Exit, voice, and the state

World Politics

Volumn 31, Issue 1, 1978, Pages 90-107

  Hirschman, Albert O ^a  

^a UPPSALA UNIVERSITY   (Sweden)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 84924908695     PISSN: 00438871     EISSN: 10863338     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/2009968     Document Type: Article

References (45)

1. Hirschman, Exit, Voice, and Loyalty: Responses to Decline in Firms, Organizations, and States (Cambridge: Harvard University Press 1970).
2. Primarily in connection with the issue of resignation of officials who are in disagreement with public policies (see chaps. 7 and 8). I have touched on emigration in relation to the state in two subsequent papers: “Exit, Voice, and Loyalty: Further Reflections and a Survey of Recent Contributions,” Social Science Information, xm (February 1974), 7-26, and
3. “Political Economy: Some Uses of the Exit-Voice Approach— Discussion,” American Economic Review, Papers and Proceedings, Vol. 66 (May 1976), 386-89. Secessionist movements are brought into the exit-voice framework by
4. Stein Rokkan, “Dimensions of State Formation and Nation-Building: A Possible Paradigm for Research on Variations within Europe,” in Charles Tilly, ed., The Formation of National States in Western Europe (Princeton: Princeton University Press 1975), 562-600, and by
5. Samuel E. Finer, “State-Building, State Boundaries and Border Control: An Essay on Certain Aspects of the First Phase of State-Building in Western Europe, Considered in the Light of the Rokkan-Hirschman Model,” Social Science Information, xiii (August-October 1974), 79-126.
6. Rousseau, Oeuvres completes (Paris: NRF, Pléiade 1966), III, 203; emphasis added.
7. See Rousseau, Essai sur I'origine des langues…, edition, introduction, and notes by Charles Porset (Bordeaux: Ducros 1970), chap. II, 43; emphasis added.
8. Ibid., 11 (introduction by Porset).
9. Lévi-Strauss, “The Social and Psychological Aspects of Chieftainship in a Primitive Tribe: The Nambikuara of Northwestern Mato Grosso” (1944), reprinted in
10. Ronald Cohen and John Middleton, eds., Comparative Political Systems: Studies in the Politics of Pre-Industrial Societies (Garden City, N.Y.: Natural History Press 1967), 53-54.
11. Bamberger, “Exit and Voice in Central Brazil: On the Politics of Flight in Kayapó Society,” in David Maybury-Lewis, ed., Dialectical Societies (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, forthcoming).
12. Evans-Pritchard, “The Nuer of the Southern Sudan,” in M. Fortes and E. E. Evans-Pritchard, eds., African Political Systems (London: Oxford University Press 1940), 279.
13. John Middleton and David Tait, eds., Tribes Without Rulers: Studies in African Segmentary Systems (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul 1958), 3. It should be noted that the book does not deal with these societies; it concentrates on those having “segmentary lineage systems,” where exit resembles secession rather than emigration.
14. Marshall, “!Kung Bushman Bands” (1960), reprinted in
15. Cohen and Middleton (fn. 6), 17, 34-35.
16. Colin M. Turnbull, Wayward Servants: The Two Worlds of the African Pygmies (London: Eyre & Spottiswoode 1965), 106. Turnbull attempts to explain this constant “flux and instability” of the Mbuti bands by their antagonistic relationship with the settled villagers who, as a result of this confusion, are unable to assert the lineal and territorial rights they claim over the Mbuti.
17. H. J. Nieboer, Slavery as an Industrial System (The Hague: Nijhoff 1900);
18. Evsey Domar, “The Causes of Slavery or Serfdom: A Hypothesis,” Journal of Economic History, xxx (March 1970), 18-32.
19. Nieboer and Frederick Jackson Turner were contemporaries, but were probably unaware that one was speaking of “open resources” as a factor conducive to slavery and the other of the “open frontier” as conditioning American-style democracy.
20. This is true even for so elaborate a function as that of the “leopard-skin chief” of the Nuer in mediating disputes. See Evans-Pritchard (fn. 8), 291-95.
21. Milton Friedman, Capitalism and Freedom (Chicago: Chicago University Press 1962), chap. 6;
22. Charles M. Tiebout, “A Pure Theory of Local Expenditures,” Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 64 (October 1956), 416-24.
23. See Finer (fn. 2), 115
24. Montesquieu, Esprit des lois, XX, chap. 23.
25. See Hirschman, The Passions and the Interests: Political Arguments for Capitalism before Its Triumph (Princeton: Princeton University Press 1977), 95, and Part Two, passim.
26. See “The Prerogative of Popular Government,” in James Harrington, Oceana and Other Works, ed. John Toland (3d ed,; London: A. Millar 1747), 243.
27. From essay, “Of Public Credit” in Hume, Writings on Economics, ed. E. Rotwein (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press 1970), 98-99. For a number of telling 18th- century quotes denouncing the new world of stockjobbers and finance, see
28. Isaac Kramnick, Bolingbroke and His Circle: The Politics of Nostalgia in the Age of Walpole (Cambridge: Harvard University Press 1968), 47-48, 71-76, 220, 246.
29. Montesquieu (fn. 17), XXI, chap. 20.
30. Later in the century, Turgot based very similar hopes on the emigration of persons. Commenting on Richard Price's Observations on the Importance of the American Revolution he wrote: “The asylum which [the American people] opens to the oppressed of all nations must console the earth. The ease with which it will now be possible to take advantage of this situation, and thus to escape from the consequences of a bad government, will oblige the European Governments to be just and enlightened.” (Letter to Price of March 22, 1778, in Oeuvres, Paris: Delance 1810, IX, 389.) Turgot here argues about the state losing citizens as though it were a firm impelled by the exit of customers to improve its performance. The actual political effects of emigration on the sending country and their considerable diversity are explored in the next section.
31. Steuart, Inquiry into the Principles of Political Oeconomy (1767), I, ed. A. S. Skinner (Chicago: University of Chicago Press 1966), 181; emphasis added.
32. Hirschman (fn. 18), 100-113.
33. Smith, The Wealth of Nations, Modern Library ed., 800; see also pp. 345 and 858 for related passages; emphasis added.
34. John S. MacDonald, “Agricultural Organization, Migration and Labour Militancy in Rural Italy,” Economic Historic Review, 2d series, xvi (1963-1964), 61-75.
35. I have looked in vain for any speculation along such lines in the notable monographic studies on European migrations to the United States published as Dislocation and Emigration: The Social Background of American Immigration in D. Fleming and B. Bailyn, eds., Perspectives in American History, VII (Harvard University 1974). Professor Bailyn tells me that in his current work on 17th- and 18th-century emigration to North America considerable attention is being given to the social and political context of emigration in the sending country.
36. Nicholas R. Burnett, “Exit, Voice and Ireland, 1936-58,” unpub. (1977), 15; also Burnett's doctoral dissertation
37. “Emigration and Modern Ireland” (School of Advanced International Studies, Johns Hopkins University 1976).
38. See Charles P. Kindleberger, “Group Behavior and International Trade,” Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 59 (February 1951), 30-46; and
39. Peter A. Gourevitch, “International Trade, Domestic Coalitions, and Liberty: The Crisis of 1873-96,” Journal of Interdisciplinary History, viii (Autumn 1977), 281-313.
40. See Aristide R. Zolberg, “International Migration Policies in a Changing World System,” to be published in William H. McNeill and Ruth S. Adams, eds., Human Migration (Bloomington: Indiana University Press 1978).
41. Lester C. Thurow, “The Income Distribution as a Pure Public Good,” Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. 85 (May 1971), 327-36;
42. David Morawetz and others, “Income Distribution and Self-Rated Happiness: Some Empirical Evidence,” Economic Journal, Vol. 87 (September 1977), 511-22.
43. See Hirschman (fn. 1), chap. 7, particularly p. 78.
44. Fox, “An American Sociologist in the Land of Belgian Medical Research,” in Phillip E. Hammond, ed., Sociologists at Work (New York: Basic Books 1964), 349.
45. On the difference between the “native's” views of his society and the outside observer's, see Clifford Geertz, “On the Nature of Anthropological Understanding,” American Scientist, Vol. 63 (January-February 1975), 47-53.