Anthropocene invasion of an ecosystem engineer: Resolving the history of Corophium volutator (Amphipoda: Corophiidae) in the North Atlantic

Biological Journal of the Linnean Society

Volumn 115, Issue 2, 2015, Pages 288-304

  Einfeldt, Anthony L ^a   Addison, Jason A ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF NEW BRUNSWICK   (Canada)

Author keywords

Historic introduction; Mitochondrial DNA; Nuclear DNA; Phylogeography

Indexed keywords

ANTHROPOGENIC EFFECT; BIOGEOGRAPHICAL REGION; CRUSTACEAN; DISPERSAL; ECOSYSTEM ENGINEERING; GENETIC ANALYSIS; MUDFLAT; TAXONOMY;

ATLANTIC OCEAN; ATLANTIC OCEAN (NORTH);

AMPHIPODA; COROPHIIDAE; COROPHIUM VOLUTATOR;

EID: 84928205845     PISSN: 00244066     EISSN: 10958312     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/bij.12507     Document Type: Article

References (120)

1. Ashton GV, Stevens MI, Hart MC, Green DH, Burrows MT, Cook EJ, Willis KJ. 2008. Mitochondrial DNA reveals multiple Northern Hemisphere introductions of Caprella mutica (Crustacea, Amphipoda). Molecular Ecology 17: 1293-1303.
2. Audzijonyte A, Ovcarenko I, Bastrop R, Väinölä R. 2008. Two cryptic species of the Hediste diversicolor group (Polychaeta, Nereididae) in the Baltic Sea, with mitochondrial signatures of different population histories. Marine Biology 155: 599-612.
3. Bastrop R, Jürss K, Sturmbauer C. 1998. Cryptic species in marine polychaete and their independent introduction from North America to Europe. Molecular Biology and Evolution 15: 97-103.
4. Bax N, Williamson A, Aguero M, Gonzalez E, Geeves W. 2003. Marine invasive alien species: a threat to global biodiversity. Marine Policy 27: 313-323.
5. Beerli P, Felsenstein J. 2001. Maximum likelihood estimation of a migration matrix and effective population sizes in n subpopulations by using a coalescent approach. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 98: 4563-4568.
6. Beerli P, Palczewski M. 2010. Unified framework to evaluate panmixia and migration direction among multiple sampling locations. Genetics 185: 313-326.
7. Bellan-Santini D, Karaman G, Krapp-Schickel G, Ledoyer M, Myers A, Ruffo S, Schiecke U. 1982. Part I. Acanthonotozomatidae to Gammaridae. In: Ruffo S, ed. The amphipoda of the Mediterranean, Vol. 13. Monaco: Mém inst océanogr, 1-364.
8. Berman J, Harris L, Lambert W, Buttrick M, Dufresne M. 1992. Recent invasion of the Gulf of Maine: three contrasting ecological histories. Conservation Biology 6: 435-441.
9. Biles CL, Paterson DM, Ford RB, Solan M, Raffaelli DG. 2002. Bioturbation, ecosystem functioning, and community structure. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 6: 999-1005.
10. Blakeslee AMH, Byers JE, Lesser MP. 2008. Solving cryptogenic histories using host and parasite molecular genetics: the resolution of Littorina littorea's North American origin. Molecular Ecology 17: 3684-3696.
11. Blakeslee AMH, McKenzie CH, Darling JA, Byers JE, Pringle JM, Roman J. 2010. A hitchhiker's guide to the Maritimes: anthropogenic transport facilitates long-distance dispersal of an invasive marine crab to Newfoundland. Diversity and Distributions 16: 879-891.
12. Bousfield EL. 1973. Shallow-water gammaridean amphipoda of New England. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
13. Brawley SH, Coyer JA, Blakeslee AMH, Hoarau G, Johnson LE, Byers JE, Stam WT, Olsen JL. 2009. Historical invasions of the intertidal zone of Atlantic North America associated with distinctive patterns of trade and emigration. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 106: 8239-8244.
14. Briski E, Ghabooli S, Bailey SA, MacIsaac HJ. 2012. Invasion risk posed by macroinvertebrates transported in ships' ballast tanks. Biological Invasions 14: 1843-1850.
15. Cahill AE, Viard F. 2014. Genetic structure in native and non-native populations of the direct-developing gastropod Crepidula convexa. Marine Biology 161: 2433-2443.
16. Carlton JT. 1996. Biological invasions and cryptogenic species. Ecology 77: 1653-1655.
17. Carlton JT. 1999. Molluscan invasions in marine and estuarine communities. Malacologia 41: 439-454.
18. Carlton JT. 2003. Community assembly and historical biogeography in the North Atlantic Ocean: the potential role of human-mediated dispersal vectors. Hydrobiologia 503: 1-8.
19. Carlton JT. 2009. Deep invasion ecology and the assembly of communities in historical time. In: Rilov G, Crooks JA, eds. Biological invasions in marine ecosystems. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 13-56.
20. Carlton JT, Cohen AN. 2003. Episodic global dispersal in shallow water marine organisms: the case history of the European shore crabs Carcinus maenas and C.aestuarii. Journal of Biogeography 30: 1809-1820.
21. Carlton JT, Ruiz GM. 2005. The magnitude and consequences of bioinvasions in marine ecosystems: implications for conservation biology. In: Norse EA, Crowder LB, eds. Marine conservation biology: the science of maintaining the sea's biodiversity. Washington, DC: Island Press, 123-148.
22. Chapin FS, Zavaleta ES, Eviner VT, Naylor RL, Vitousek PM, Reynolds HL, Hooper DU, Lavorel S, Sala OS, Hobbie SE, Mack MC, Diaz S. 2000. Consequences of changing biodiversity. Nature 405: 234-242.
23. Chapman JW. 1999. Climate effects on the geography of nonindigenous Pericaridan Crustacean introductions in estuaries. In: Pederson J, ed. Marine bioinvasions: proceedings of the first national conference, January 24-27. Cambridge, MA: Massachusetts Institute of Technology Sea Grant Program, 66-80.
24. Ciarelli S, van Straalen NM, Klap VA, van Wezel AP. 1999. Effects of sediment bioturbation by the estuarine amphipod Corophium volutator on fluoroanthene resuspension and transfer into the mussel (Mytilus edulis). Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 18: 318-328.
25. Clement M, Posada D, Crandall K. 2000. TCS: a computer program to estimate gene genealogies. Molecular Ecology 9: 1657-1660.
26. Colwell RK, Chao A, Gotelli NJ, Lin SY, Mao CX, Chazdon RL, Longino JT. 2012. Models and estimators linking individual-based and sample-based rarefaction, extrapolation, and comparison of assemblages. Journal of Plant Ecology 5: 3-21.
27. Commito JA. 1982. Importance of predation by infaunal polychaetes in controlling the structure of a soft-bottom community in Maine, USA. Marine Biology 68: 77-81.
28. Crawford GI. 1937. A review of the amphipod genus Corophium, with notes on the British species. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom 21: 589-630.
29. Crooks JA. 2002. Characterizing ecosystem-level consequences of biological invasions: the role of ecosystem engineers. Oikos 97: 153-166.
30. Cuddington K, Hastings A. 2004. Invasive engineers. Ecological Modelling 178: 335-347.
31. Darling JA, Bagley MJ, Roman J, Tepolt CK, Geller JB. 2008. Genetic patterns across multiple introductions of the globally invasive crab genus Carcinus. Molecular Ecology 17: 4992-5007.
32. Dawson MN, Gupta AS, England MH. 2005. Coupled biophysical global ocean model and molecular genetic analyses identify multiple introductions of cryptogenic species. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 102: 11968-11973.
33. De Deckere EMGT, van de Koppel J, Heip CHR. 2000. The influence of Corophium volutator abundance on resuspension. Hydrobiologia 426: 37-42.
34. Denys N. 1672. The description and natural history of the coasts of North America (Acadia). Trans. William Ganong (1908).
35. Didyk AS, Bourgeois NA, Arp PA, Bourque J, Braune B, Cox GK, Ritchie C, Wells PG, Burt MDB. 2005. The roles of Corophium volutator and mercury in compromising shorebird migration. In: Percy JA, Evans AJ, Wells PG, Rolston SJ, eds. The Changing Bay of Fundy - Beyond 400 Years. Proceedings of the 6th Bay of Fundy science workshop. Cornwallis, NS: Environment Canada - Atlantic Region, 62-67.
36. Dlugosch KM, Parker IM. 2008. Founding events in species invasions: genetic variation, adaptive evolution, and the role of multiple introductions. Molecular Ecology 17: 431-449.
37. Doyle JJ, Doyle JL. 1987. A rapid DNA isolation procedure for small quantities of fresh leaf tissue. Phytochemical Bulletin 19: 11-15.
38. Drolet D, Barbeau MA. 2009. Diel and semi-lunar cycles in the swimming activity of the intertidal, benthic amphipod Corophium volutator in the upper Bay of Fundy. Journal of Crustacean Biology 29: 51-56.
39. Drolet D, Kennedy K, Barbeau MA. 2013. Winter population dynamics and survival strategies of the intertidal mudflat amphipod Corophium volutator (Pallas). Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 441: 126-137.
40. Ehrenfeld JG. 2010. Ecosystem consequences of biological invasions. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics 41: 59-80.
41. Einfeldt AL, Addison JA. 2013. Hydrology influences population genetic structure and connectivity of the intertidal amphipod Corophium volutator in the northwest Atlantic. Marine Biology 160: 1015-1027.
42. Einfeldt AL, Doucet JR, Addison JA. 2014. Phylogeography and cryptic introduction of the ragworm Hediste diversicolor (Annelida, Nereididae) in the Northwest Atlantic. Invertebrate Biology 133: 232-241.
43. Elton CS. 1958. The ecology of invasions by animals and plants. London: Methuen.
44. Excoffier L, Laval G, Schneider S. 2005. ARLEQUIN, v3.0: an integrated software package for population genetics data analysis. Evolutionary Bioinformatics 1: 47-50.
45. Foggo A, Attrill MJ, Frost MT, Rowden AA. 2003. Estimating marine species richness: an evaluation of extrapolative techniques. Marine Ecology Progress Series 248: 15-26.
46. Frankham R. 2004. Resolving the genetic paradox in invasive species. Heredity 94: 385-385.
47. Geller JB, Darling JA, Carlton JT. 2010. Genetic perspectives on marine biological invasions. Annual Review of Marine Science 2: 367-393.
48. Geller JB, Walton ED, Grosholz ED, Ruiz GM. 1997. Cryptic invasions of the crab Carcinus detected by phylogeography. Molecular Ecology 6: 901-906.
49. Gerdol V, Hughes RG. 1993. Effect of the amphipod Corophium volutator on the colonisation of mud by the halophyte Salicornia europaea. Marine Ecology Progress Series 97: 61-69.
50. Gollasch S, MacDonald E, Belson S, Botnen H, Christensen J, Hamer J, Houvenaghel G, Jelmert A, Lucas I, Masson D, McCollin T, Olenin S, Persson A, Wallentinus I, Wetsteyn L, Wittling T. 2002. Life in ballast tanks. In: Leppakowski E, Gollasch S, Olenin S, eds. Invasive aquatic species of Europe. The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 217-231.
51. Gotelli NJ, Colwell RK. 2001. Quantifying biodiversity: procedures and pitfalls in the measurement and comparison of species richness. Ecology Letters 4: 379-391.
52. Grosholz E. 2002. Ecological and evolutionary consequences of coastal invasions. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 17: 22-27.
53. Hagerthey SE, Defew EC, Paterson DM. 2002. Influence of Corophium volutator and Hydrobia ulvae on intertidal benthic diatom assemblages under different nutrient and temperature regimes. Marine Ecology Progress Series 245: 47-59.
54. Hamilton DJ, Barbeau MA, Diamond AW. 2003. Shorebirds, mud snails, and Corophium volutator in the upper Bay of Fundy, Canada: predicting bird activity on intertidal mud flats. Canadian Journal of Zoology 81: 1358-1366.
55. Hanfling B, Kollmann J. 2002. An evolutionary perspective on biological invasions. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 17: 545-546.
56. Hare MP. 2001. Prospects for nuclear gene phylogeography. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 16: 700-706.
57. Harper FM, Addison JA, Hart MW. 2007. Introgression versus immigration in hybridizing high-dispersal echinoderms. Evolution 61: 2410-2418.
58. Hauber DP, Saltonstall K, White DA, Hood CS. 2011. Genetic variation in the common reed, Phragmites australis, in the Mississippi river delta marshes: evidence for multiple introductions. Estuaries and Coasts 34: 851-862.
59. Hawkins CM. 1985. Population carbon budgets and the importance of the amphipod Corophium volutator in the carbon transfer on a Cumberland Basin mudflat, upper Bay of Fundy, Canada. Netherlands Journal of Sea Research 19: 165-176.
60. Haydar D. 2012. What is natural? The scale of cryptogenesis in the North Atlantic Ocean. Diversity and Distributions 18: 101-110.
61. Haydar D, Hoarau G, Olsen JL, Stam WT, Wolff WJ. 2011. Introduced or glacial relict? Phylogeography of the cryptogenic tunicate Molgula manhattensis (Ascidiacea, Pleurogona). Diversity and Distributions 17: 68-80.
62. Hewitt GM. 2000. The genetic legacy of the Quaternary ice ages. Nature 405: 907-913.
63. Highsmith RC. 1985. Floating and algal rafting as potential dispersal mechanisms in brooding invertebrates. Marine Ecology Progress Series 25: 169-179.
64. Hughes RG, Gerdol V. 1997. Factors affecting the distribution of the amphipod Corophium volutator in two estuaries in south-east England. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 44: 621-627.
65. Huntsman AG, Sparks MI. 1924. No. 6: limiting factors for marine animals. 3. Relative resistance to high temperatures. Contributions to Canadian Biology and Fisheries, Nova Scotia 2: 97-114.
66. Ingolfsson A. 1992. The origin of the rocky shore fauna of Iceland and the Canadian Maritimes. Journal of Biogeography 19: 705-712.
67. Ingolfsson A. 1995. Floating clumps of seaweed around Iceland: natural microcosms and a natural means of dispersal for shore fauna. Marine Biology 122: 13-21.
68. Ingolfsson A. 1996. The distribution of intertidal macrofauna on the coasts of Iceland in relation to temperature. Sarsia 81: 29-44.
69. Johnson JB, Omland KS. 2004. Model selection in ecology and evolution. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 19: 101-108.
70. Kass RE, Raftery AE. 1995. Bayes factors. Journal of the American Statistical Association 90: 773-795.
71. Krebes L, Blank M, Bastrop R. 2011. Phylogeography, historical demography and postglacial colonization routes of two amphi-Atlantic distributed amphipods. Systematics and Biodiversity 9: 259-273.
72. Lacoursière-Roussel A, Bock DG, Cristescu ME, Guichard F, Girard P, Legendre P, McKindsey CW. 2012. Disentangling invasion processes in a dynamic shipping-boating network. Molecular Ecology 21: 4227-4241.
73. Lefébure T, Douady CJ, Gouy M, Gibert J. 2006. Relationship between morphological taxonomy and molecular divergence within Crustacea: proposal of a molecular threshold to help species delimitation. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 40: 435-447.
74. Lejeusne C, Bock DG, Therriault TW, MacIsaac HJ, Cristescu ME. 2011. Comparative phylogeography of two colonial ascidians reveals contrasting invasion histories in North America. Biological Invasions 13: 635-650.
75. Librado P, Rozas J. 2009. DnaSP v5: a software for comprehensive analysis of DNA polymorphism data. Bioinformatics 25: 1451-1452.
76. MacDonald EC, Ginn M, Hamilton DJ. 2012. Variability in foraging behaviour and implications for diet breadth among semipalmated sandpipers staging in the upper Bay of Fundy. The Condor 114: 135-144.
77. Macfarlane CBA, Drolet D, Barbeau MA, Hamilton DJ, Ollerhead J. 2013. Dispersal of marine benthic invertebrates through ice rafting. Ecology 94: 250-256.
78. Maclean MF, Dadswell MJ, Stokesbury MJW. 2013. Feeding ecology of the Atlantic sturgeon, Acipenser oxyrinchus oxyrinchus (Mitchill, 1815) on the infauna of Minas Basin, Bay of Fundy. Journal of Applied Ichthyology 29: 503-509.
79. Maggs CA, Castilho R, Foltz D, Henzler C, Jolly MT, Kelly J, Olsen J, Perez KE, Stam W, Vainola R, Viard F, Wares J. 2008. Evaluating signature of glacial refugia for North Atlantic Benthic Marine Taxa. Ecology 89: S108-S122.
80. McCurdy DG, Forbes MR, Logan SP, Lancaster D, Mautner SI. 2005. Foraging and impacts by benthic fish on the intertidal amphipod Corophium volutator. Journal of Crustacean Biology 25: 558-564.
81. Meadows PS, Tait J. 1989. Modification of sediment permeability and shear strength by two burrowing invertebrates. Marine Biology 101: 75-82.
82. Meadows PS, Tait J, Hussain SA. 1990. Effects of estuarine infauna on sediment stability and particle sedimentation. Hydrobiologia 190: 263-266.
83. Mermillod-Blondin F, Rosenberg R. 2011. The functional significance of bioturbation and biodeposition on biogeochemical processes at the water-sediment interface in freshwater and marine ecosystems. Journal of the North American Benthological Society 30: 770-778.
84. Minchin D, Gollasch S, Cohen AN, Hewitt CL, Olenin S. 2009. Characterizing vectors of marine invasion. In: Rilov G, Crooks JA, eds. Biological invasions in marine ecosystems. 109-116. Berlin Heidelberg: Springer.
85. Miura O, Torchin ME, Kuris AM, Hechinger RF, Chiba S. 2006. Introduced cryptic species of parasites exhibit different invasion pathways. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 103: 19818-19823.
86. Mouritsen KN, Mouritsen LT, Jensen KT. 1998. Change of topography and sediment characteristics on an intertidal mud-flat following mass-mortality of the amphipod Corophium volutator. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom 78: 1167-1180.
87. Murdoch MH, Barlocher F, Laltoo ML. 1986. Population dynamics and nutrition of Corophium volutator (Pallas) in the Cumberland Basin (Bay of Fundy). Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 103: 235-249.
88. Nei M, Maruyama T, Chakraborty R. 1975. The bottleneck effect and genetic variability in populations. Evolution 29: 1-10.
89. Palsson S, Magnusdottir H, Reynisdottir S, Jonsson ZO, Ornolfsdottir EB. 2014. Divergence and molecular variation in common whelk Buccinum undatum (Gastropoda: Buccinidae) in Iceland: a trans-Atlantic comparison. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 111: 145-159.
90. Panova M, Blakeslee AMH, Miller AW, Makinen T, Ruiz GM, Johannesson K, Andre C. 2011. Glacial history of the North Atlantic marine snail, Littorina saxatilis, inferred from distribution of mitochondrial DNA lineages. PLoS ONE 6: e17511.
91. Pearson NJ, Gingras MK, Armitage IA, Pemberton SG. 2007. Significance of Atlantic sturgeon feeding excavations, Mary's Point, Bay of Fundy, New Brunswick, Canada. Palaios 22: 5-12.
92. Peer DL, Linkletter LE, Hicklin PW. 1986. Life history and reproductive biology of Corophium volutator (Crustacea: Amphipoda) and the influence of shorebird predation on population structure in Chignecto Bay, Bay of Fundy, Canada. Netherlands Journal of Sea Research 20: 359-373.
93. Pelegri SP, Blackburn TH. 1994. Bioturbation effects of the amphipod Corophium volutator on microbial nitrogen transformations in marine sediments. Marine Biology 121: 253-258.
94. Pihl L, Rosenberg R. 1984. Food selection and consumption of the shrimp Crangon crangon in some shallow marine areas in western Sweden. Marine Ecology Progress Series 15: 159-168.
95. Provan J, Bennett K. 2008. Phylogeographic insights into cryptic glacial refugia. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 23: 564-571.
96. Raymond M, Rousset F. 1995. GENEPOP (version 1.2): population genetics software for exact tests and ecumenicism. Journal of Heredity 86: 248-249.
97. Roman J. 2006. Diluting the founder effect: cryptic invasions expand a marine invader's range. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London Series B, Biological Sciences 273: 2453-2459.
98. Rousset F. 2008. Genepop'007: a complete re-implementation of the GENEPOP software for Windows and Linux. Molecular Ecology Resources 8: 103-106.
99. Ruiz GM, Fofonoff PW, Carlton JT, Wonham MJ, Hines AH. 2000. Invasion of coastal marine communities in North America: apparent patterns, processes, and biases. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics 31: 481-531.
100. Ruiz GM, Fofonoff PW, Hines AH. 1999. Non-indigenous species as stressors in estuarine and marine communities: assessing invasion impacts and interactions. Limnology and Oceanography 44: 950-972.
101. Sakai AK, Allendorf FW, Holt JS, Lodge DM, Molofsky J, With KA, Baughman S, Cabin RJ, Cohen JE, Ellstrand NC, McCauley DE, O'Neil P, Parker IM, Thompson JN, Weller SG. 2001. The population biology of invasive species. Ecology Evolution and Systematics 32: 305-332.
102. Scheltema RS. 1971. Larval dispersal as a means of genetic exchange between geographically separated populations of shallow-water benthic marine gastropods. Biological Bulletin 140: 284-322.
103. Segerstrale SG. 1959. Synopsis of data on the crustaceans. Gammarus locusta, Gammarus oceanicus, Pontoporeia affinis, and Corophium volutator (Amphipoda, Gammaridea). Societas Scientiarum Fennica Commentationes Biologicae 20: 1-23.
104. Simberloff D. 2011. How common are invasion-induced ecosystem impacts? Biological invasions 13: 1255-1268.
105. Sizmur T, Canario J, Gerwing TG, Mallory ML, O'Driscoll NJ. 2013. Mercury and methylmercury bioaccumulation by polychaete worms is governed by both feeding ecology and mercury bioavailability in coastal mudflats. Environmental Pollution 176: 18-25.
106. Slade RW, Moritz C. 1998. Phylogeography of Bufo marinus from its natural and introduced ranges. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London Series B, Biological Sciences 265: 769-777.
107. Slothouber Galbreath JGM, Smith JE, Becnel JJ, Butlin RK, Dunn AM. 2010. Reduction in post-invasion genetic diversity in Crangonyx pseudogracilis (Amphipoda: Crustacea): a genetic bottleneck or the work of hitchhiking vertically transmitted microparasites? Biological Invasions 12: 191-209.
108. Stephens M, Scheet P. 2005. Accounting for decay of linkage disequilibrium in haplotype inference and missing-data imputation. American Journal of Human Genetics 76: 449-462.
109. Stephens M, Smith N, Donnelly P. 2001. A new statistical method for haplotype reconstruction from population data. American Journal of Human Genetics 68: 978-989.
110. Thorson G. 1950. Reproductive and larval ecology of marine bottom invertebrates. Biological Reviews 25: 1-45.
111. Vainio JK, Vainola R. 2003. Refugial races and postglacial colonization history of the freshwater amphipod Gammarus lacustris in Northern Europe. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 79: 523-542.
112. Vila M, Espinar JL, Hejda M, Hulme PE, Jarosik V, Maron JL, Pergl J, Schaffner U, Sun Y, Pysek P. 2011. Ecological impacts of invasive alien plants: a meta-analysis of their effects on species, communities and ecosystems. Ecology Letters 14: 702-708.
113. Vitousek PM, D'Antonio CM, Loope LL, Rejmanek M, Westbrooks R. 1997. Introduced species: a significant component of human-caused global change. New Zealand Journal of Ecology 21: 1-16.
114. Voisin M, Engel CR, Viard F. 2005. Differential shuffling of native genetic diversity across introduced regions in a brown alga: aquaculture vs. maritime traffic effects. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 102: 5432-5437.
115. Wallentinus I, Nyberg CD. 2007. Introduced marine organisms as habitat modifiers. Marine Pollution Bulletin 55: 323-332.
116. Walther BA, Morand S. 1998. Comparative performance of species richness estimation methods. Parasitology 116: 395-405.
117. Wares JP, Cunningham CW. 2001. Phylogeography and historical ecology of the North Atlantic intertidal. Evolution 55: 2455-2469.
118. Widdows J, Brinsley M. 2002. Impact of biotic and abiotic processes on sediment dynamics and the consequences to the structure and functioning of the intertidal zone. Journal of Sea Research 48: 143-156.
119. Wilson AB, Boates JS, Snyder M. 1997. Genetic isolation of populations of the gammaridean amphipod, Corophium volutator, in the Bay of Fundy, Canada. Molecular Ecology 6: 917-923.
120. Zink RM, Barrowclough GF. 2008. Mitochondrial DNA under siege in avian phylogeography. Molecular Ecology 17: 2107-2121.