology The Observatory of Economic Complexity. Available online: http://atlas.media.mit.edu/explore/tree_map/hs/export/gha/all/show/2012/ (accessed on 26 January 2015).
5. Tetteh, K. An Overview of Ghana’s Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining (ASM) Sector; Minerals Commission of Ghana: Greater Accra, Ghana, 2010.
6. Gibb, H.; O’Leary, K.G. Mercury exposure and health impacts among individuals in the artisanal and small-scale gold mining community: A comprehensive review. Environ. Health Perspect. 2014, 122, 667-672.
7. United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UNDESCA). Poverty Eradication and Sustainable Livelihoods: Focusing on Artisanal Mining Communities; UNDESCA: New York, NY, USA, 2003; pp. 1-20.
8. Rajaee, M.; Obiri, S.; Green, A.; Long, R.; Cobbina, S.; Nartey, V.; Buck, D.; Antwi, E.; Basu, N. Integrated assessment of artisanal and small-scale gold mining in Ghana—Part 2: Natural sciences review. (Unpublished).
9. Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. Ecosystems and Human Well-Being: Synthesis; Millennium Ecosystem Assessment: Washington, DC, USA, 2005; Volume 5, pp. 1-100.
10. Wilson, M.L.; Renne, E.P.; Roncoli, C.; Agyei-Baffour, P.; Tenkorang, E.Y. Integrated assessment of artisanal and small-scale gold mining in Ghana—Part 3: Social sciences and economics. (Unpublished).
11. Vaccaro, L.; Read, J.; Diana, J.; Horning, A.; Scavia, D. Tackling Wicked Problems through Integrated Assessment: A Guide for Decision-Makers, Project Leaders, and Scientists; University of Michigan: Ann Arbor, MI, USA, 2009.
12. Hilson, G.; Potter, C. Structural adjustment and subsistence industry: Artisanal gold mining in Ghana. Dev. Chang. 2005, 36, 103-131.
13. Ghana Minerals Commision. Available online: http://www.eservices.gov.gh/MINCOM/SitePages/MINCOM-Home.aspx (accessed on 31 March 2015).
14. Tschakert, P.; Laliberte, N. Contaminated identities: Understanding human and environmental risks and livelihood options among small-scale gold miners in Ghana. In Environment and Health in Sub-Saharan Africa: Managing an Emerging Crisis; Luginaah, I.N., Yanful, E.K., Eds.; Springer Netherlands: Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 2009; pp. 65-75.
15. Hinton, J.J.; Veiga, M.M.; Veiga, A.T.C. Clean artisanal gold mining: A utopian approach? J. Clean. Prod. 2003, 11, 99-115.
16. Walle, M.; Jennings, N. Safety & Health in Small-Scale Surface Mines: A Handbook; International Labour Organization (ILO): Geneva, Switzerland, 2001; p.51.
17. Lu, J.L. Occupational health and safety in small scale mining: Focus on women workers in the Philippines. J. Int. Women Stud. 2012, 13, 103-113.
18. Hilson, G.M. The future of small-scale mining: Environmental and socioeconomic perspectives. Futures 2002, 34, 863-872.
19. Yakovleva, N. Perspectives on female participation in artisanal and small-scale mining: A case study of Birim North District of Ghana. Resour. Policy 2007, 32, 29-41.
20. Drasch, G.; Böse-O’Reilly, S.; Beinhoff, C.; Roider, G.; Maydl, S. The Mt. Diwata study on the Philippines 1999—Assessing mercury intoxication of the population by small scale gold mining. Sci. Total Environ. 2001, 267, 151-168.
21. International Labour Organization. Social and Labour Issues in Small-Scale Mines. Report for Discussion at the Tripartite Meeting on Social and Labour Issues in Small-scale Mines; International Labour Organization: Geneva, Switzerland, 1999.
22. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). Mercury: Time to Act; UNEP: Geneva, Swizerland, 2013.
23. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). Global Mercury Assessment 2013: Sources, Emissions, Releases and Environmental Transport; UNEP: Geneva, Swizerland, 2013.
24. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). Minamata Convention on Mercury—Text and Annexes; UNEP: Geneva, Swizerland, 2013.
25. Clarkson, T.W.; Magos, L. The toxicology of mercury and its chemical compounds. Crit. Rev. Toxicol. 2006, 36, 609-662.
26. Mergler, D.; Anderson, H.A.; Chan, L.H.M.; Mahaffey, K.R.; Murray, M.; Sakamoto, M.; Stern, A.H. Methylmercury exposure and health effects in humans: A worldwide concern. Ambio 2007, 36, 3-11.
27. Sherman, L.S.; Blum, J.D.; Basu, N.; Rajaee, M.; Evers, D.C.; Buck, D.G.; Petrlik, J.; Digangi, J. Assessment of mercury exposure among small-scale gold miners using mercury stable isotopes. Environ. Res. 2015, 137, 226-234.
28. Rajaee, M.; Renne, E.P.; Basu, N. Mercury concentrations and spatial distribution in a Ghanaian small-scale gold mining community. (Unpublished).
29. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Soil Screening Guidance: User’s Guide, 2nd ed.; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency: Washington, D.C., USA, 1996.
30. Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment. Canadian sediment quality guidelines for the protection of aquatic life—Mercury. In Canadian Environmental Quality Guidelines, 1999; Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment: Winnipeg, Canada, 1999; pp. 1-5.
31. FAO/WHO. Codex General Standard for Contaminants and Toxins in Food and Feed; WHO: Geneva, Swizerland, 2013; pp. 1-48.
32. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Water Quality Criterion for the Protection of Human Health: Methylmercury; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency: Washington, DC, USA, 2001.
33. Paruchuri, Y.; Siuniak, A.; Johnson, N.; Levin, E.; Mitchell, K.; Goodrich, J.M.; Renne, E.P.; Basu, N. Occupational and environmental mercury exposure among small-scale gold miners in the Talensi-Nabdam District of Ghana’s Upper East region. Sci. Total Environ. 2010, 408, 6079-6085.
34. Kwaansa-Ansah, E.E.; Basu, N.; Nriagu, J.O. Environmental and occupational exposures to mercury among indigenous people in Dunkwa-On-Offin, a small scale gold mining area in the South-West of Ghana. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 2010, 85, 476-480.
35. Asante, K.A.; Agusa, T.; Subramanian, A.; Ansa-Asare, O.D.; Biney, C.A.; Tanabe, S.; Ansong, K. Contamination status of arsenic and other trace elements in drinking water and residents from Tarkwa, a historic mining township in Ghana. Chemosphere 2007, 66, 1513-1522.
36. Abrefah, R.; Adotey, D.K.; Mensimah, E.; Ampomah-Amoako, E.; Sogbadji, R.; Opata, N. Biomonitoring of Occupational exposure to total arsenic and total mercury in urine of goldmine workers in Southwestern Ghana. Environ. Res. Eng. Manag. 2011, 2, 43-48.
37. World Health Organization (WHO). Recommended Health-Based Limits in Occupational Exposure to Heavy Metals; WHO: Geneva, Swizerland, 1980.
38. Center for Disease Control (CDC). Fourth National Report on Human Exposure to Environmental Chemicals; Center for Disease Control (CDC): Atlanta, GA, USA, 2009.
39. Adimado, A.A.; Baah, D.A. Mercury in human blood, urine, hair, nail, and fish from the Ankobra and Tano River Basins in Southwestern Ghana. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 2002, 68, 339-346.
40. World Health Organization (WHO). Environmental Health Criteria 101—Methylmercury; World Health Organization: Geneva, Swizerland, 1990; Volume 348.
41. Donkor, A.K.; Bonzongo, J.C.; Nartey, V.K.; Adotey, D.K. Mercury in different environmental compartments of the Pra River Basin, Ghana. Sci. Total Environ. 2006, 368, 164-176.
42. Voegborlo, R.B.; Matsuyama, A.; Adimado, A.A.; Akagi, H. Head hair total mercury and methylmercury levels in some Ghanaian individuals for the estimation of their exposure to mercury: Preliminary studies. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 2010, 84, 34-38.
43. Anim, E.T.; Agorku, E.S.; Anim, A.K. A comparative analysis on levels of mercury in human scalp hair of students from different locations in Ghana. Res. J. Environ. Earth Sci. 2011, 3, 293-296.
44. Public Health Service Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. Toxicological Profile for Mercury; Public Health Service Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry: Atlanta, GA, USA, 1999; Volume 789.
45. Dooyema, C.A.; Neri, A.; Lo, Y.; Durant, J.; Dargan, P.I.; Swarthout, T.; Biya, O.; Gidado, S.O.; Haladu, S.; Sani-Gwarzo, N. et al. Outbreak of fatal childhood lead poisoning related to artisanal gold mining in northwestern Nigeria, 2010. Environ. Health Perspect. 2012, 120, 601-607.
46. Basu, N.; Nam, D.-H.; Kwansaa-Ansah, E.; Renne, E.P.; Nriagu, J.O. Multiple metals exposure in a small-scale artisanal gold mining community. Environ. Res. 2011, 111, 463-467.
47. WHO. Environmental Health Criteria 224: Arsenic and Arsenic Compounds; WHO: Geneva, Swizerland, 2001.
48. Kwok, R.K.; Mendola, P.; Liu, Z.Y.; Savitz, D.A.; Heiss, G.; Ling, H.L.; Xia, Y.; Lobdell, D.; Zeng, D.; Thorp, J.M. et al. Drinking water arsenic exposure and blood pressure in healthy women of reproductive age in Inner Mongolia, China. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 2007, 222, 337-343.
49. IARC Arsenic in Drinking Water. In IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans; IARC: Lyon, France, 2004; Volume 15, p. 255.
50. Vahter, M. Effects of arsenic on maternal and fetal health. Annu. Rev. Nutr. 2009, 29, 381-399.
51. Ahmad, S.A.; Sayed, M.H.; Barua, S.; Khan, M.H.; Faruquee, M.H.; Jalil, A.; Hadi, S.A.; Talukder, H.K. Arsenic in drinking water and pregnancy outcomes. Environ. Health Perspect. 2001, 109, 629-631.
52. Cherry, N.; Shaik, K.; Mcdonald, C.; Chowdhury, Z. Manganese, arsenic, and infant mortality in Bangladesh: An ecological analysis. Environ. Occup. Heal. 2010, 65, 148-154.
53. Hopenhayn-Rich, C.; Browning, S.R.; Hertz-Picciotto, I.; Ferreccio, C.; Peralta, C.; Gibb, H. Chronic arsenic exposure and risk of infant mortality in two areas of Chile. Environ. Health Perspect. 2000, 108, 667-673.
54. Huyck, K.L.; Kile, M.L.; Mahiuddin, G.; Quamruzzaman, Q.; Rahman, M.; Breton, C.V.; Dobson, C.B.; Frelich, J.; Hoffman, E.; Yousuf, J. et al. Maternal arsenic exposure associated with low birth weight in Bangladesh. J. Occup. Environ. Med. 2007, 49, 1097-1104.
55. Quansah, R.; Armah, F.A.; Essumang, D.K.; Luginaah, I.; Clarke, E.; Marfoh, K.; Cobbina, S.J.; Nketiah-Amponsah, E.; Namujju, P.B.; Obiri, S. et al. Association of arsenic with adverse pregnancy outcomes—Infant mortality: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Environ. Health Perspect. 2015, 5, doi:10.1289/ehp.1307894.
56. International Agency for Research on Cancer. Agents Classified by the IARC Monographs; WHO: Geneva, Swizerland, 2012.
57. Armah, F.A.; Kuitunen, M.; Luginaah, I.; Mkandawire, P. Non-occupational health risk assessment from exposure to chemical contaminants in the gold mining environment of Tarkwa, Ghana. Trends Appl. Sci. Res. 2012, 7, 181-195.
58. Obiri, S.; Dodoo, D.K.; Okai-Sam, F.; Essumang, D.K.; Adjorlolo-Gasokpoh, A. Cancer and non-cancer health risk from eating cassava grown in some mining communities in Ghana. Environ. Monit. Assess. 2006, 118, 37-49.
59. Tschakert, P.; Singha, K. Contaminated identities: Mercury and marginalization in Ghana’s artisanal mining sector. Geoforum 2007, 38, 1304-1321.
60. Hilson, G.M. Child labour in African artisanal mining communities: Experiences from Northern Ghana. Dev. Chang. 2010, 41, 445-473.
61. Hilson, G.; Pardie, S. Mercury: An agent of poverty in Ghana’s small-scale gold-mining sector? Resour. Policy 2006, 31, 106-116.
62. Chupezi, T.J.; Ingram, V.; Schure, J. Impacts of Artisanal Gold and Diamond Mining on Livelihoods and the Environment in the Sangha Tri-National Park Landscape; Center for Intrenational Forestry Research: Bogor Barat, Indonesia, 2009.
63. Hentschel, T.; Hruschka, F.; Priester, M. Global Report on Artisanal & Small-Scale Mining. Available online: http://pubs.iied.org/pdfs/G00723.pdf (accessed on 31 March 2015).
64. Kitula, A.G.N. The environmental and socio-economic impacts of mining on local livelihoods in Tanzania: A case study of Geita District. J. Clean. Prod. 2006, 14, 405-414.
65. Elenge, M.; Leveque, A.; de Brouwer, C. Occupational accidents in artisanal mining in Katanga, D.R.C. Int. J. Occup. Med. Environ. Health 2013, 26, 265-274.
66. Hollaway, J. The button gold mine, Zimbabwe. In Small-Scale Gold Mining: Examples from Bolivia, Philippines & Zimbabwe; Jennings, N.S., Ed.; International Labour Organization: Geneva, Swizerland, 1998.
67. Brewster, R. Chinese involvement and accidents and injuries in small-scale gold mining in Ghana 2013. (Unpublished).
68. Eisler, R. Health risks of gold miners: A synoptic review. Environ. Geochem. Health 2003, 25, 325-345.
69. Teschner, B.A. Small-scale mining in Ghana: The government and the galamsey. Resour. Policy 2012, 37, 308-314.
70. Neitzel, R.L.; Long, R.; Sun, K. Injury risk factors in a small-scale gold mining community in Ghana’s Upper East Region. (Unpublished).
71. Calys-Tagoe, B.; Ovadje, L.; Clarke, E.; Basu, N. Profile of injuries associated with small-scale gold mining in Ghana. (Unpublished).
72. Leigh, J.P. Economic burden of occupational injury and illness in the United States. Milbank Q. 2011, 89, 728-772.
73. Bawa, I. A viewpoint on small-scale gold mining in Ghana: A regulatory perspective on current practices, mercury use and the UNIDO and EU projects. Int. J. Environ. Pollut. 2010, 41, 195-201.
74. Suter, A.H. Standards and regulations. In The Noise Manual; Berger, E.H., Royster, L.H., Royster, J.D., Driscoll, D.P., Layne, M., Eds.; American Industrial Hygiene Association: Falls Church, VA, USA, 2003; pp. 640-665.
75. Factories, Shops, and Offices Act. Available online: http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_protect/---protrav/---ilo_aids/documents/legaldocument/wcms_181176.pdf (accessed on 31 March 2015).
76. Green, A.; Long, R.; Jones, A.; Neitzel, R.L. Diet, stress, and noise in a small-scale gold mining community in northeastern Ghana. (Unpublished).
77. Saunders, J.E.; Jastrzembski, B.G.; Buckey, J.C.; Enriquez, D.; MacKenzie, T.A.; Karagas, M.R. Hearing loss and heavy metal toxicity in a Nicaraguan mining community: Audiological results and case reports. Audiol. Neurotol. 2013, 18, 101-113.
78. Amedofu, G.K. Hearing-impairment among workers in a surface gold mining company in Ghana. Afr. J. Health Sci. 2002, 9, 91-97.
79. Zubieta, I.X.; Brown, G.; Cohen, R.; Medina, E. Cananea copper mine: An international effort to improve hazardous working conditions in Mexico. Int. J. Occup. Environ. Health 2009, 15, 14-20.
80. Rashaad Hansia, M.; Dickinson, D. Hearing protection device usage at a South African gold mine. Occup. Med. 2010, 60, 72-74.
81. Passchier-Vermeer, W.; Passchier, W.F. Noise exposure and public health. Environ. Health Perspect. 2000, 108, 123-131.
82. Seidman, M.D.; Standring, R.T. Noise and quality of life. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2010, 7, 3730-3738.
83. World Health Organization (WHO). The World Health Report: Shaping the Future; WHO: Geneva, Swizerland, 2003; Volume 16, pp. 1-193.
84. Amedofu, G.K.; Ocansey, G.; Antwi, B.B. Characteristics of hearing-impairment among patients in Ghana. Afr. J. Health Sci. 2006, 13, 110-116.
85. Goines, L.; Hagler, L. Noise pollution: A modern plague. South. Med. J. 2007, 100, 287-294.
86. Van Kamp, I.; Davies, H. Noise and health in vulnerable groups: A review. Noise Health 2013, 15, 153-159.
87. McBride, D.I. Noise-induced hearing loss and hearing conservation in mining. Occup. Med. 2004, 54, 290-296.
88. Eshun, P.A. Sustainable small-scale gold mining in Ghana: Setting and strategies for sustainability. In Sustainable Minerals Operations in the Developing World; Marker, B.R., Petterson, M.G., McEvoy, F., Stephenson, M.H., Eds.; Geological Society: London, UK, 2005; Volume 250, pp. 61-72.
89. Heemskerk, M. Self-employment and poverty alleviation: Women’s work in artisanal gold mines. Hum. Organ. 2003, 62, 62-73.
90. Fisher, E.; Mwaipopo, R.; Mutagwaba, W.; Nyange, D.; Yaron, G. “The ladder that sends us to wealth”: Artisanal mining and poverty reduction in Tanzania. Resour. Policy 2009, 34, 32-38.
91. Bairey Merz, C.N.; Dwyer, J.; Nordstrom, C.K.; Walton, K.G.; Salerno, J.W.; Schneider, R.H. Psychosocial stress and cardiovascular disease: Pathophysiological links. Behav. Med. 2002, 27, 141-147.
92. Von Känel, R. Psychosocial stress and cardiovascular risk: Current opinion. Swiss Med. Wkly. 2012, 142, doi:10.4414/smw.2012.13502.
93. Rosengren, A.; Hawken, S.; Ounpuu, S.; Sliwa, K.; Zubaid, M.; Almahmeed, W.A.; Blackett, K.N.; Sitthi-amorn, C.; Sato, H.; Yusuf, S. Association of psychosocial risk factors with risk of acute myocardial infarction in 11,119 cases and 13,648 controls from 52 countries (the INTERHEART study): Case-control study. Lancet 2004, 364, 953-962.
94. McEwen, B.S.; Gianaros, P.J. Central role of the brain in stress and adaptation: Links to socioeconomic status, health, and disease. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 2010, 1186, 190-222.
95. Spruill, T.M. Chronic psychosocial stress and hypertension. Curr. Hypertens. Rep. 2010, 12, 10-16.
96. Gouin, J.-P. Chronic stress, immune dysregulation, and health. Am. J. Lifestyle Med. 2011, 5, 476-485.
97. Agyemang, I. Analysis of the socio-economic and cultural implications of environmental degradation in Northern Ghana using qualitative approach. Afr. J. Hist. Cult. 2011, 3, 113-122.
98. Hoadley, M.; Limpitlaw, D. The artisanal and small scale mining sector and sustainable livelihoods. In Mintek Small Scale Mining Conference, Book of Proceedings, 2004, 9 September; Civic Action Support Group: Nasrec, Johanesburg, 2004; pp. 1-9.
99. Hinton, J.J.; Veiga, M.M.; Beinhoff, C. Women and artisanal mining: Gender roles and the road ahead. In The Socio-Economic Impacts of Artisonal and Small-Scale Mining in Developing Countries; Hilson, G.M., Ed.; A.A. Balkema, Swets & Zeitlinger Publishers: Lisse, the Netherlands, 2003.
100. Hilson, G. Poverty traps in small-scale mining communities: The case of sub-Saharan Africa. Can. J. Dev. Stud. 2012, 33, 180-197.
101. Victora, C.G.; Adair, L.; Fall, C.; Hallal, P.C.; Martorell, R.; Richter, L.; Sachdev, H.S. Maternal and child undernutrition: Consequences for adult health and human capital. Lancet 2008, 371, 340-357.
102. Ajani, S.R. An assessment of dietary diversity in six Nigerian States. African J. Biomed. Res. 2010, 13, 161-167.
103. Bernal, R.J.; Lorenzana, A.P. Dietary diversity and associated factors among beneficiaries of 77 child care centers. Arch. Latinoam. Nutr. 2003, 53, 52-81.
104. Clausen, T.; Charlton, K.E.; Gobotswanq, K.S.; Holmboe-Ottesen, G. Predictors of food variety and dietary diversity among persons in Botswana. Nutrition 2005, 21, 86-95.
105. Hesselberg, J.; Yaro, J.A. An assessment of the extent and causes of food insecurity in northern Ghana using a livelihood vulnerability framework. GeoJournal 2006, 67, 41-55.
106. Ghana Statistical Service (GSS); Ghana Health Service (GHS). Ghana Demographic and Health Survey 2008; ICF Macro: Accra, Ghana, 2009.
107. Crush, J. Linking food security, migration and development. Int. Migr. 2013, 51, 61-75.
108. Stuff, J.E.; Casey, P.H.; Szeto, K.L.; Gossett, J.M.; Robbins, J.M.; Simpson, P.M.; Connell, C.; Bogle, M.L. Household food insecurity is associated with adult health status. J. Nutr. 2004, 134, 2330-2335.
109. Casey, P.H.; Szeto, K.L.; Robbins, J.M.; Stuff, J.E.; Connell, C.; Gossett, J.M.; Simpson, P.M. Child health-related quality of life and household food security. Arch. Pediatr. Adolesc. Med. 2005, 159, 51-56.
110. Long, R.; Renne, E.; Robins, T.; Wilson, M.; Pelig-ba, K.; Yee, A.; Koomson, E.; Sharp, C.; Lu, J.; Basu, N. Water values in a Ghanaian small-scale gold mining community. Hum. Organ. 2013, 72, 199-210.
111. Greenberg, M.I.; Waksman, J.; Curtis, J. Silicosis: A review. Dis. Mon. 2007, 53, 394-416.
112. Ehrlich, R.I.; Myers, J.E.; te Water Naude, J.M.; Thompson, M.L.; Churchyard, G.J. Lung function loss in relation to silica dust exposure in South African gold miners. Occup. Environ. Med. 2011, 68, 96-101.
113. Cowie, R.L. The influence of silicosis on deteriorating lung function in gold miners. Chest 1998, 113, 340-343.
114. Rajaee, M.; Yee, A.; Long, R.N.; Robins, T.G.; Basu, N.; Renne, E.P. Pulmonary function and respiratory health of small-scale gold miners in northeast Ghana. (Unpublished).
115. Bosu, W.K. Epidemic of hypertension in Ghana: A systematic review. BMC Public Health 2010, 10, 1-14.
116. Pobee, J.O.; Larbi, E.B.; Belcher, D.W.; Wurapa, F.K.; Dodu, S.R. Blood pressure distribution in a rural Ghanaian population. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 1977, 71, 66-72.
117. Houston, M.C. Role of mercury toxicity in hypertension, cardiovascular disease, and stroke. J. Clin. Hypertens. 2011, 13, 621-627.
118. Karagas, M.R.; Choi, A.L.; Oken, E.; Horvat, M.; Schoeny, R.; Kamai, E.; Cowell, W.; Grandjean, P.; Korrick, S. Evidence on the human health effects of low-level methylmercury exposure. Environ. Health Perspect. 2012, 120, 799-806.
119. Valera, B.; Dewailly, É.; Poirier, P. Environmental mercury exposure and blood pressure among Nunavik inuit adults. Hypertension 2009, 54, 981-986.
120. Choi, A.L.; Weihe, P.; Budtz-jørgensen, E.; Jørgensen, P.J.; Jukka, T.; Tuomainen, T.; Murata, K.; Nielsen, H.P.; Skaalum, M.; Askham, J. et al. Methylmercury Exposure in Faroese Whaling Men and Adverse Cardiovascular Effects. Available online: http://dash.harvard.edu/ handle/1/10482585 (accessed on 31 March 2015).
121. Goodrich, J.M.; Wang, Y.; Gillespie, B.; Werner, R.; Franzblau, A.; Basu, N. Methylmercury and elemental mercury differentially associate with blood pressure among dental professionals. Int. J. Hyg. Environ. Health 2012, 216, 195-201.
122. Fillion, M.; Mergler, D.; Passos, C.J.S.; Larribe, F.; Lemire, M.; Guimaraes, J.R.D. A preliminary study of mercury exposure and blood pressure in the Brazilian Amazon. Environ. Heal. A Glob. Access Sci. Sour. 2006, 5, 1-9.
123. Siblerud, R.L. The realtionship between mercury from dental amalgam and the cardiovascular system. Sci. Total Environ. 1990, 99, 23-35.
124. Park, S.K.; Lee, S.; Basu, N.; Franzblau, A. Associations of blood and urinary mercury with hypertension in U.S. Adults: The NHANES 2003-2006. Environ. Res. 2013, 123, 25-32.
125. Kobal, A.B.; Horvat, M.; Prezelj, M.; Briški, A.S.; Krsnik, M.; Dizdarevič, T.; Mazej, D.; Falnoga, I.; Stibilj, V.; Arnerič, N. et al. The impact of long-term past exposure to elemental mercury on antioxidative capacity and lipid peroxidation in mercury miners. J. Trace Elem. Med. Biol. 2004, 17, 261-274.
126. Rajaee, M.; Renne, E.P.; Basu, N. Association of organic and inorganic mercury on blood pressure in a small-scale gold mining community of Ghana. (Unpublished).
127. Banchirigah, S.M. Challenges with eradicating illegal mining in Ghana: A perspective from the grassroots. Resour. Policy 2008, 33, 29-38.
128. Family Health International. HIV/AIDS Behavorial Surveillance Survey; 2002; Family Health International: Durham, NC, USA; Volume 6859.
129. UNICEF. Evaluation Report of HIV/AIDS Prevention Projects through Funding of Ireland Aid; UNICEF: New York, NY, USA, 2001.
130. UNICEF. Ghana Evaluation of HIV/AIDS prevention through peer education, counselling, health care, training and urban refuges in Ghana. Eval. Program Plann. 2002, 25, 409-420.
131. Long, R.; Renne, E.P.; Basu, N. Public health risks associated with small-scale mining in Ghana. (Unpublished).
132. Hilson, G. A Contextual Review of the Ghanaian Small-Scale Mining Industry. Avaiable online: http://pubs.iied.org/pdfs/G00722.pdf (accessed on 31 March 2015).
133. Lu, K.; Long, R.; Rajaee, M.; Basu, N.; Akizili, J.; Robins, T.; Yee, A.; Sharp, C.; Renne, E.; Wilson, M.L. An Exploratory Study on the Effects of Social Resources, Environmental Exposures and Malaria Prevention Practices on the Prevalence of Malaria-Like Symptoms in a Gold-Mining Community in Ghana; University of Michigan: Ann Arbor, MI, USA, 2011.
134. Crompton, P. Assessment of mercury exposure and malaria in a Brazilian AMAZON RIVERINE COMMUNITY. Environ. Res. 2002, 90, 69-75.
135. Silbergeld, E.K.; Nash, D.; Trevant, C.; Strickland, G.T.; de Souza, J.M.; Silva, R.S.U. Mercury exposure and malaria prevalence among gold miners in Pará, Brazil. Rev. Soc. Med. Trop. 2002, 35, 421-429.
136. Hilson, G.M.; Hilson, C.J.; Pardie, S. Improving awareness of mercury pollution in small-scale gold mining communities: Challenges and ways forward in rural Ghana. Environ. Res. 2007, 103, 275-287.
137. Duker, A.A.; Stein, A.; Hale, M. A statistical model for spatial patterns of Buruli ulcer in the Amansie West district, Ghana. Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf. 2006, 8, 126-136.
138. Raghunathan, P.L.; Whitney, E.A.S.; Asamoa, K.; Stienstra, Y.; Taylor, T.H.; Amofah, G.K.; Ofori-adjei, D.; Dobos, K.; Martin, S.; Pathak, S. et al. Van der risk factors for buruli ulcer disease (mycobacterium from infection): Results from a case-control study in Ghana. Clin. Infect. Dis. 2005, 40, 1445-1453.
139. Merritt, R.W.; Benbow, M.E.; Small, P.L.C. Unraveling an emerging disease associated with disturbed aquatic environments: The case of Buruli ulcer. Front. Ecoloy Environ. 2005, 3, 323-331.
140. Basu, A.; Phipps, S.; Long, R.; Basu, N. Applying the Delphi technique to evaluate response options to small-scale gold mining in Ghana. (Unpublished).