The Tribe Called Wannabee: Playing Indian in America and Europe

Folklore

Volumn 99, Issue 1, 1988, Pages 30-55

  Green, Rayna ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 84928845865     PISSN: 0015587X     EISSN: 14698315     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/0015587X.1988.9716423     Document Type: Article

References (87)

1. I. I use the term ‘Indian’ because the essay is about stereotypes and images of the aboriginal inhabitants of North America. See Robert F. Berkhofer, The White Man’s Indian: Images of the American Indian: From Columbus to the Present (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1978); Roy Harvey Pearce, Savagism and Civilization: A Study of the Indian and the American Mind (Baltimore, Maryland: John Hopkins University Press, 1965); Francis Jennings, The Invasion of America: Indians, Colonialism and the Cant of Conquat (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1975);
2. Daniel F. Littlefield, Jr, and Lonnie Underhill, ‘Renaming the American Indian: 1890-1913,; American Studies 12, no. 2 (Fall, 1971), 33-45; and Rayna Green, ‘The Indian in Popular American Culture,’ in Wilcomb Washburn, ed., The Handbook of North American Indians IV (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1988, forthcoming) for a discussion, and other references for the history of ideas about the ‘Indian’ and debates over the historical and philosophical use of other terms such as ‘savage,’ ‘primitive,’ ‘redskin.’ Also see Rayna Green, ‘The Only Good Indian: The Image of the Indian in American Vernacular Culture (Unpublished PhD dissertation, Indiana University, 1973) for a comprehensive treatment of Indian stereotypes in oral tradition, popular culture, material culture, and classical literature related to the forms of playing Indian treated in this essay. As for ‘Wannabee,’ the term’s origin and implications are explained on p.48, but the reader will have guessed them long before.
3. For discussion about captives, renegades and other ‘white’ Indians, see James Axtell, ‘The White Indians of Colonial America,’ William and Mary Quarterly XXXII (January, 1975), 55-88;
4. Colin Calloway, ‘Neither White Nor Red: White Renegades on the American Indian Frontier Western Historical Quarterly (January, 1986), 43-66;
5. Richard Drinnon, The White Savage: The Case of John Dunn Hunter (New York, 1972); Thomas Marquis, Memoirs of a White Crow Indian (Thomas H. Leforge), (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1974); Bruce Roemsch, The Indianization of the Mountain Men (Unpublished Dissertation, University of Pennsylvania, 1969); Lewis O. Saum, The Fur Trader and The Indian (Seattle: Univeristy of Washington, 1975).
6. Roy Harvey Pearce, ‘The Metaphysics of Indian-Hating,’ Ethnohistory IV (1957), 27-40; see also Herman Melville, The Confidence Man: IIis Masquerade (1857); also references above on renegades and Indian hunters.
7. See Rayna Green, ‘The Pocahontas Perplex: The Image of the Indian Woman in American Vernacular Culture The Massachussetts Review 16, no.4 (1976), 698-74;
8. E. McClung Fleming, ‘The American Image as Indian Princess, 1765-1815,’ Winterthur Portfolio 2 (1965), 65-81; Hugh Honour The New Golden Land: European Images of America from the Discovery to the Present Time (New York: Pantheon, 1975) for discussions of the Indian iconography of the New World and the transference from an Indian to a neo-classic image.
9. This figure is generally accepted now by most scholars. At least 90% of coastal Indian peoples in Canada and New England were dead of disease by 1700. See Sherburne F. Cook, ‘The Significance of Disease in the Extinction of the New England Indians,’ Human Biology 45 (1973), 485-508; Henry F. Dobyns, Their Number Became Thinned: Native Population Dynamics in Eastern North America (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1983).
10. The primary and secondary literature on contact period America is enormous; so too is the literature on specific interactions between native peoples and the British, French, Spanish, and Dutch. The processes of interaction and transformation—of Indians and Europeans—into ‘Americans’ is best described in secondary sources by James Axtell, The European and the Indian: Essays in the Ethnohistory of Colonial North America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1981). See also references on creating a ‘new’ Metis civilization below. The Invasion Within: The Contest of Cultures in Colonial North America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985); Neil Salisbury, Manitou and Providence: Indians, Europeans and the Making of New England, 1500–1643 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1982); Gary Nash, Red, White and Black: The Peoples of Early America 2nd ed. (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1982);
11. A. Irving Hallowell, ‘American Indians, White and Black: The Phenomenon ofTransculturation,’ Current Anthropology 4 (1963) 519-31;
12. J. Norman Heard, White Into Red: A Study of the Assimilation of White Persons Captured by Indians (Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press, 1973). In American Indian Culture and Research Journal 6, no. 2 (1982), see Olive P. Dickason, ‘From “One Nation” in the Northeast to “New Nation” in the Northwest: A Look at the emergence of the Metis,’ Jacqueline Peterson, ‘Ethnogenesis: Settlement and Growth of a “New People,”’ and Alden Vaughan and Daniel Richter, ‘Crossing the Cultural Divide,’ also Michael Zuckerman, ‘The Fabrication of Identity in Early America,’ William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd series, 34 (1977), 183–214.
13. Iam not concerned here to elaborate on theories of play or traditional linguistic/ideational/dramatic forms. Readers will be familiar with the signal works of Clifford Geertz, Roger Abrahams, Johan Huizinga and others which explore these concepts. Here I simply accept those concepts as valid, both for the purposes of historical and cultural analysis, in the examiantion of ‘national,; even pan-national forms of behaviour. ’
14. See Axtell 1981 for extensive references to and analysis of the ‘cultural origins of North America.’ Here, of course, I am suggesting that ‘playing Indian’ is a behaviour which constitutes one of those cultural origins.
15. The Puritans in particular were much afraid, both of‘popish delusions’ and ‘white heathenism,’ warning against such apostasy and taking actions to punish any transgressions of either sort. No doubt the fear, certainly made real by the numerous Protestant conversions to Catholicism and ‘heathenry,’ was rooted in the complex notions about the seductions and wiles of the Devil (made incarnate in Catholics and Indians). For a solid account of such fears, see Axtell, 1981; Jennings, 1975; Salisbury, 1982; also Richard Slotkin, Regeneration Through Violence: The Myth of the American Frontier, 1600–1800 (Middletown, Conn.: Wesleyan University Press, 1973).
16. Axtell, 1975; Benjamin Franklin to Peter Collinson, May 9, 1973, in Leonard Labaree and William B. Wilcox, eds., The Papers of Benjamin Franklin (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1950–1978) 4, 481–82.
17. Axtell, 1975.
18. The literature on paintings of Indians in the 18th and 19th century is enormous. For references, see any works on Charles Bird King, Karl Bodmer, Seth Eastman, George Catlin for samples of the kinds of paintings mentioned.
19. There are many accounts, both primary and secondary, of those first voyages and visits to Europe by Indians. A good secondary of the Virginia Indians in London can be found in David Beers Quinn, Set Fair for Roanoke: Voyages and Colonies, 1584–1606 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1985); for primary accounts, see the full bibliography of the early travellers and writers like Hakluyt, Hariot, White, Drake, Smith, etc. in D.B. Quinn, ed., The Roanoke Voyages 1584-1590; 2 vols (Cambridge: Hakluyt Society, 1955), 2, 918-46; for New England contact period narratives in the Jesuit Relations, the writings of John Eliot, Cotton Mather (ex: Magnalia Christi Americana).
20. For new and riveting accounts of the display of Indians in Europe, from the first voyages through the 20th century, see Christian Feest, ed., Indians and Europe: An Interdisciplinary Collection of Essays (Aachen, GDR: Edition Herodot/Raader-Verlag,1987); especially note articles by Rudolf Conrad, ‘Mutual Fascination: Indians in Dresden and Leipzig,’ 475-490;
21. Daniele Florentine, ‘Those Red-Brick Faces: European Press reactions to the Indians of Buffalo Bill’s Wild West Show,’ 403-414;
22. J.C.H. King, ‘Family of Botocudos Exhibited on Bond Street in 1822,’ 243-252;
23. Miklos Letay, ‘Redskins at the Zoo: Sioux Indians in Budapest, 1886,’ 375-283;
24. Christopher Mulvey, ‘Among the Sag-A-Noshes: Ojibwa and Iowa Indians: With George Catlin in Europe, 1843-1848,; 253-275;
25. William Sturtevant and D.B. Quinn, ‘This New Prey: Eskimos in Europe in 1567, 1576, and 1577 61-140;
26. Robin Wright, ‘The Travelling Exhibition of Captain Samuel Hadlock, Jr. Eskimos in Europe, 1822-1826,’ 215–234.
27. See Axtell, 1975; Salisbury, 1982; also Vine Deloria, Jr. and Clifford Lytle, American Indians, American Justice (University of Texas Press, 1983) for a discussion of US policy, especially various policies directly connected to attempts at assimilation of the Indian.
28. Mason Weems, Jr., the good minister, with his books of instructive tales for schoolchildren of the new nation, was one of the major sources of‘national’ folklore, including the famous stories of George Washington and the cherry tree, Washington’s casting the silver dollar across the Potomac, and others.
29. See Green, 1975, for a complete treatment of the ‘national’ understanding of the tale of Pocahontas; also Philip Young, ‘The Mother of Us All: Pocahontas Reconsidered, Kenyon Review XXIV (Summer, 1962), 391-415; see Frank DeCaro, ‘Vanishing the Red Man: Cultural Guilt and Legend Formation,’ International Folklore Review 4 (1986), 74–80, for a provocative treatment of the functions of legends such as the Lover’s Leap and other Indian suicide tales.
30. See Jacqueline Peterson, ‘The People in Between: Indian White Marriage and the Generation of a Metis Society and Culture in the Great Lakes Region, 1680-1830’ (Unpublished Dissertation, University of Illinois/Chicago Circle, 1981); Jennifer S.H. Brown, Strangers in Blood: Fur Trade Families in Indian Country (Vancouver, Canada and London: University of British Columbia Press, 1981); for challenging new interpretations of the new, ‘mixed-blood’ world created when Indians and whites began to work, trade and live together.
31. Marion Tinling, ed., The Correspondence of the Three William Byrds of Westover, Virginia, 1684–1776, 2 vols (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1977); also Christian Feest, ‘Indians and Europe?: Editor’s Postcript,’ 609–628 in Feest, 1987,609-628, who suggests this passion for Indian dress is part of the phenomenon of ‘cultural transvestism’ (see below), and notes that Clare Sheridan, Winston Churchill’s cousin, went to America and had a photograph taken of her in an Indian man’s outfit.
32. David Boston, ‘The Three Caldwells,; in The White Horse and the Fleur de Lys: The King’s Regimental Booklet (London, c.1975). An easily accessible portrait of Sir John Caldwell, stationed in the Great Lakes with His Majesty’s Liverpool Regiment, can be found in the Merseyside County Museums in Liverpool, England; a fine printed copy can be found on the cover of the exhibiton catalogue, Ted Brasser, ed. Bo’jou Neejeef: Profiles of Canadian Art (Ottawa: National Museum of Man, 1975); Colin Calloway, ‘The “Wild Indian Savages” in Leeds,’ Thorseby Society Miscellany 16, no.4 (1979), 305–315.
33. Such stories appeared first in the popular press, then in tracts. Jefferson makes famous the farewell speech of Chief Logan in his Notes on the State of Virginia (1785, Paris), using it to praise both Indian eloquence and prescience, though great debate arose over its authenticity. See Ray H. Sandefur, ‘Logan’s Oration—How Authentic?’ Quarterly Journal of Speech XLVI (October, 1960), 289-96;
34. Wilcomb Washburn, ed., ‘Logan’s Speech, 1774,; in Daniel Boorstin, ed., An American Primer (Chicago: Univeristy of Chicago Press, 1966), 6-64; and Ed Seeber, ‘Critical Views of Logan’s Speech,’ Journal of American Folklore 60 (1947), 130–46. Logan’s speech, like those of Chief Joseph and Chief Seattle (see below), became staples of schoolroom oration, being reprinted year after year in McGuffey’s Reader. Benjamin Franklin printed Indian treaties and was fascinated by treaties both as literature and as political thought; the very popular anecdote books of the early 19th century put into print much that had circulated in popular and oral tradition in the previous century. George Turner, Traits of Indian Character 2 vols, (Philadelphia: Key and Biddle, 1836); Pishey Thompson, Anecdotes of the North American Indian and Natives of the Natural History of the Immediate Neighborhood (Boston: John Noble, 1857); Harvey Newcomb, The North American Indian, 2 vols, (Pittsburgh, Luke Loomis, 1835); William White, A Collection of Indian Anecdotes, (Concord, NH: The Author 1837);
35. Richard Moody, ‘Indian Treaties, The First American Dramas,’ Quarterly journal of Speech XXXIX (February, 1953),. 15-24; Lawrence Wroth, ‘The Indian Treaty as Literature,’ Yale Review, n.s. XVII (July, 1928), 749–66.
36. While Franklin’s and Jefferson’s fascination with and use of Indian metaphors and other materials in the shaping of their thought has been widely commented upon—see Cadwallader Colden History of the Five Indian Nations Depending Upon The Province of New York in America (London, 1727); Donald Johansen, Forgotten Founders; Donald Grinde, The Iroquois and the Founding of the American Nation (San Francisco, California: Indian Historian Press, 1977)—mainstream Constitutional scholars and histories have always been hostile to the notion of any genuine, direct influences of the Iroquois or any other Indian philosophies on American thought and policy. Recently, however, Indian historians (Deloria, Grinde) and others working with them have amassed considerable documentation on those direct and specifically Iroquoian influences, particularly focusing on formal language as a way of shaping American thought. We can expect to see a great outpouring in 1988. See Oren Lyons and John Mohawk, ed., The Great Law of Peace and American Democracy (The Five Rings Foundation, forthcoming).
37. The American stage responded to Indians almost immediately, producing plays on these mythic characters, some actually historical, as vehicles for actors like Edwin Forrest (Ponteach). It is interesting to note that one of the most popular dramas, ‘Ponteach,; was written by Major Robert Rogers, a noted Indianized Indian fighter of Roger’s Ranger’s fame. See Arthur H. Quinn, Representative American Plays From 1767 to the Present Day, 7th ed. (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1953).
38. Austin E. Fife and Francesca Redden, ‘The Pseudo-Indian Folk Songs of the Anglo-American and French Canadian,’ Journal of American Folklore 67, Nos. 265 and 266, 1954; (July-September, 1954; October-December, 1954), 239–52, 379–54. Of course, the popular stage never quit producing fake Indian songs with fake Indians costumed to sing them, right up through the 1970’s with rock-and-roll (e.g. ‘Cherokee Woman;’ ‘Half-Breed’ by Cher). The twenties and ragtime produced many, the most popular of which were ‘Tammy’ and the ‘Hiawatha Rag;’ see Roger Hankins, ‘Those Indian Songs’ The Ragtimer (May-June, 1970), 5-9; also popular stage opera gave us ‘Rose-Marie,’ with the famed ‘Indian Love Call,’ and country music included Hank Williams’s notable ‘Kaw-Li-Jah,’ about a wooden Indian that falls in love with another cigar-store maid. The Indian motif, though musically a stereotype unrelated to genuine tribal musical forms, is widely used in Classical and popular American music. See Joseph Hickerson, ‘A List of classical American Composers Using Indiairfhemes’ and ‘A List of American Music With Indian Themes’ Archive of Folksong/Library of Congress.
39. See Louis Jones, Aboriginal American Oratory: The Tradition of Eloquence Among the Indians of the United States, (Los Angeles: Southwest Museum, 1965); also Rudolf Kaiser, ‘A Fifth Gospel, Almost: Chief Seattle’s Speech(es): American Origins and European Reception,’ in Feest, 1987, 505–526.
40. The accounts of white Indian raids are numerous, and one may find them throughout the literature on the colonial period of American history. They continued even after Independence when numerous rural disorders, based on land claims, plagued the frontiers. A note of their popularity may be found in Alan Taylor. ‘Stopping the Rogues and Deceivers: A White Indian Recruiting Notice of 1808,’ William and Mary Quarterly 90–103. ‘Each “white Indian’ donned a uniform of moccasins, an Indian blanket, and a masked and elaborately decorated hood that usually ended in a conical peak. To disguise his voice, the insurgent affected a guttural, broken English What began as a simple need for effective disguise developed into a detailed new identity complete with songs, flags, effigies, speeches and rituals’ Note the startling similarity to the 19th century Knights of the White Magnolia in the South, the precursor to the Ku Klux Klan. For the Boston Tea Party incident.
41. Calvin Martin and Steven Crain, ‘The Indian Behind the Mask at the Boston Tea Party; Indian Historian (Winter, 1974), 45–47.
42. For Tammany Hall, or the Columbian Order, see Jerome Mushkat, Tammany and the Evolution of a Political Machine, 1789–1865 (Syracuse, New York: Syracuse University Press, 1971); also Allen Franklin, The Trail of the Tiger, being an account of Tammany from 1789; the Society of Saint Tammany, or the Columbian Order; Tammany Hall, the origin and sway of the Bosses. (New York, 1928). There is little written on The Improved Order of Red Men. I have examined printed materials, handbills, certificates, ceremonial literature in the collection of the National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution and the Library of Congress, and have interviewed former members of an Order chapter in Massachussetts. A very prominent Arizona Senator and collector of Indian artifacts belonged to the Moquis during the seventies and sixties. The ‘Moquis’ dress up in Indian clothes on ceremonial occassions, perform ‘snake’ dances and other rites; these are numerous. There is some evidence that more than the name of the very large and important American civic club, Kiwanis, has some Indian roots in their institution, but I have not been able to confirm that connection in more than the name, an Algonkianized word.
43. Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, ‘Hiawatha’ (1855); Stith Thompson, ‘The Indian Legend of Hiawatha,’ Publications of the Modem Language Association 1922; Henry Rowe Schoolcraft, Algic Researches, 1839; Notes on the Iroquois, 1847; Reverend John Heckewelder, Account of the History, Manners and Customs of the Indian Nations Who Once Inhabited Pennsylvania and The Neighbouring States, (Philadelphia, 1819).
44. Leslie Fiedler, Return of the Vanishing American, (New York: Hill and Wang, 1968).
45. Vivid descriptions of this era can be found in Loring B. Priest, Uncle Sam’s Stepchildren: The Reform of U.S. Indian Policy, 1865–1887 (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1942).
46. Lewis Henry Morgan (Shenandoah), ‘Letters on the Iroquois,; American Review (1847), Feb., 8-18; Mar., 242–256, 447–461.
47. Jack Gregory and Rennard Strickland, Sam Houston and the Cherokees, 1829–1833 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1967).
48. See Henry B. Sell and Victor Weybright, Buffalo Bill and the Wild West (New York: Oxford University Press, 1955);
49. Don Russell, A History of the Wild West Show (Fort Worth, Texas: Amos Carter Museum of Art, 1970). For accounts of the European reactions and response to the Wild West Show, see Feest, ed., 1987; especially Daniele Fiorentino; Ulrich Fleisher, ‘Far West Made in Germany,’ Impressionen vom 31. Indian Council tn Nidda bei Frankfurt, Country and Western 6 (Nov.-Dee. 1981) 16–19.
50. For various treatments of the Indian in American literature and that literature’s effect on the European imagination, see Leslie Fiedler, ‘The Indian in English Literature;’ C. Feest, ‘The Indian in Non-English Literature’ in Washburn, ed., 1987, forthcoming; also L. Fiedler, The Return of the Vanishing American (New York: Stein and Day, 1968);
51. Albert Keiser, The Indian in American Literature (New York: Oxford University Press, 1933);
52. Willard Thorpe, ‘Cooper Beyond America,; New York History XXXV (October, 1954), 522-39;
53. W.C. Vanderwerth, Indian Oratory (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1971);
54. Elemire Zolla, The Writer and the Shaman: A Morphology of the American Indian (New York: Haicourt Brace Jovanovich, 1973); Margaret Murray Gibb, Le Roman de Bas-de-Cuir: etude sur Fenimore Cooper et son influence en France (Paris: Librairie Ancienne Honore Champion, 1927).
55. John Neihardt, Black Elk Speaks (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1971).
56. Arthur Kopit, Indians (New York: Hill and Wang, 1969).
57. See Joanna Scherer, ‘The Public Life of Sarah Winnemucca,; Cultural Anthropology, forthcoming, 1988, for the story of the evolution of Winnemucca’s persona; see also Dorothy Clarke Wilson, Bright Eyes: The Story of Suzette LaFlesche (New York: McGraw Hill, 1974) for a popularized account of the beautiful and charismatic Omaha sisters who became the darlings of the reformist movement, further developing the staged persona.
58. I have informally interviewed hundreds of current and former ‘Cowboys and Indians’ players throughout the US for their impressions of the game and what it involves. Most say that as children, they fought over who would play which role, most opting for the Cowboy role because they ‘did not like getting beat’ Interestingly, those who always opted for the ‘Indian’ role—a group which includes a much higher percentage of women than the Cowboy role players—are very clear about what attracts them, that is, the ‘costume,’ the yelling and ‘acting out’ which appears to accompany the role, and the ‘underdog’ aspects the role entails.
59. The last American medicine show, owned by a Black itinerant musician in North Carolina and still featuring ‘Indian’ medicine and performance, closed in the late 1970’s. There is not a great deal of published material on the shows; for information about content, one must rely on contemporary news accounts, personal remembrance, and the hundreds of medicine show posters, flyers, photographs, handbills and so forth in museum and archival collections at the New York Public Library, the Smithsonian Institution and the Library of Congress. See Arrell Gibson, ‘Medicine Show The American West 4, no. I (February. 1967), 34-39;
60. Brooks McNamara, ‘The Indian Medicine Show’ Education Theatre Journal (Dec. 23, 1971), 431–449. So-called ‘Indian’ doctor products sold by the shows were followed by ‘Quaker’ and ‘Shaker’ doctor products.
61. See Green, 1988, forthcoming, for extensive references to the role of the Indian image in tobacco product advertising.
62. Little literature exists on the Indian guide phenomenon per se. I and my students have interviewed black and white spiritualists in New York, Massachussetts and Washington, DC. I have a small collection of Reader/Palmist/spiritual guide handbills from Black spiritualists in Washington, all of which are mass produced, with the names of individual spiritualists inserted into the boilerplate, all of which have an Indian with headdress as a logo and the designation of ‘Indian Guide’ given to the particular ‘Reader’s’ directing influence. Only recently in England, I heared of the White Eagle Lodges guided, of course by Chief White Eagle.
63. For songs, see Edward D. Andrews, The Gift To Be Simple: Songs, Dances and Rituals of the American Shakers (New York: Dover Publications, 1962).
64. See Charles Alexander Eastman, Indian Scout Talks: A Guide for Boy Scouts and the Camp Fire Girls (Boston: Little Brown and Co., 1914) for an Indianizied inspiration for playing Indian to the Scouts; see also Boy Scouts of America: A Handbook for Boys (New York: Grossett and Dunlap, annually produced by the Boy Scouts of America since); see also the European and international versions of the manual; as well manuals for the Camp Fire Girls and the Girl Scouts of America.
65. ‘The Indian Ordeal,; New York Times Magazine, ‘On Men.’.
66. William Powers, ‘The Indian Hobbyist in America,; in Washburn, 1988, forthcoming.
67. I have derived my description of the programme from several accounts in the Washington Post, 1986 and 1987, and from several telephone calls to the American Indian programme office by ‘Chiefs’ wanting to arrange museum tours of Indian exhibitious for themselves and their ‘princesses.:
68. Reported to author by Michael Dorris, Chair of Native American Studies, Dartmouth College, c.1982.
69. See Ralph and Natasha Friar.; also Raymond W. Stedman, Shadows of the Indian: Stereotypes in American Culture (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1982); Marsden, Michael, ‘The Indian in Movies,’ in Washburn, ed., 1988, forthcoming.
70. See Green, 1988, forthcoming, for a slightly more extended commentary on sports play; also ‘Indians Open War on Redskins’; ‘Redskins Keep Name, Will Change Lyrics,’ Washington Post, July 15, 1972, p.l, Section D; March 30, 1972, p.l, Sea ion A.; also Ralph Linton, ‘Totemism and the American Air Force,’ American Anthropologist 26 (1920), 296–300.
71. William Raspberry, Washington Post.
72. Colin Taylor, ‘The Indian Hobbyist in America in Washburn, 1988, forthcoming.
73. In Christian Feest, 1987, see Feest, 309-328; Peter Bolz, ‘Life Among the “Hunkpapas:” A Case Study of German Indian Lore,’ 475-490;
74. Rudolf Conrad; Rudolf Kaiser; Miklos Letay; Giorgio Mariani; ‘Was Anybody More of An Indian Than Karl Marx?: The “Indiani Metropolitani” and the 1977 Movement,’ 585-598;
75. Alexander Vaschenko, ‘Some Russian Responses to North American Indian Cultures,’ 307-320;
76. Christopher Mulvey; Ewa Nowicka, ‘The Polish Movement Friends of the American Indians,’ 599-608; also Akwesasrte Notes, ‘Plastic Medicine Men.’
77. Stewart Brand, ‘The Counter Culture and Indians, 1960’s-1970’s,’ in Washburn, 1988, forthcoming; ‘Happy Hippie Hunting Ground,; Life Magazine, December 1, 1967, 66-71; in Feest, ed., 1987, articles by Giorgio Mariani; Ewa Nowicka; Alexander Vaschenko.
78. ‘Return of the Red Man,’ Life Magazine, Dec. 1, 1967.
79. See Lois Palken Rudnick, Mable Dodge Luhan: New Woman, New Worlds (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1981); also Arrel M. Gibson, The Santa Fe and Taos Colonies: Age of the Muse, 1900–1942 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1983).
80. See My Life With Grey Owl; Edgar Schmidt-Pauli, We Indians; The Passion of A Great Race, by Big Chief White Horse Eagle (London, 1931); Donald Smith, Long-Lance: The True Story of An Impostor, (Toronto, 1982). Contemporary films depend on one staple ‘Indian’ actor, Iron Eyes Cody, famous for pro-environmental ads in which he sheds tears over a polluted stream, yet he, though married to a Navajo woman and enormously supportive of many Indian causes, is really of Mediterranean heritage.
81. In Feest, 1987, Rudolf Kaiser above; see also Ray H. Sandefur; Ed Seeber; Wilcomb Washburn on ‘Logan’s Speech above; John Neihardt, 1971; Rothenburg; Gary Snyder.
82. William Least Heat Moon, Blue Highways (New York: Harper and Row, 1984);
83. Jamake Highwater, The Primal Mind: Vision and Reality in Indian America (New York: Harper and Row, 1981).
84. Carlos Casteneda, The Teachings of Don Juan: A Yaqui Way of Knowkdge (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1969), and his succeeding volumes, A Separate Reality: Further Conversations With Don Juan, 1971; Journey to Ixtlan 1972; Tales of Power, 1974; Lynn Andrews, Medicine Woman (New York: Harper and Row, 1981); and Spirit Woman, Jaguar Woman, succeeding years.
85. References on Sun Bear, etc. Akwesasne Notes (Summer, 1987); ‘Plastic Medicine Men’ (Fall, 1987); ‘Record of Councils Held by the Traditional Circle of Elders 4-6; Feest, 1987, 309–29.
86. See Peterson, 1981; Jennifer Brown, 1981.
87. References here are purely in the realm of oral tradition, though widely referred to in the Indian press and other forms of popular media; see Vine Deloria Jr. Custer Died For Your Sins (New York: Avon Books, 1969) for references to such phenomena.