Sustainable development and human rights: An integrated conception

International and Comparative Law Quarterly

Volumn 45, Issue 4, 1996, Pages 796-818

  Mcgoldrick, Dominic ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF LIVERPOOL   (United Kingdom)

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EID: 84924133991     PISSN: 00205893     EISSN: 14716895     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0020589300059704     Document Type: Article

References (222)

1. WCED, Our Common Future (1987). p.43.
2. See P. W. Birnie and A. E. Boyle, International Law and the Environment (1992), pp.433–435.
3. See D. Reid, Sustainable Development: An Introductory Guide (1996)
4. J. Holmberg, S. Bass and L. Timberlake, Defending the Future (1991).
5. E.g. the Preamble to the Agreement Establishing the World Trade Organization refers to “allowing for the optimal use of the world's resources in accordance with the objective of sustainable development”, CATT: The Results of the Uruguay Round of Multilateral Trade Negotiations (1994).
6. P. Sands, “International Law in the Field of Sustainable Development” (1994) 65 B.Y.I.L. 303,305, asks which of these sustainable development is.
7. See P. Sands, Principles of International Environmental Law, Vol.1, (1995)
8. Birnie and Boyle, Principles of International Environmental Law.
9. The Ksentini Report, infra n.36, at para.24, notes: “International environmental law has developed to such an extent that there are some 350 multilateral treaties, 1,000 bilateral treaties and a multitude of instruments of intergovernmental organizations that have been adopted in the form of declarations, programmes of action and resolutions.”
10. UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (1992) 31 I.L.M. 849
11. reprinted in P. Sands. R. G. Tarasofsky and M. Weiss, Documents in International Environmental Law, Vol.IIA (1995), p.248.
12. Convention on Biological Diversity (1992) 31 I.L.M. 822
13. reprinted in idem, p.845.
14. See C. Redgwell and M. Bowman (Eds), International Law and the Conservation of Biological Diversity (1996).
15. See the “Non-Legally Binding Authoritative Statement of Principles for a Global Consensus on the Management, Conservation and Sustainable Development of all Types of Forests” (1992). UN Doc.A/CONF.151/6/Rev.1
16. reprinted in Sands et al., idem, p.874.
17. Statement, idem. Principle 2(a).
18. See also the Stockholm Declaration (1972). Principle 1.
19. See D. McGoldrick, “A New International Economic Order for Europe?” (1992) 12 Y.E.L. 433. This is not to underestimate the difficulties of implementation that remain.
20. See R. Higgins, Problems and Process–International Law and How We Use It (1995), chap.8: “Natural Resources and International Norms”.
21. See A. Qureshi, The World Trade Organisation (1996).
22. Birnie and Boyle, The World Trade Organisation at p.5
23. S. M. Lele, “Sustainable Development: A Critical Review” (1991) 19(6) World Development 607.
24. See M. Redclift, Sustainable Development: Exploring the Contradictions (1989), esp. chap.2
25. O. Kuik and H. Verbruggen, In Search of Indicators of Sustainable Development (1991)
26. Y. J. Ahmad, S. El Sarafy and E. Lutz (Eds). Environmental Accounting for Sustainable Development (1989).
27. See M. Redclift, “Reflections on the ‘Sustainable Development’ Debate” (1989) 1 Int.J. Sustainable Development and World Ecology 3
28. M. Redclift and C. Sage, Strategies for Sustainable Development: Local Agendas for the Southern Hemisphere (1994)
29. J. A. Elliot, An Introduction to Sustainable Development: the Developing World (1994)
30. R. Jayakumar Nayar and D. M. Ong, “Developing Countries, ‘Development’ and the Conservation of Biological Diversity”, in Redgwell and Bowman, An Introduction to Sustainable Development: the Developing World, at pp.235–253
31. Global Conference on the Sustainable Development of Small Island Developing Slates (1994), UN Doc.A/CONF. 167-4
32. S. J. M. Bass, “Ecology and Economics in Small Islands: Constituting a Framework for Sustainable Development”, in Barbier, Global Conference on the Sustainable Development of Small Island Developing Slates infra n.24, at pp.156–176.
33. See W. Harcourt (Ed.), Feminist Perspectives on Sustainable Development (1994)
34. S. Joekes etal., “Gender, Environment and Population”, in D. Ghai (Ed.), Development and Economics: Sustaining People and Nature (1994).
35. See Sands, Development and Economics: Sustaining People and Nature
36. Birnie and Boyle, Development and Economics: Sustaining People and Nature. at pp.3–6,122–124
37. W. Lang (Ed.), Sustainable Development and International Law (1995).
38. Birnie and Boyle, Sustainable Development and International Law, at p.122, n.211
39. see Sustainable Development: The UK Strategy (Cm.2426, 1994)
40. UK Strategy for Sustainable Development: A Consultation Paper (1993)
41. British Government Panel on Sustainable Development, 1st Report (Dept of Environment 1995)
42. HL Select Committee on Sustainable Development, HL Paper 72, Session 1994–1995, Vol.1.
43. See D. McGoldrick. “From the New International Economic Order to the Agenda for Development”, in BIICL, Essays on Privatisation (1996).
44. GA Res.37-7.
45. See C. Tisdell, Environmental Economics: Policies for Environmental Management and Sustainable Development (1993), chap.1
46. F. Cairncross, Costing the Earth (1991)
47. E. B. Barbier (Ed.), Economics and Ecology: New Frontiers of Sustainable Development (1993)
48. D. W. Pearce and J. J. Warford, World Without End: Economics, Environment and Sustainable Development (1993).
49. See C. Barnard, “The External Dimension of Community Social Policy: The Ugly Duckling of External Relations”, in D. O'Keeffe and N. Emiliou (Eds), The European Union and World Trade Law (1996), pp.149–164
50. S. Charnovitz, “The World Trade Organization and Social Issues” (1994) 28(5) J.W.T. 17.
51. The Times. 20 May 1996, p.37, reports that the OECD was to adopt a report on trade and social issues. In July 1996 the European Commission adopted a Communication which suggested that the WTO should establish a working party on labour standards.
52. See E. Brown Weiss, “Environment and Free Trade as Partners in Sustainable Development” (1992)86 A.J.I.L. 728
53. T.J. Schoenbaum, “Free International Trade and Protection of the Environment: Irreconcilable Conflict” (1992) 86 A.J.I.L. 700
54. P. Umoner, “Trade Rules and Environmental Controversies During the Uruguay Round and Beyond” (1995) 18(1) World Economy 71
55. Sands, World Economy. at chap.18.
56. See Qureshi, World Economy, at pp.4 and 12
57. B. Kingsbury, “The Tuna-Dolphin Controversy, the WTO and the Liberal Project to Reconceptualize International Law” (1994)5 Y.I.E.L. 1.
58. See K. Ginther, E. Denters and P. J. I. M. De Waart (Eds), Sustainable Developments and Good Governance (1995).
59. See McGoldrick, Sustainable Developments and Good Governance.
60. Sustainable Developments and Good Governance.
61. See the excellent essay by M. Hession and R. Macrory, “Balancing Trade Freedom with the Requirements of Sustainable Development”, in O'Keeffe and Emiliou, Sustainable Developments and Good Governance, at pp.181–217.
62. See S. Weatherill. Law and Integration in the European Union (1995).
63. Art.l30u(2). See I. Macleod, I. D. Hendry and S. Hyett, The External Relations of the European Communities (1996), chap.18.
64. See M. Cremona, “Human Rights and Democracy Clauses in the EC's Trade Agreements”, in O'Keeffe and Emiliou, The External Relations of the European Communities, at pp.62–77.
65. Mrs F. M. Ksentini, Human Rights and the Environment, Final Report, UN Doc.E.CN.4-Sub.2-1994-9 (6 July 1994).
66. See A. F. Aguilar and N. A. F. Popovis. “Lawmaking in the United Nations: The UN Study on Human Rights and the Environment” (1994) 3(4) R.E.C.I.E.L. 197.
67. (OUP, 1995.).
68. IUCN's Commission for Environment Law, International Council for the Environment (1995)
69. see also “Report of a Consultation on Sustainable Development: The Challenge to International Law” (1993) 2(4) R.E.C.I.E.L.
70. See A. E. Boyle (Ed). Environmental Regulation and Economic Growth (1994).
71. See P. Harrison. The Third Revolution: Population, Environment and a Sustainable World (1993)
72. P. Sarre and J. Blunden (Eds), An Overcrowded World?–Population, Resources and the Environment (1995).
73. See G. Handl, “Environmental Security and Global Change: the Challenge to International Law” (1991) 1 Y.I.E.L. 3,22.
74. See A. Cassese, Self-Determination of Peoples–A Legal Reappraisal (1995)
75. M. Kos-kenniemi, “National Self-Determination Today: Problems of Legal Theory and Practice” (1994) 43 I.C.L.Q. 241.
76. Birnie and Boyle, I.C.L.Q., at p.5.
77. Idem, p.123.
78. See also Hand), Idem.
79. Sands, Idem, at p.379.
80. L. Kramer, EC Treaty and Environmental Law (2nd edn, 1995), para.2.34.
81. See EC Treaty and Environmental Law.
82. See D. McGoldrick, The Human Rights Committee (1991), pp.14–16.
83. See Higgins, The Human Rights Committee, at chap.7.
84. Cf. R. McCorquodale, “Self-Determination: A Human Rights Approach” (1994) 43 I.C.L.Q. 857.
85. For claims and claimants to sustainable development see I.C.L.Q. nn.17–21.
86. See Cassese, I.C.L.Q., esp. at chap. 12.
87. Redclift, I.C.L.Q.
88. See Sands, I.C.L.Q., at pp.378–379.
89. See UN Doc.S/23500, 31 Jan. 1992, repr. in the UN Secretary-General's Agenda for Peace (2nd edn, 1995), p.115
90. Ksentini Report, Agenda for Peace, at paras.111–116.
91. See e.g.T. Meron, Human Rights and Humanitarian Norms as Customary Law (1989).
92. See A. Boyle, “State Responsibility and International Liability for Injurious Consequences of Acts not Prohibited by International Law: A Necessary Distinction?” (1990) 39 I.C.L.Q. 1.
93. See O. Schachter, International Law in Theory and Practice (1991).
94. See text accompanying infra nn.92–99. The establishment by the ICJ of an environment chamber is unhelpful in the sense that it implies that environmental law remains marginalised from general international law.
95. See Ksentini Report, infra, at paras.45,138–143.
96. Note also the concept of gender auditing of laws and policies: World Declaration on Human Rights (1993), pr.42.
97. Cf. in the economic sphere, F. Beveridge and S. Nott, “Gender Auditing–Making the Community Work for Women”, in T. Harvey and D. O'Keeffe (Eds), Sex Equality in EC Law (1996), pp.382–398
98. see also Sex Equality in EC Law.
99. See Ksentini Report, idem, paras.74–94;Draft UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, UN Doc.E/CN.4/1995/2 and E/CN.4/1994/56.
100. See e.g. Art.8(j) of the Biodiversity Convention, idem
101. J. Woodliffe, “Biodiversity and Indigenous Peoples”, in Redgwell and Bowman, idem, at pp.255–269
102. A. Fabra, “Indigenous Peoples, Environmental Degradation and Human Rights: A Case Study”, in M. Anderson and A. E. Boyle (Eds), Human Rights Approaches to Environmental Protection (1996), 245
103. Symposium, “Endangered Peoples: Indigenous Rights and the Environment”, (1994) 5 Co.J.I.E.L.P. 23.
104. See Ksentini Report, Co.J.I.E.L.P., at paras.95–110
105. A. P. V. Rogers, Law of the Battlefield (1996), chap.6.
106. See M. R. Anderson, “Individual Rights to Environmental Protection in India”, in Anderson and Boyle, Co.J.I.E.L.P., at 199
107. T. Allen, “Commonwealth Constitutions and Implied Social and Economic Rights”, (1994) 6 A J.I.C.L. 555.
108. Agenda 21,para.23.2. See D. P. Ghai, and J. M. Vivian (Eds). Grassroots Environmental Action: People's Participation in Sustainable Development (1992)
109. A. Tolentino, “Good Governance Through Popular Participation in Sustainable Development”, chap.9
110. Ginther et al. “Good Governance Through Popular Participation in Sustainable Development”.
111. See e.g. S. Ball and S. Bell, Environmental Law (3rd edn, 1995), chap.7.
112. On access to information in the context of environmental accidents or emergencies see L. Schwarz, “International Legal Protection for Victims of Environmental Abuse” (1993) 18 Yale J.I.L. 373.
113. See e.g. P. Thornberry, “The Principle of Self-Determination”, in V. Lowe and C. Warbrick (Eds), The United Nations and the Principles of International Law (1994), pp. 175–203.
114. See the UN Declaration on the Rights of Persons Belonging to National or Ethnic, Religious or Linguistic Minorities (1992) esp. Arts.2 and 5; Draft Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, The United Nations and the Principles of International Law, Arts.4,19–20.
115. See e.g. M. Lau, “Islam and Judicial Activism: Public Interest Litigation and Environmental Protection in the Islamic Republic of Pakistan”, in Anderson and Boyle, The United Nations and the Principles of International Law, at 285.
116. See e.g. Ball and Bell, The United Nations and the Principles of International Law, at pp.32–34
117. C. Hilson and I. Cram, “Judicial Review and Environmental Law–Is There a Coherent View of Standing” (1996) 16 Legal Studies 1
118. R. v. Poole BC, ex p. Beebee [1991] J.P.L. 643
119. R. v. Her Majesty's Inspectorate of Pollution, ex p. Greenpeace Ltd (No.2) [1994] 4 All E.R. 329
120. R. v. Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs, ex p. World Development Movement [1995] 1 All E.R. 611.
121. See Sands, All E.R., at pp.579–594
122. A. Gilpin, Environmental Impact Assessment (1995).
123. See e.g. Ball and Bell, Environmental Impact Assessment, at chap.10.
124. See H. J. Steiner and P. Alston, International Human Rights in Context (1996), pp.456–199.
125. E. Childers and B. Urquhart, “We. The Peoples”, in Renewing the UN System (1994), p. 172.
126. See Birnie and Boyle, Renewing the UN System, at chap.4
127. Sands, Renewing the UN System, at chaps.4–5. 15–19
128. J. Cameron, J. Werksman and P. Roderick, Improving Compliance with International Environmental Law (1996)
129. Symposium, “Compliance with International Standards: Environmental Case Studies” (1995) 82 Proc.A.S.I.L. 206.
130. See Sands, idem, pp.600–605.
131. See P. Alston (Ed.), The United Nations and Human Rights–A Critical Appraisal (1992)
132. McGoldrick, The United Nations and Human Rights–A Critical Appraisal, at chap.3.
133. See A. F. Bayefsky, “Making Human Rights Treaties Work”, in L. Henkin and J. L. Hargrove (Eds), Human Rights: An Agenda for the Next Century (1994), pp.229–295.
134. Climate Change Convention, Art.4(3). See also Biodiversity Convention, Art.20.
135. See also D. O'Donovan. “The ECOSOC”, in Alston, “Compliance and Dispute Avoidance”, at pp. 107–125.
136. See S. Douglas-Scott, “Environmental Rights in the European Union: Participatory Rights or Democratic Deficit”, in Anderson and Boyle, “Compliance and Dispute Avoidance”, at 109.
137. See Case T-585/93, Stichting Greenpeace and Others v. Commission [1995] E.C.R. 11–2205. See also the strict application of the rules for locus standi under the EAEC Treaty in the application for interim relief seeking the suspension of the operation of a Commission decision regarding nuclear tests by France in the South Pacific: Case T-219/95R. M.-T. Danielsson and Others v. Commission (22 Dec. 1995. not yet rep.).
138. (1991) O.J. L377/48
139. see Kramer, O.J., at p.25.
140. See P. G. G. Davies, “The European Environment Agency” (1994) 14 E.L.Rev. 313.
141. See infra Part VI.
142. New Zealand's request for an examination of the situation in accordance with para.63 of the Court's 1974 judgment in the Nuclear Tests Case (New Zealand v. France). Order of the Court, I.CJ. Rep. 1995,288.
143. See also M. Craven (1996) 45 I.C.L.Q. 725.
144. I.C.J. Rep. (1996), 8 July 1996. General List No.93.
145. I.C.J. Rep. pr.31.
146. I.C.J. Rep. (1996), 8 July 1996, General List No.95.
147. I.C.J. Rep., prs.24–6 on human rights and prs.27–33 on the environment.
148. I.C.J. Rep. pr.33.
149. I.C.J. Rep., pr.25.
150. See Alston, I.C.J. Rep.
151. See e.g. Art.23 of the Biodiversity Convention; A. Boyle, “The Rio Convention on Biological Diversity”, in Redgwell and Bowman, I.C.J. Rep. pp.33–49. at pp.47–48.
152. Birnie and Boyle, I.C.J. Rep., at pp. 165–166.
153. See P. Alston, “The UN Commission on Human Rights”, in Alston, I.C.J. Rep. at pp.126–210.
154. See D. J. Harris, M. O'Boyle and C. Warbrick, The Law of the European Convention on Human Rights (1995), pp.706–714. See also Protocol 10.
155. See Art.20(4) of the Biodiversity Convention; S. Johnston, “Financial Aid, Biodiversity and International Law”, in Redgwell and Bowman, The Law of the European Convention on Human Rights, at pp.271–288
156. Sands, The Law of the European Convention on Human Rights, at pp.374–377.
157. See e.g. Art.2 of the International Covenant on Economic Social and Cultural Rights, on which see M. Craven, The International Covenant on Economic Social and Cultural Rights (1995), pp.106–152, esp. 144–150.
158. See the World Declaration on Human Rights (Vienna) 1993, esp. paras.87–89.
159. See Sands, the World Declaration on Human Rights, at pp.74–76
160. F. Dodd and T. Bigg, The UN Commission on Sustainable Development: Three Years Since the Rio Summit (1995).
161. Ksentini Report, The UN Commission on Sustainable Development: Three Years Since the Rio Summit.
162. The UN Commission on Sustainable Development: Three Years Since the Rio Summit
163. Boyle, The UN Commission on Sustainable Development: Three Years Since the Rio Summit infra n.1 14.
164. See Ksentini Report, idem. Annex III
165. J. Glazewski, “Environmental Rights and the New South African Constitution”, in Anderson and Boyle, idem, at 177.
166. See R. Churchill, “Environmental Rights in Existing Human Rights Treaties”, in Anderson and Boyle, idem, 89.
167. See essays by M. R. Anderson, “Human Rights Approaches to Environmental Protection: An Overview”
168. J. Merrills, “Environmental Protection and Human Rights: Conceptual Aspects”
169. A. Boyle, “The Role of International Human Rights Law in the Protection of the Human Environment”, all in Anderson and Boyle, “Environmental Protection and Human Rights: Conceptual Aspects”, at pp.1,25, and 43 respectively
170. D. Shelton, “Human Rights, Environmental Rights and the Right to the Environment” (1991) 28 Stanford J.I.L. 103
171. Symposium, “Environment, Economic Development and Human Rights: A Triangular Relationship?” (1988) Proc.A.S.I.L. 40. Similar comments could be made about the asserted human right to development.
172. See S. Douglas-Scott, “Environmental Rights: Taking the Environment Seriously”, in C. Gearty and A. Tomkins, Understanding Human Rights (1996), pp.423–451, who concludes, at p.448: “The best way to take the environment seriously is not to accord it rights.”
173. See Shelton, Understanding Human Rights
174. A. C. Kiss and D. Shelton, International Environmental Law (1991)
175. T. Allen, “National Perspectives on the Environment and Fundamental Rights”. (1994) 6 A.S.I.C.L. Proc. 151.
176. See C. Redgwell, “Life, the Universe and Everything: A Critique of Anthropocentric Rights”, in Anderson and Boyle, A.S.I.C.L. Proc., at 71.
177. See I. Hodkova, “Is There a Right to a Healthy Environment in the International Legal Order?” (1991) 7 Conn. J.I.L. 65
178. J. Nickel, “The Human Right to a Safe Environment” (1993) 18 Yale J.I.L. 281.
179. See P. W. Gormley, “The Legal Obligation of the International Community to Guarantee a Pure and Decent Environment: The Expansion of Human Rights Norms” (1990) 3 Geo.Int.Envt.L.R. 85.
180. On the possible danger of too extended a conception of the importance of the environment see M. Kloepfer, “An Authoritarian Ecological State” (1994) E.E.L.R. 122.
181. See J. Cameron and R. Mackenzie, “Access to Environmental Justice and Procedural Rights in International Institutions”, in Anderson and Boyle, E.E.L.R., at 129
182. Douglas-Scott, E.E.L.R. 15, at p.436. comments: “A procedural approach provides environmental protection by way of democracy.”
183. See Ksentini Report, E.E.L.R., at paras. 248–251.
184. See Harris et al, E.E.L.R.
185. See McGoldrick, E.E.L.R.
186. M. Nowak, Commentary on the UN ICCPR (1993).
187. The classic work remains that of E. Brown Weiss, In Fairness To Future Generations (1990).
188. Art.5 of the Draft Covenant, In Fairness To Future Generations, provides: “The freedom of action of each generation in regard to the environment is qualified by the needs of future generations.”
189. See also ICJ Opinion, In Fairness To Future Generations at pr. 29.
190. See Harris et al. In Fairness To Future Generations, at pp.630–638
191. McGoldrick, In Fairness To Future Generations, at pp.168–177.
192. See the decision of the Supreme Court of the Philippines in Minors Oposa v. Secretary of the Department for Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) (1994) 33 I.L.M. 173.
193. E.H.P. v. Canada. Selected Decisions of the HRC. Vol.2, p.20.
194. Cf. Appn.9234/81, X. v. Germany. 26 D.R. 270.
195. See the Council of Europe's Draft Protocol on Environmental Rights, cited in Sands, D.R., at p.225, n.290.
196. E.g. the work of the Council of Europe on a protocol on the cultural rights of minorities was suspended in Jan. 1996. It would in any event have granted individual rather than group rights. See Council of Europe, Human Rights Information Sheet No.37. July-Dec. 1995, p.106.
197. “… in cases with environmental concerns, the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights has allowed ‘interest group’ or ‘interested citizen’ actions”: Ksentini Report. Human Rights Information Sheet No.37, at para.222.
198. See Alston, Human Rights Information Sheet No.37.
199. Cf. Sands, Human Rights Information Sheet No.37. at p.359, who notes a change by the World Bank that allows an affected party to complain that rights or interests have been affected by the Bank's omission to follow its procedures with respect to projects provided that the failure has or threatens to have a material adverse effect.
200. See Ksentini Report, Human Rights Information Sheet No.37, at paras.163–171. There is no such right in the ECHR.
201. See McGoldrick, Human Rights Information Sheet No.37, at pp.255–256
202. Churchill, Human Rights Information Sheet No.37.
203. See Ksentini Report, Human Rights Information Sheet No.37, at paras.172–175.
204. See Human Rights Information Sheet No.37.
205. See Harris et al. Human Rights Information Sheet No.37, at pp.80–84
206. McGoldrick, Human Rights Information Sheet No.37, at pp.370–371.
207. Lopez Ostra, infra n.149, at para.60.
208. Harris et al, infra, at pp.174–195.
209. McGoldrick, infra, at pp.414–416.
210. See Ksentini Report, infra, at paras.203–216.
211. See Harris et al., infra, at pp.516–539
212. Art. 13. Harris et al., idem, pp.443–461
213. Powell and Rayner, idem 43.
214. See Ksentini Report, idem, at para.44.
215. Annual Report of the Human Rights Committee 1990, UN Doc.A/45/40, Vol.11, App.A.
216. See D. McGoldrick, “Canadian Indians. Cultural Rights and the Human Rights Committee” (1991) 40 I.C.L.Q. 658.
217. Lopez Ostra, idem, para.51.
218. idem.
219. Idem, para.58.
220. See A. Clapham, Human Rights in the Private Sphere (1993), pp.215–222.
221. On the importance of European national law standards in the ECHR see Harris et al., Human Rights in the Private Sphere, at pp.9–11.
222. See Hession and Macrory, Human Rights in the Private Sphere, in the context of the EC.