Age and gender dimensions in international refugee law

Refugee Protection in International Law: UNHCR's Global Consultations on International Protection

Volumn , Issue , 2003, Pages 46-80

  Edwards, Alice ^a  

^a UNHCR's Department of International Protection   (United States)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 84929279117     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511493973.006     Document Type: Chapter

References (82)

1. UNHCR, ‘Guidelines on International Protection: Gender-Related Persecution within the Context of Article 1A(2) of the 1951 Convention and/or its 1967 Protocol on the Status of Refugees’, UN doc. HCR/GIP/02/01, Geneva, 7 May 2002 (hereinafter UNHCR, ‘Guidelines on Gender-Related Persecution’, 2002)
2. H. Charlesworth, C. Chinkin, and S. Wright, ‘Feminist Approaches to International Law’, in Inter nationalRules:ApproachesfromInternationalLawandInternationalRelations (ed. R.J. Beck, A. C.Arend, and R. D. Vander Lugt, Oxford University Press, 1996), p. 265.
3. H. Crawley, Refugees and Gender.Law and Process (Jordans, Bristol, 2001), p. 18.
4. T. Spijkerboer, Gender and Refugee Status (Ashgate, Dartmouth, 2000), as restated in Crawley 7, 19.
5. International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY), judgment in the case of Kunarac, Kovacand Vukovic, Case No. IT-96-23 and IT-96-23/1, 22 Feb. 2001, found rape to be a crime against humanity as well as a violation of the laws or customs of war. This judgment was upheld by the ICTY Appeals Chamber on 12 June 2002.
6. International Criminal Court (ICC) specifically define a ‘crime against humanity’ and a ‘war crime’ as including ‘rape, sexual slavery, enforced prostitution, forced pregnancy, enforced sterilization, or any other form of sexual violence of comparable gravity’.
7. UNHCR, ‘Guidelines on Gender-Related Persecution’, 2002, above n. 4
8. P. Goldbert and B. Passade Cisse, ‘Gender Issues in Asylum Law after Matter of R.A.’, Immigration Briefings, Feb. 2000, p. 1.
9. J. Bhabha and W. Young, ‘Not Adults in Miniature: Child Asylum Seekers and theNew US Guidelines’, 11 International Journal ofRefugeeLaw, 1999, p. 84, atp. 98.
10. Executive Committee, Conclusion No. 39 (XXXVI), 1985, on refugee women and international protection.
11. Executive Committee, Conclusion No. 64 (XLI), 1990, on refugee women and international protection.
12. UNHCR, ‘Guidelines on the Protection of Refugee Women’, Geneva, 1991.
13. Executive Committee, Conclusion No. 73 (XLIV), 1993.
14. Executive Committee, Conclusions No. 79 (XLVII), 1996 No. 81 (XLVIII), 1997, No. 87 (L), 1999.
15. Executive Committee, Conclusion No. 77 (XLVI), 1995.
16. US Immigration and Naturalization Service, ‘UNHCR Symposium on Gender-Based Persecution, Geneva, 22-23 Feb. 1996’, International Journal of Refugee Law, special issue, Autumn 1997.
17. Grajo v. Immigration and Naturalization Service, 124 F.3d 203 (7th Circuit), 1997; Fuentes v. Immigration and Naturalization Service, 127 F.3d 1105 (9th Circuit), 1997; Decision of 7 Sept. 2001, Administrative Court Frankfurt am Main, Ref. No. 1 E 31666/97.A(1);
18. RaquelMarttn deMejia v. Peru, Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, Case No. 10.970, Report No. 5/96, 1 March 1996 (Peruvian woman raped by armed forces for alleged membership of guerrilla group, later granted asylum in Sweden). The Center for Gender and Refugee Studies at Hastings College of the Law, University of California, USA, maintains a useful database of decisions on gender- related asylum claims and other relevant material at http://www.uchastings.edu/cgrs/.
19. Aydin v. Turkey, European Court of Human Rights, Case No. 57/1996/676/866,25 Sept. 1997.
20. Prosecutor v. Jean-Paul Akayesu, International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR), Case No. ICTR-96-4-T, 2 Sept. 1998.
21. Aguirre-Cervantes v. Immigration and Naturalization Service, US Court of Appeals (9th Circuit), 242
22. Jabari v. Turkey, Application No. 40035/98,11 July 2000.
23. European Convention on the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, ETS No. 5.
24. In reFauziya Kasinga, US Board of Immigration Appeals, File No. A73 476 695, 13 June 1996 19-year-old Togolese woman, FGM and forced marriage
25. E. V. Martinez-Orozco, ‘Report on Female Genital Mutilation’, A5-0285/2001, European Parliament, 17 July 2001, 13/32.
26. Ourbih, French CRR (sections reunis (SR)), Decision No. 269875,15 May 1998 (Algerian transsexuals a particular social group);
27. UNHCR, ‘Guidelines on Gender-Related Persecution’, 2002, above n. 4
28. Executive Committee, Conclusion No. 89 (LI), 2000.
29. Royal Ministry of Justice and the Police, ‘Guidelines for Determining Refugee Status in Norway’, 15 Jan. 1998.
30. UK Immigration Appellate Authority, ‘Asylum Gender Guidelines’, Nov. 2000.
31. UNHCR, ‘Guidelines on Gender-Related Persecution’, 2002, above n. 4, para. 6; and Global Consultations, ‘Summary Conclusions - Gender-Related Persecution’, San Remo expert roundtable, 6-8 Sept. 2001
32. UNHCR, ‘Refugee Women’, Global Consultations on International Protection, UN doc. EC/GC/02/8, 25 April 2002, Parts V and VI; and UNHCR, ‘Refugee Children’, UN doc. EC/GC/02/9,25 April 2002.
33. UNHCR, ‘Refugee Women’, above n. 56
34. Minister for Immigration and Multicultural Affairs v. Applicant Z., Federal Court of Australia, [2001] FCA 1823, 19 Dec. 2001, in which an appeal was dismissed, finding that ‘able-bodied Afghan men’ do not constitute a ‘particular social group’.
35. Executive Committee, Conclusion No. 47 (XXXVIII), 1987, on refugee children
36. Executive Committee, Conclusion No. 47 (XXXVIII), 1987, on refugee children,. Immigration and Refugee Board, Canada, ‘Guideline 3: Child Refugee Claimants: Procedural and Evidentiary Issues’, 30 Sept. 1996; US Immigration and Naturalization Service, ‘Guidelines for Children's Asylum Claims’, 10 Dec. 1998.
37. Directorate of Immigration Finland, ‘Guidelines for Interviewing (Separated) Minors’, March 2002.
38. UNHCR, Community Service Guidelines, ‘Working with Unaccompanied Children: A Community-based Approach,’ revised May 1996, 39-52
39. UNHCR, Handbook on Procedures and Criteria for DeterminingRefugee Status (Geneva, 1979, re-edited 1992).
40. OAU Convention Governing the Specific Aspects of Refugee Problems in Africa, adopted 10 Sept. 1969, 1001 UNTS 45.
41. Colloquium of the International Protection of Refugees in Central America, Mexico, and Panama, in Cartegena, 19-22 Nov. 1984.
42. Minister for Immigration and Multicultural Affairs v. Ibrahim, High Court of Australia, [2000] HCA 55, 26 Oct. 2000; Zalzali v. Canada (Minister of Employment and Immigration), Canadian Federal Court of Appeal, [1991] 3 FC 605; Canada (Attorney General) v. Ward, Supreme Court of Canada, [1993] 2 SCR 689; Adan v. Secretary ofState for the Home Department, UKHouseof Lords, [1999] 1 AC 293; Horvath v. Secretary ofState for theHomeDepartment, House of Lords, [2000] 3 All ER 577.
43. European Commission, ‘Proposal for a Council Directive on minimum standards for the qua fication and status of third country nationals and stateless persons as refugees or as persons wl otherwise need international protection’, COM(2001), 510 final, 12 Sept. 2001, Art. 9(1).
44. V. Turk, ‘Non-State Agents of Persecution’, in Switzerland and the International Protection Refugees ed. V. Chetail and V. Gowlland-Debbas, Kluwer Law International, The Hague, 200 95-109, for State practice in Germany, Switzerland, France, and Italy.
45. W. Kali ‘Non-State Agents of Persecution and the Inability of the State to Protect’, 15(3) Georgetown It migration Law Journal, Spring 2001, 415-31.
46. Horvath case, above 75, [2001] 1 AC 489 at 497-8, restated by Gleeson CJ in Khawar, abo 34.
47. UNHCR, ‘Guidelines on International Protection: Gender-Related Persecution’, 2002, above n. 4, para. 18; UNHCR, ‘Refugee Women’, above n. 56, paras. 18-19.
48. A. Edwards, ‘Resettlement: A Valuable Tool in Protecting Refugee, Internally Displaced and Trafficked Women and Girls’, 11 Forced Migration Review, Oct. 2001, 31, 34.
49. UNHCR, ‘Activities in the Field of Statelessness: Progress Report’, UN doc. EC/51/SC/CRP.13, 30 May 2001, 18:
50. CRDD, above n. 41; Decision No. V95-02904, CRDD, 26 Nov. 1997; An Li v. Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration), Federal Court of Canada (Trial Division), IMM-1023-95, 30 March 2001; Matter ofJ.M., US Immigration Court, San Pedro, California, 3 Dec. 1996, available on http://www.uchastings.edu/cgrs/law/ij/364.pdf.
51. Bhabha and Young, above n. 20, 107-8.
52. Bhabha and Young, above n. 20, p. 104.
53. R. v. Secretary of State for the Home Department, ex parte Binbasi, [1989] Imm AR 595, High Court (Queen's Bench Division), 20 July 1989; cf. Decision No. IV/IE06244/81, Administrative Court (Verwaltungsgericht) Wiesbaden, 26 April 1983 (refugee status on the basis of membership of a particular social group of homosexuals in Iran).
54. Applicant L.S.L.S. v. Minister for Immigration and Multicultural Affairs, above n. 42. See also, Toonen v. Australia, Human Rights Committee, Communication No. 488/1992, UN doc. CCPR/C/50/D/488/1992,4 April 1994, which held that laws prohibiting consensual homosexual acts in private violate the right to private life under Art. 17 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights 1966,999 UNTS 171.
55. Applicant L.S.L.S. v. Minister for Immigration and Multicultural Affairs, FCA, above n. 42, paras. 18-35.
56. E. Feller, Director, Department of International Protection, UNHCR, ‘Rape is a War Crime: How to Support the Survivors: Lessons from Bosnia - Strategies for Kosovo’, presentation, Vienna, 18-20 June 1999.
57. Crawley, Refugees and Gender, above n. 7, p. 21.
58. UNHCR Vienna Regional Office, ‘Asylum-Seekers in Austria: An Analysis and Case Study of the Legal Situation and Administrative Practice’, Feb. 1995, 207-12. Reference is made to several cases in which rape of civilian women by soldiers in armed conflict were not considered as ‘persecution’ within the meaning of the refugee definition, but criminal behaviour.
59. A. Grahl Madsen, The Status of Refugees in International Law (A. W. Sijthoff, Leyden, 1972), p. 220.
60. G. S. Goodwin-Gill, The Refugee in International Law (2nd edn, Clarendon, Oxford, 1996), p. 49S
61. Dykon v. Canada (Ministerfor Employment andImmigration), Canadian Federal Court (Trial Division), (1994) 87 FTR 98, Sept. 1994, quoted in ELENA, ‘Research Paper on Sexual Orientation’, above 42, 1-2.
62. UNHCR's ‘Guidelines on International Protection: “Membership of a Particular Social Group” within the Context of Article 1A(2) of the 1951 Convention and/or its 1967 Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees’, UN doc. HCR/GIP/02/02,7 May 2002 (hereinafter UNHCR, ‘Guidelines on Membership of a Particular Social Group’, 2002), paras. 18 and 19; as well as UNHCR, ‘Guidelines on Gender-Related Persecution’, 2002, above n. 4, para. 31.
63. Global Consultations, ‘Summary Conclusions on Internal Protection/Relocation/Flight Alternative’, San Remo expert roundtable, 6-8 Sept. 2001, para. 2
64. J. C. Hathaway and M. Foster in Part 6.1 of this book; UNHCR, ‘Position Paper: Relocating Internally as Global Consultations, ‘Summary Conclusions on Internal Protection/Relocation/Flight Alternative’, San Remo expert roundtable, 6-8 Sept. 2001, para. 2
65. J. C. Hathaway and M. Foster in Part 6.1 of this book; UNHCR, ‘Position Paper: Relocating Internally as a Reasonable Alternative to Seeking Asylum - The So-Called “Internal Flight Alternative” or “Relocation Principle”’, Geneva, Feb. 1999, see Annex, paras. 1-3; cf. UNHCR, ‘Guidelines on Internal Flight or Relocation Alternative’ (forthcoming, 2003), above n. 99.
66. UNHCR, Handbook, above n. 71, para. 91.
67. J.C.Hathaway and M. Foster, Part 6.1 of this book, referring to the German Federal Constitutional Court, Decision of 24 March 1997,2 BvR 1024/95, NVwZ 97,65.
68. Elmi v. Canada (Minister of Citizenship andImmigration), Federal Court of Canada (Trial Division), Decision No. IMM-580-98,12 March 1999.
69. G. Machel, Expert of the Secretary-General of the United Nations, Impact ofAr Conflict on Children, United Nations and UNICEF, 1996, available on http://www.unicef.c graca/.
70. G.Machel, The Impact of War on Children (Hurst & Co., London, 2001).
71. G.Machel, aboven. 133, 8-9.
72. M. S. Gallagher, ‘Soldier Bad Boy: Child Soldiers, Culture and Bars to Asylum’, 13 International Journal of Refugee Law, 2001, 310, 333
73. UNHCR's ‘Guidelines on International Protection: Application of the Exclusion Clauses: Article 1Fof the 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees’, forthcoming, 2003.
74. UNHCR, Handbook, 71, 136.
75. UNHCR and UNHCHR, ‘Daunting Prospects - Minority Women: Obstacles to their Return and Integration’, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, April 2000, p. 16.
76. UNHCR, ‘Guidelines on Gender-Related Persecution’, above n. 4, para. 36(iv).
77. Mehmet Brahimi v. Immigration Appeal Tribunal and Secretary of State for the Home Department, High Court of Justice (Queen's Bench Division), Case No. CO/2238/2001.
78. UNHCR, ‘Guidelines on Unaccompanied Children Seeking Asylum’, 1997, above n. 69, Executive
79. UNHCR, ‘Reception of Asylum-Seekers, Including Standards of Treatment, in the Context of Individual Asylum Systems’, UN doc. EC/GC/01/12, 4 Sept. 2001, Annex.
80. UNHCR, ‘Guidelines on Unaccompanied Children Seeking Asylum’, 1997, above n. 69, para. 8.6.
81. Bhabha and Young, above n. 20, p.98.
82. Directorate of Immigration, Finland, ‘Guidelines for Interviewing (Separated) Minors’, above n. 68.