Through other continents: American literature across deep time

Through Other Continents: American Literature Across Deep Time

Volumn , Issue , 2008, Pages 1-243

  Dimock, Wai Chee ^a  

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References (499)

1. See http://web.amnesty.org/library/index/engmde 140892003.
2. For news articles from the Independent as well as the BBC and the Associated Press, see http://www.thememoryhole.org/history/iraq-natl-library.htm.
3. Charles Hanley, reporting for the Associated Press, April 15, 2003.
4. Benedict Anderson, Imagined Community: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (London: Verso, 1983), 28-32;
5. Anthony Giddens, The Consequences of Modernity (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1990), 17-21.
6. Anderson explicitly links nationalism to two forms of seriality: the "unbound seriality" of the newspaper, and the "bound seriality" of the census. See "Nationalism, Identity, Logic of Seriality," in his The Spectre of Comparisons: Nationalism, Southeast Asia, and the World (London: Verso, 1998), 29-45. I try to complicate his argument by looking at chronological dates as another form of seriality.
7. Aristotle was the first to ask this question, in his Physics. I will discuss this genealogy more fully in chapter 6.
8. For two important discussions of non-Western challenges to standardized time, see Prasenjit Duara, "Transnationalism and the Challenge to National Histories," and Walter Johnson, "Time and Revolution in African America: Temporality and the History of Atlantic Slavery," both in Rethinking American History in a Global Age, ed. Thomas Bender (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2002), 25-46, 148-67.
9. See, for instance, Paul Giles, Virtual Americas: Transnational Fictions and the Transatlantic Imaginary (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2002);
10. Multilingual America: Transnationalism, Ethnicity, and the Languages of American Literature, ed. Werner Sollors (New York: NYU Press, 1998);
11. Post-National American Studies, ed. John Carlos Rowe (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2000);
12. Streams of Cultural Capital: Transnational Cultural Studies, ed. David Palumbo-Liu and Hans Ulrich Gumbrecht (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1997).
13. Fernand Braudel, "Histoire et sciences sociales: La longue durée," Annales d'histoire économique et sociale 4 (October-December 1958): 725-53. Translated as "History and the Social Sciences: The Longue Durée," in On History, trans. Sarah Matthews (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980), 25-54; quotation from 27.
14. For an interesting discussion of different time frames required by world history, including a time frame of 15 billion years, see David Christian, "The Case for 'Big History,' " Journal of World History 2 (Fall 1991): 223-38.
15. Immanuel Wallerstein, The Modern World-System, 3 vols. (New York: Academic Press, 1974-1989).
16. Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, "Planetarity," in Death of a Discipline (New York: Columbia University Press, 2003), 71-102, quotation from 102, 101.
17. The literature on this subject is vast. Exemplary works include Grahame Clark, Space, Time, and Man (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992);
18. Stephen Jay Gould, Time's Arrow, Time's Cycle: Myth and Metaphor in the Discovery of Geological Time (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1987);
19. Stephen W. Hawking, A Brief History of Time: From the Big Bang to Black Holes (New York: Bantam, 1988);
20. Paolo Rossi, The Dark Abyss of Time: The History of the Earth and the History of Nations from Hooke to Vico, trans. Lydia G. Cochrane (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984);
21. Stephen Toulmin and June Goodfield, The Discovery of Time (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1965).
22. Bruce Ackerman, "The Rise of World Constitutionalism," Virginia Law Review 83 (May 1997): 771-97.
23. Jürgen Habermas, Postnational Constellation, trans. Max Pensky (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2001), 69-70. Habermas's prediction was made, of course, before the war in Iraq, a war that, as Étienne Balibar shows, has done much to invert Habermas's model, highlighting not a postnational constellation, but state sovereignty globally deployed.
24. See Étienne Balibar, "What Is a War?" Public Lecture, School of Criticism and Theory, Cornell University, June 23, 2003.
25. For Balibar's critique of nationalism and the nation-state, see "Racism and Nationalism" and "The Nation Form," in Étienne Balibar and Immanuel Wallerstein, Race, Nation, Class: Ambiguous Identities (London: Verso, 1991), 37-68, 86-106.
26. While Habermas is primarily interested in the postnational constellation as democratic politics, other theorists (such as Arjun Appadurai) are more interested in it as a globalized imagination.
27. See Appadurai, Modernity at Large: Cultural Dimensions of Globalization (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1996).
28. "Global Civil Society" is a now an institutional program at the London School of Economics, with annual publications.
29. For related works, see Mary Kaldor, Global Civil Society: An Answer to War (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2003).
30. See also John Keane, Global Civil Society? (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), which makes the interesting argument that the idea of a global civil society represents a corrective to the traditional idea of "civil society."
31. Toward a Global Civil Society, ed. Michael Walzer (Providence: Berghahn Books, 1995), 1.
32. I take the term "rhizome" from Gilles Deleuze and Felix Guattari, On the Line, trans. John Johnston (New York: Semiotext[e]), 7-10.
33. Robert Pogue Harrison, "The Origin of Our Basic Words," chapter 5 in The Dominion of the Dead (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003), 72-89, quotation from 85.
34. Henry David Thoreau, Walden, ed. J. Lyndon Shanley (1854; rpt., Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1971), 298.
35. This is true of the Concord River as well. As Lawrence Buell suggests, this American river, for Thoreau, is "as old as the Nile or Euphrates, ultimately at one with all the famous rivers of history and legend: Xanthus, Scamander, Mississippi, Ganges, Nile."
36. See Literary Transcendentalism: Style and Vision in the American Renaissance (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1973), 209.
37. Henry David Thoreau, A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers, ed. Carl F. Hovde et al. (1849; rpt., Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1980), 136.
38. All other references to this edition will be included in the text as Week, followed by the page number.
39. For the genealogy and composition of the Bhagavad Gita, see the introduction, to The Bhagavadgita, Translated with Sanskrit with an Introduction, an Argument, and a Commentary by W. Douglas P. Hill (London: Oxford University Press, 1928), 14-18.
40. For the importance of Eastern religions not just to Thoreau but, first and foremost, to Emerson and to the contributors and readers of the North American Review, see Arthur Christy, The Orient in American Transcendentalism (New York: Columbia University Press, 1932), 23-29;
41. Carl T. Jackson, Oriental Religions and American Thought (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1981), 25-84.
42. For the importance of South Asian religions to the West, see Srinivas Aravamudan, Guru English: South Asian Religion in a Cosmopolitan Language (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2006).
43. The Bhagavad Gita, trans. Charles Wilkins, with introduction by Warren Hastings, ed. J Garrett (1784; rpt., Bangalore: Wesleyan Mission Press, 1849), 1:28-33, 36-37. Lecture 1 in the Wilkins translation is not divided into lines; I have tallied the line number against the Hill translation. All other citations to Wilkins translation will be included in parentheses in the text, the lecture number followed by the line number.
44. The Iliad and the Odyssey are both shadowed by the fact of death and by the agonized cries of mortals against their mortality. However, these agonized cries do not lead to any critical reflection on whether war is justifiable.
45. Seeing that mockery as the central fact of A Week, Daniel Peck argues that it leads Thoreau to write in a "decidedly elegiac tone and to cast time as the foe from whom he would have to redeem his losses." See "Killing Time," in Thoreau's Morning Work: Memory and Perception in "A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers," the Journals, and "Walden" (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990), 3-21, quotation from 8.
46. January 8, 1842. Henry D. Thoreau, Journal: Volume 1, 1837-1844, ed. Elizabeth Hall Witherell, William L. Howarth, Robert Sattelmeyer, Thomas Blanding (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1981), 362.
47. February 21, 1842. Thoreau, Journal, 1:366.
48. March 12, 1842. Thoreau, Journal, 1:372.
49. Thoreau, "Resistance to Civil Government," in Reform Papers, ed. Wendell Glick (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1973), 63-90, quotation from 65-66.
50. Thoreau, "The Last Days of John Brown," in Reform Papers, 145-53, quotation from 152-53.
51. Thoreau, Walden, 325, italics in original.
52. My thanks to Dilip Gaonkar for suggesting the concept of "carrier" for the phenomenon that I am trying to describe.
53. Hannah Arendt, The Human Condition (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1958), 189.
54. Arendt's detailed account of action is the most compelling I know of.
55. For a useful (and partisan) summary of the disagreements, see W. Douglas P. Hill's introduction to the Bhagavad Gita, 1-55.
56. See n. 12, above.
57. Raymond Adams, "Thoreau's Sources for 'Resistance to Civil Government,' " Studies in Philology 42 (July 1945): 640-53, esp. 648-49;
58. Robert D. Richardson, Jr., Henry Thoreau: A Life of the Mind (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1986), 176-177.
59. Adams, "Thoreau's Sources," 649-50.
60. For Garrison's relation to the Non-Resistance movement, see Henry Mayer, All on Fire: William Llyod Garrison and the Abolition of Slavery (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1998), 249-51, 258-64.
61. William Lloyd Garrison, "Declaration of Sentiments," in Selections from the Writings and Speeches of William Lloyd Garrison (Boston: R. F. Wallcut, 1852), 72-77, quotation from 72, 73-74.
62. F. B. Sanborn, The Life of Henry David Thoreau (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1917), 466-69.
63. Thoreau, "The Service," in Reform Papers, 3-17, quotation from 14. Interestingly, the essay was rejected by Margaret Fuller. See Richardson, Henry Thoreau, 371.
64. Thoreau, "A Plea for Captain John Brown," in Reform Papers, 111-38, quotation from 132.
65. May 29, 1854. The Journal of Henry D. Thoreau, ed. Bradford Torrey and Francis H. Allen, 14 vols. (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1906), 3:315. As Sandra Petrulionis points out, quite a bit of editorializing intervened between the journal entries and Thoreau's public statements.
66. See Sandra Harbert Petrulionis, "Editorial Savoir Faire: Thoreau Transforms His Journal into 'Slavery in Massachusetts,' " Resources for American Literary Study 25, no. 2 (1999): 206-31.
67. Thoreau, "Resistance to Civil Government," 134.
68. Martin Luther King, "A Legacy of Creative Protest," in Thoreau in Our Season, ed. John H. Hicks (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1962), 13.
69. Gandhi, "Anasaktiyoga," in The Gospel of Selfless Action, or the "Gita" According to Gandhi, trans. Mahadev Desai (Ahmedabad: Navajivan Publishing House, 1946), 121-31, quotation from 122. Gandhi was in England from 1888 to 1891, studying law at the Inner Temple. At one point he was living in the Bayswater section of London and joined a vegetarian club, the vice president of which was Sir Edwin Arnold, who had just translated the Bhagavad Gita in 1885, under the title of The Song Celestial.
70. See Louis Fischer, The Life of Mahatma Gandhi (New York: Harper, 1950), 29.
71. This is the aforementioned The Gospel of Selfless Action, or the "Gita" According to Gandhi, translated by Mahadev Desai back into English.
72. Fischer, Life of Mahatma Gandhi, 29.
73. Gandhi, "Anasaktiyoga," 130.
74. Thoreau, "Resistance to Civil Government," 75.
75. Webb Miller, I Found No Peace (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1938), 238-39.
76. Indian Opinion, October 26, 1907.
77. For a detailed account of Gandhi's indebtedness to Thoreau, see George Hendrick, "The Influence of Thoreau's 'Civil Disobedience' on Gandhi's Satyagraha," New England Quarterly 29, no. 4 (December 1956): 462-71.
78. For an account of nonviolent resistance in South Africa, see Gandhi, Satyagraha in South Africa, trans. Valji Govindji Desai (Ahmedabad: Navajivan Publishing House, 1928).
79. For his account of what he read during his three prison sentences, see "First Jail Experience," "Second Jail Experience," and "Third Experience," in Speeches and Writings of Mahatma Gandhi, 4th ed. (Madras: Natesan, 1933), 218, 226, 238-39.
80. M. K. Gandhi, "The Birth of Satyagraha," in An Autobiography, or The Story of My Experiments with Truth, trans. Mahadev Desai (Ahmedabad: Navajivan Publishing House, 1927), 389-90.
81. This is not true of Buddhism, and also less true of ecclesiastical structures in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, with interfaith alliances steadily growing.
82. Thoreau quotes from the Parables of Zoroaster: "The oracles often give victory to our choice, and not to the order alone of the mundane periods. As, for instance, when they say that our voluntary sorrows germinate in us as the growth of the particular life we lead."
83. See Henry David Thoreau, A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers (1849; rpt., New York: Penguin, 1998), 101.
84. As Daniel Peck points out, Thoreau read these parables in The Phenix: Collection of Old and Rare Fragments (New York: Gowan, 1835). See Peck's editorial notes to A Week, 324, n. 17.
85. A Week, 123.
86. Thoreau, "The Preaching of Buddha," The Dial 4 (January 1844), 391-401.
87. Thoreau, A Week, 58.
88. Robert Irwin, "The Emergence of the Islamic World System, 1000-1500," in The Cambridge Illustrated History of the Islamic World, ed. Francis Robinson (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 32-61.
89. William H. McNeill, The Rise of the West: A History of the Human Community (1963; rpt., Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991), 485.
90. For Islam in Europe, in Africa, and in Asia, see Francesco Gabrieli, "Islam in the Mediterranean World"; Ioan M. Lewis, "Africa South of the Sahara";
91. C. E. Bosworth, "Central Asia";
92. Aziz Ahmad, "India"; C.A.O. Van Nieuwenhuijze, "Indonesia," in The Legacy of Islam, ed. Joseph Schacht with C. E. Bosworth (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1974), 63-104, 105-15, 116-29, 130-43, 144-55.
93. Ross E. Dunn, The Adventures of Ibn Battuta: A Muslim Traveler of the Fourteenth Century (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1989).
94. The phrase is Marshall Hodgson's. See his Rethinking World History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 97.
95. Algebra (an Arabic word), geometry, optics, and medicine all flourished under Islam. See Martin Plessner, "The Natural Sciences and Medicine";
96. Juan Vernet, "Mathematics, Astronomy, Optics," both in Legacy of Islam, 425-60, 461-88.
97. McNeill, The Rise of the West, 486.
98. Fazlur Rahman, Islam, 2nd ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979), 153.
99. Rahman, Islam, 154.
100. Alexander Knysh, Islamic Mysticism (Leiden: Brill, 2000), 7.
101. Rahman, Islam, 152.
102. Marshall Hodgson, Venture of Islam, in Three Volumes, vol. 1, The Classical Age of Islam (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1974), 57.
103. Rahman, Islam, 117-27.
104. Al-Ghazali's Incoherence of the Philosophers was countered by Ibn Rushd's ringing defense, The Incoherence of the Incoherence. But it was Al- Ghazali who prevailed. See Esposito, Islam, 75.
105. Al-Ghazali's Rebirth of the Sciences of Religion (Ihya' 'ulum al-Din) had been burned earlier.
106. See Roger Arnaldez, Averroës: A Rationalist in Islam, trans. David Streight (Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 2000), 6.
107. For the lack of influence of Ibn Rushd in the Islamic world, see Majid Fakhry, A History of Islamic Philosophy (New York: Columbia University Press, 1970), 302-25;
108. Dominque Urvoy, Ibn Rushd (Averroës), trans. Olivia Stewart (London: Routledge, 1991). Still, it should be pointed out that even here Islam was more tolerant than Christianity. Ibn Rushd was neither tortured nor killed, only banished.
109. NcNeill, The Rise of the West;
110. Marshall G. S. Hodgson, The Venture of Islam, 3 vols. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1974).
111. See also Hodgson's "The Role of Islam in World History"; "Cultural Patterning in Islamdom and the Occident"; and "Modernity and the Islamic Heritage," all in his Rethinking World History, 97-125, 126-70, 207-46.
112. Journal of World History (Hawaii, Spring 1990- ). An earlier version of this was published by UNESCO as the Cahiers d'histoire mondiale (Paris, July 1953-April 1972); this became Cultures in 1972.
113. For the work of Gottschalk, Stavrianos, and McNeill, see Gilbert Allardyce, "Toward World History: American Historians and the Coming of the World History Course," Journal of World History 1 (Spring 1990): 23-76.
114. L. S. Stavrianos, Lifelines from Our Past: A New World History (New York: Pantheon, 1989), 8. I thank David Palumbo-Liu for calling my attention to this work.
115. "Post-Enlightenment" is Said's word. See his Orientalism (New York: Vintage, 1979), 3.
116. Even though Dipesh Chakrabarty does not specifically mention Edward Said, his critique of Euro-centric methodology can be usefully extended to Said's Orientalism. See Chakrabarty, Provincializing Europe (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000).
117. Richard Brent Turner, Islam in the African-American Experience (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1997), 11-46.
118. Allan Austin, African Muslims in Antebellum America: A Sourcebook (New York: Garland, 1984);
119. Jane L. Smith, Islam in America (New York: Columbia University Press, 1999), 50-75.
120. Turner, Islam in the African-American Experience, 151.
121. Edward E. Curtis IV, Islam in Black America: Identity, Liberation, and Difference in African-American Islamic Thought (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2002), 75.
122. C. Eric Lincoln, Black Muslims in America, 3rd ed. (Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press, 1994), 130-59, quotation from 153.
123. Aminah Beverly McCloud sees this divided legacy as the tension between two Arabic words, Ummah and 'asabiya, both of which define Islam. See Mc- Cloud, African American Islam (New York: Routledge, 1995), 3-5. See also Curtis's discussion of Islamic universalism versus black particularism, in Islam in Black America, passim.
124. Malcolm X with Alex Haley, Autobiography of Malcolm X (New York: Grove Press, 1966), 338, 339-40.
125. Holy Qur'an, trans. Abdullah Yusuf Ali (Cambridge: Murray Printing, 1946), 1407.
126. James Baldwin, The Fire Next Time (1962; rpt., New York: Laurel, 1988), 97-98.
127. Stanley T. Williams, Life of Washington Irving (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1935), 297.
128. Washington Irving, The Alhambra, ed. William T. Lenehan and Andrew B. Myers (Boston: Twayne, 1983), 79.
129. For a discussion of Bronson Alcott and Theodore Parker (as well as Emerson and Thoreau) in relation to world religions, see Carl T. Jackson, The Oriental Religions and American Throught (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1981), 45-84.
130. The list was given to Alcott by James Freeman Clarke, who would himself go on to write Ten Great Religions: Essays in Comparative Theology (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1871). See Arthur Christy, The Orient in American Transcendentalism (New York: Columbia University Press, 1932), 243.
131. Fuller had just read Firdusi's Shah Nameh, translated by James Atkinson (London, 1832), and was writing to Emerson about it. Fuller to Emerson, February 23, 1840, in The Letters of Margaret Fuller, ed. Robert N. Hudspeth, 5 vols. (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1983), 2:122.
132. Lydia Maria Child, The Progress of Religious Ideas through the Ages, 3 vols. (New York: C. S. Francis, 1855), 3:349-417.
133. Journals and Miscellaneous Notebooks of Ralph Waldo Emerson, ed. William H. Gilman et al., 16 vols. (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1960-1982), 1:171, hereafter cited as JMN. The translation of the Qur'an then available in English was George Sale, The Koran; Commonly Called the Alcoran of Muhammed; Translated into English immediately from the Original Arabic (London: Malden, 1801).
134. Emerson mentioned Gibbon in his Journals in 1822, JMN 1:131.
135. Frederic Ives Carpenter, Emerson and Asia (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1930), 198.
136. Carlyle said: "Our current hypothesis about Mahomet, that he was a scheming Imposter, a Falsehood incarnate, that his religion is a mere mass of quackery and fatuity, begins really to be now untenable to any one." On Heroes, Hero-Worship and the Heroic in History, ed. Michael K. Goldberg et al. (1841; rpt., Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1993), 37-66, quotation from 38.
137. For Emerson's quotations from the Akhlak-I-Jalaly, see JMN, 9:200, 263, 278, 284-88, 291, 385-86.
138. Robert E. Richardson, The Mind on Fire (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1996), 406.
139. Mansur Ekhtiar, Emerson and Persia (Tehran, Iran: Tehran University Press, 1976), 22.
140. For a detailed account of Emerson's relation to the Desatir or Sacred Writings of the Ancient Prophets; in the Original Tongue; Together with the Ancient Persian Version and Commentary (Bombay: Courier Press, 1818), see Carpenter, Emerson and Asia, 217-46.
141. Emerson, "Books," in Complete Works of Ralph Waldo Emerson, centenary ed., 12 vols. (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1903): 7:218-19.
142. The importance of higher criticism to Emerson is well recognized. See, for instance, Julie Ellison, Emerson's Romantic Style (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984);
143. John Michael, Emerson and Skepticism (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1988), 16-32;
144. Wesley T. Mott, "The Strains of Eloquence": Emerson and His Sermons (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1989), 56-78; and especially Barbara Packer, "Origin and Authority: Emerson and the Higher Criticism," in Reconstructing American Literary History, ed. Sacvan Bercovitch (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1986), 67-92.
145. Richard Grusin puts less emphasis on the higher criticism and more on Emerson's ambition to claim institutional authority. See Transcendental Hermeneutics: Institutional Authority and the Higher Criticism of the Bible (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1991), 1-54.
146. Jerry Wayne Brown, The Rise of Biblical Criticism in America, 1800-1870: The New England Scholars (Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 1969), 16, 23-24.
147. In 1779 Eichhorn published his analysis of the first three chapters of Genesis, entitled Die Urgeschichte (Altdorf, 1790). See Hans W. Frei, The Eclipse of Biblical Narrative: A Study in Eighteenth and Nineteenth Century Hermeneutics (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1974), 159. This was followed by his Einleitung ins Alte Testament (Leipzig, 1780).
148. Brown, Rise of Biblical Criticism, 16.
149. To William Emerson, November 1(?), 1824, in Letters of Ralph Waldo Emerson, ed. Ralph L. Rusk, 6 vols. (New York: Columbia University Press, 1939), 1:150.
150. To William Emerson, November 18, 1824, in Letters 1:153.
151. Emerson reported to William that he had "called on Brown at the Bookstore respecting your books. He told me that he had long ago sold all he could sell & given the proceeds to Edward with the deduction of his commission, & he was anxious to get rid of the remainder. So I bid him send them here & here they are & wait the decree of Tartary. Two books of Eichhorn's . . ." Letters 1:250.
152. To William Emerson, April 5, 1830, in Letters of Ralph Waldo Emerson, ed. Eleanor M. Tilton, expanded to 12 vols. (New York: Columbia University Press, 1990), 7:192.
153. The higher criticism of Michaelis and Eichhorn would lead logically to later iconoclastic works such as David Friedrich Strauss's The Christ of Faith and the Jesus of History (1865).
154. For a detailed account, see Albert Schweitzer, The Quest of the Historical Jesus (1910; rpt., Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998).
155. As Barbara Packer points out, Emerson "cribbed shamelessly" from two sources in writing these lectures, from Marsh's "Dissertation" and Bishop Connop Thirlwall's long introduction to his translation of Friedrich Schleiermacher's Critical Essay upon the Gospel of St. Luke. See Packer, "Origin and Authority," 75-76.
156. Emerson, The Vestry Lectures and a Rare Sermon, ed. Kenneth Walter Cameron (Hartford, CT: Transcendental Books, 1984), 8.
157. Emerson, "The Divinity School Address," in Selections from Ralph Waldo Emerson, ed. Stephen Whicher (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1957), 100-116, quotations from 105, 106.
158. For William's as well as Waldo's thinking on the Lord's Supper and the input from the higher criticism, see Elisabeth Hurth, "William and Ralph Waldo Emerson and the Problem of the Lord's Supper: The Influence of German 'Historical Speculators,' " Church History 62 (March 1993): 190-206.
159. Aside from the higher criticism, Emerson seems to have input as well from the Quakers. See Mary Turpie, "Quaker Source for Emerson's Lord's Supper Sermon," New England Quarterly 17 (1944): 95-101.
160. Emerson, sermon CLXII, "The kingdom of God is not meat and drink; but righteousness and peace and joy in the holy ghost," in Complete Sermons of Ralph Waldo Emerson, ed. Albert J. von Frank et al., 4 vols. (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1989-92), 4:186.
161. Emerson to Elizabeth Palmer Peabody, August 3, 1835. Letters 1:451.
162. Emerson, "The Kingdom of God Is Not Meat and Drink," Collected Sermons 4:192.
163. Emerson to Mary Moody Emerson, August 19, 1832. Letters 1:354.
164. Among the earliest books borrowed from the Boston Athenaeum was a Latin copy of Aristophanes's Comoediae. See Kenneth Walter Cameron, Ralph Waldo Emerson's Reading (Hartford, CT: Transcendental Books, 1962), 17. It is a sign of Emerson's competence in that language that he should read a translation of Aristophanes in Latin rather than English.
165. On February 17, 1825, Emerson checked out from the Harvard College Library Fenelon's Oeuvres and Leibniz's Essais de Théodicée.
166. On November 2, 1826, Emerson checked out vol. 15 of Amyot's French translation of Plutarch and renewed the book on November 16-a good sign of his facility in French. Cameron, Ralph Waldo Emerson's Reading, 45, 46.
167. By July 11, 1843, Emerson seemed to be competent in Italian, as evidenced by this letter to Margaret Fuller: "Geo Bancroft gave me Dante's Vita Nuova, & recalling what you said, that I could not have read it, I have turned it all into English." Letters, 3:182-84.
168. Emerson to William Emerson, November 20, 1824, Letters, 1:154.
169. Cameron, Ralph Waldo Emerson's Reading, 47.
170. Emerson, "Goethe, or the Writer," in Representative Men, in Collected Works of Ralph Waldo Emerson, 6 vols. (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, Belknap Press, 1971), 4:156.
171. The passage is from Goethe's Nachgelassene Werke (Stuttgart and Türbingen, 1832-33), 6:262.
172. Joseph von Hammer would later become Joseph von Hammer-Purgstall (1774-1856). Since his name appeared as von Hammer in the editions owned by Emerson, I refer to him simply as that.
173. Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, West-östlicher Divan, vol. 5 of Werke (Stuttgart, 1828); Noten und Abhandlungen zu besserem Verstandnis des Westöstlichen Divans (1828-1833), vol. 6 of Werke.
174. Annemarie Schimmel, A Two-Colored Brocade: The Imagery of Persian Poetry (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992), 3-9. The intensity of the outburst was also due in part to Goethe's newfound love, Marianne von Willemer.
175. See John R. Williams, The Life of Goethe (Oxford: Blackwell, 1998), 111-15.
176. Goethe named Hafiz so frequently partly in deference to the convention of the ghazal, which requires Hafiz to include his own name in each poem.
177. "Let joy and pain / Be ours in common as twins are one!" Goethe, Westöstlicher Divan. West-Eastern Divan, bilingual edition, with translations by John Whaley (New York: Peter Lang, 1998), 62, 63.
178. Sir William Jones, Poeseos asiaticae commentariorum libri sex (London, 1774). This was not listed as a book owned by Emerson in Emerson's Library.
179. This is a translation of "Mein Erbteil wie herrlich, weit und breit!/die Zeit ist mein Besitz, mein Acker ist die Zeit!" Whaley's translation: "Inheritance splendid, here and now!/For time is my estate, and time my field to plough." In West-Eastern Divan. West-östlicher Divan, 206, 207.
180. Emerson, Complete Works, 8:2.
181. JMN 8:67: "And so there are fountains all around Milton or Saadi or Menu from which they draw." Carpenter also cites a reference to Hafiz in 1841 which I have been unable to locate: "Hafiz defies you to show him or put him in a condition inopportune and ignoble." Carpenter, Emerson and Asia, 93.
182. Emerson, "Saadi," The Dial (October 1842): 265-69.
183. The first translation I am able to find is in his 1846 Journals, a translation of Hafiz's poem, "Come let us strew roses." JMN 9:398.
184. For a checklist of Emerson's translations, see J. D. Yohannan, "Emerson's Translations of Persian Poetry from German Sources," American Literature 14 (January 1943): 407-20.
185. See also The Topical Notebooks of Ralph Waldo Emerson, 3 vols., ed. Susan Sutton Smith et al. (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1990-94).
186. Albert J. von Frank, An Emerson Chronology (New York: G. K. Hall, 1994), 331, 505-6.
187. The Gulistan, or Rose Garden of Saadi, trans. Francis Gladwin (Boston: Ticknor and Fields, 1865), ix.
188. Complete Works of Ralph Waldo Emerson, 9:320-34.
189. The last entry was in 1879. JMN 16:527.
190. The three other drafts are in JMN 14:139-40.
191. I should point out, however, that Hafiz was actually much honored by the rulers of Shiraz, especially Shad Abu Ishaq, a point not emphasized by Emerson. See Edward G. Browne, A Literary History of Persia (1920; rpt., Bethesda, MD: Iranbooks, 1997), 3:271-93.
192. The Topical Notebooks of Ralph Waldo Emerson, ed. Ralph H. Orth et al., 3 vols. (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1990-94), 2:129. 8.
193. The Poetry Notebooks of Ralph Waldo Emerson (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1994), 287. Hereafter cited in the text as PN.
194. G. M. Wickens, "Persian Literature: An Affirmation of Identity," in Introduction to Islamic Civilization, ed. R. M. Savory (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976), 77-88.
195. A. J. Arberry, "Persian Literature," in The Legacy of Persia, ed. A. J. Arberry (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1953), 211;
196. Reuben Levy, An Introduction to Persian Literature (New York: Columbia University Press, 1969), 33-35.
197. Agha Shahid Ali, introduction to Ravishing Disunities: Real Ghazals in English (Hanover, NH: Wesleyan University Press, 2000), 3.
198. Ibrahim Gamard, preface to Hafiz: The Mystic Poets, Translated and with Notes by Gertrude Bell (Woodstock, VT: SkyLight Paths, 2004), 4.
199. "Persian Poetry," in Complete Works of Ralph Waldo Emerson, 8:235-65, quotation from 248.
200. The Koran. Commonly Called the Alcoran of Mohammed; Translated into English Immediately from the Original Arabic (London: Maiden, 1801), 231.
201. Jonathan Edwards, "Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God," in Jonathan Edwards: Representative Selections, ed. Clarence H. Faust and Thomas H. Johnson (New York: Hill and Wang, 1962), 164.
202. "Deep Elem" refers to Elm Street, the red-light district in Dallas. Lyrics can be found at http://www3.clearlight.com/~acsa/songfile/DEEPELEM.HTM
203. Phil Lesh, longtime bass player of the Grateful Dead, gives a chilling account of the effects of cocaine, heroin, alcohol, and drugs on the band. See Lesh, Searching for the Sound (New York: Little, Brown, 2005).
204. Http://www.arts.ucsc.edu/gdead/agdl/allah.html. Robert Hunter was the lyricist for the Grateful Dead, working especially closely with Jerry Garcia.
205. Margaret Fuller, Woman in the Nineteenth Century (New York: Norton, 1971), 94. Page references to this edition will be cited in parentheses in the text.
206. In a different context, Gayatri Spivak also argues for the need to "situate feminist individualism in its historical determination rather than simply to canonize it as feminism as such." See "Three Women's Texts and a Critique of Imperialism," Critical Inquiry 12 (Autumn 1985): 243-261, quotation from 244. Fuller's paradigm enacts Spivak's injunction through scale enlargement. In its emphasis on nonbiological reproduction, it also anticipates Judith Butler's challenge to think of kinship in nonheterosexual terms.
207. See Butler, "Is Kinship Always Already Heterosexual?" Differences 13 (Spring 2002): 14-44.
208. In a journal entry dated Sunday, October 1823, Emerson noted that "La Place has written in the mountain album of Switzerland his avowal of Atheism." Journal and Miscellaneous Notebooks, ed. William Gilman et al. (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, Belknap Press, 1960), 2:161.
209. Ralph Waldo Emerson, "The Relation of Man to the Globe," in Early Lectures of Ralph Waldo Emerson, ed. Stephen Whicher, Robert E. Spiller, and Wallace E. Williams, 3 vols. (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1959-72), 2:27-49, quotation from 28, 29.
210. Emerson, "The Individual," in Early Lectures 2:184.
211. The conversations were set up with the help of Elizabeth Peabody, and a fee was charged. Those who regularly attended included Emerson, George Ripley, James Freeman Clarke, and others. See Megan Marshall, The Peabody Sisters (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2005), 386-88.
212. Caroline W. Healy [Dall], Margaret and Her Friends; or, Ten Conversations with Margaret Fuller (Boston: Robert's Brothers, 1895), 46.
213. See Stephen M. Stigler, The History of Statistics: The Measurement of Uncertainty before 1900 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1986), 9-220;
214. Martin Rudwick, "Charles Lyell's Dream of a Statistical Paleontology," Paleontology 21 (1978): 225-44.
215. Ralph Waldo Emerson, "Fate," in Selections from Ralph Waldo Emerson, ed. Stephen Whicher (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1957), 337.
216. For an excellent discussion of Emerson and Quetelet, see Barbara Packer, "Emerson and the Terrible Tabulations of the French," in Transient and Permanent: The Transcendentalist Movement and Its Contexts, ed. Charles Capper and Conrad Edick Wright (Boston: Massachusetts Historical Society, 1999), 148-67.
217. I am inspired here by Giorgio Agamben's critical terminology. See Homo Sacer: Sovereign Power and Bare Life, trans. Daniel Heller-Roazen (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1998).
218. Robert Pogue Harrison, The Dominion of the Dead (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003).
219. See Michael Hardt and Antonio Negri's discussion, "Virtualities," in Empire (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2000), 353-69.
220. The Egyptian Book of the Dead: The Book of Going Forth by Day, being the Papyrus of Ani, trans. Raymond O. Faulkner, with additional translation and a commentary by Ogden Goelet (San Francisco: Chronicle Books, 1994), plate 5.
221. E. A. Wallis Budge, Liturgy of Funerary Offerings (London: Kegan Paul, 1909), 2.
222. See also Budge, Book of Opening the Mouth, 2 vols. (London: Kegan Paul, 1909).
223. Here I follow E. A. Wallis Budge's commentary in The Book of the Dead (1899; rpt., London: Arkana, 1985), 39-40.
224. Faulkner, The Egyptian Book of the Dead, plate 15.
225. For a good summary of these different aspects of the soul, see Ogden Goelet's notes to Faulkner, The Egyptian Book of the Dead, 152.
226. I am playing here on the concept proposed by Aihwa Ong. See Flexible Citizenship (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1999).
227. Plutarchus, Morals, Trans. from the Greek, by Several Hands, 5th ed., rev. and corrected from the many errors of the former eds. (London: W. Taylor, 1718).
228. See Walter Harding, Emerson's Library (Charlotteville: University Press of Virginia, 1967), 217.
229. "I have now of yours two vols of Milton, one of Jonson, one of Plutarch's Morals." Margaret Fuller to Ralph Waldo Emerson, May 30, 1837, in The Letters of Margaret Fuller, ed. Robert N. Hudspeth, 6 vols. (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1983), 1:277.
230. Bancroft had published a speech entitled "The Influence of Slavery on the Political Revolutions in Rome" in the North American Review 39 (October 1834): 413-37. In response, Fuller published "In Defense of Brutus" in the Boston Daily Advertiser, November 27, 1834, citing Plutarch's account of Brutus. See The Letters of Margaret Fuller, 1: 227-28, n. 7.
231. E. A. Wallis Budge, Egyptian Ideas of the Future Life (1899; rpt., New York: AMS Press, 1976), 56.
232. For the date and place of composition, see J. Gwyn Griffiths, introduction to Plutarch's "De Iside et Osiride" (Swansea: University of Wales Press, 1970), 16-18.
233. See, for instance, William MacQuitty, Island of Isis: Philae, Temple of the Nile (London: Macdonald and Jane's, 1976);
234. Louis V. Zabkar, Hymns to Isis in Her Temple at Philae (Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1988).
235. For a detailed account of this phenomenon, see R. E. Witt, Isis in the Graeco-Roman World (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1971); and Friedrich Solmsen, Isis among the Greeks and Romans (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1979).
236. Herodotus, The Histories, trans. Aubrey de Selincourt (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1972), 152.
237. Plutarch's Morals, trans. from the Greek by Several Hands, rev. William W. Goodwin (Boston: Little, Brown, 1874), 66.
238. Plutarch's Morals, 109.
239. Memoirs of Margaret Fuller Ossoli, by R. W. Emerson, W. H. Channing, and J. F. Clarke, 2 vols. (Boston: Roberts, 1884), 1:230.
240. Drawing on Albert Torhoudt's argument in Een Onbekend Gnostisch Systeem in Plutarchus' "De Iside et Osiride," J. Gwyn Griffiths traces the imperfection of Isis to a Gnostic strain in Plutarch. See Plutarch's "De Iside et Osiride," 49.
241. Fuller's conversation on March 8, 1841, reported by Caroline Dall in Margaret and Her Friends, 41.
242. Panthea's story was recounted by Xenophon in books VI and VII of Cyropaedia, or Institution of Cyrus, trans. J. S. Watson and Henry Dale (London: Henry G. Bohn, 1855).
243. Xenophon, Cyropaedia, book 7, chap.3, 215, quoted in Fuller, Woman in the Nineteenth Century, 89.
244. Charles Sanders Peirce, "The Scientific Attitude and Fallibilism," in Philosophical Writings of Peirce, ed. Justus Buchler (New York: Dover, 1955), 42-59;
245. Paul Ricoeur, Fallible Man, trans. Charles A. Kelbley (New York: Fordham University Press, 1986).
246. Thomas Taylor's notes to The Metamorphosis; or, Golden Ass, and Philosophical Works, of Apuleius, trans. Thomas Taylor (London: J. Moyes, 1822), 262.
247. Margaret Fuller Reading Notes, BMS Am 1086 (A), Houghton Library, Harvard University.
248. For an illuminating discussion of the importance of the sistrum to Fuller, see Jeffrey Steele, Transfiguring America: Myth, Ideology, and Mourning in Margaret Fuller's Writing (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 2001), 192-93.
249. Ralph Waldo Emerson, "Concord," in Emerson, Channing, and Clarke, Memoirs of Margaret Fuller Ossoli, 1:121.
250. Margaret Fuller, "Sistrum," in Life Without and Life Within: Reviews, Narratives, Essays, and Poems by Margaret Fuller Ossoli, ed. Arthur B. Fuller (Boston: Brown, Taggard and Chase, 1860), 413.
251. For the relevance of Marx to the American Renaissance in general, see Russ Castronovo, "American Literature Internationale," ESQ 49 (December 2004): 59-93.
252. For Marx's contributions to the New York Tribune, see The American Journalism of Marx and Engels: A Selection from the New York Daily Tribune, ed. Henry M. Christian (New York: New American Library, 1966).
253. Karl Marx, The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte (New York: International Publishers, 1969), 15.
254. For the importance of the European 1848 to American literature, see Larry J. Reynolds, European Revolutions and the American Literary Renaissance (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988).
255. Fuller, dispatch to the New York Tribune, Rome, April 19, 1848, in These Sad but Glorious Days: Dispatches from Europe, 1846-1850, ed. Larry J. Reynolds and Susan Belasco Smith (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1991), 230.
256. For the importance of Fuller as a champion and translator of German literature, see Christina Zwarg, "The Storied Facts of Margaret Fuller," New England Quarterly 69 (1996): 128-42;
257. Karen A, English, " 'Genuine Transcripts of Private Experience': Margaret Fuller and Translation," American Transcendentalist Quarterly 15 (June 2001): 131-47; and Colleen Glenney Boggs, "Margaret Fuller's American Translation," American Literature 76 (March 2004): 31-58.
258. Margaret Fuller, "Menzel's View of Goethe," The Dial 1, no. 3 (January 1841), 347.
259. Conversations with Goethe, from the German of Eckermann, trans. Margaret Fuller (Boston: Hilliard, Gray, 1839), vii-viii.
260. Fuller, "Menzel's View of Goethe," 341.
261. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the earliest use of the word in English to denote a type of literary work was in 1770; in French, this sense of genre dates from the mid-seventeenth century.
262. Croce writes: "Every true work of art has violated some established kind and upset the ideas of the critics, who have thus been obliged to broaden the kinds, until finally even the broadened kind has proved too narrow, owing to the appearance of new works of art, naturally followed by new scandals, new upsettings, and-new broadenings."
263. See Benedetto Croce, Aesthetic: As Science of Expression and General Linguistic, trans. Douglas Ainslie (Boston: Nonpareil Books, 1978), 36-37.
264. Jacques Derrida, "The Law of Genre," Glyph 7 (1980): 176-232; reprinted in Derrida, Acts of Literature, ed. Derek Attridge (New York: Routledge, 1992), 221-52, quotation from 224-25.
265. Alasdair Fowler, Kinds of Literature: An Introduction to the Theory of Genres and Modes (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1982), 37, v.
266. Gilles Deleuze and Felix Guattari, "Rhizome," in On the Line, trans. John Johnston (New York: Semitext[e], 1983), 1-68.
267. I am grateful to Jay Clayton for urging me to foreground this concept.
268. Ludwig Wittgenstein, Philosophical Investigations, trans. G.E.M. Anscombe (New York: Blackwell, 1958), no. 66, pp. 31-32.
269. Claude Lévi-Strauss, Structural Anthropology, trans. Claire Jacobson and Brooke Grundfest Schoepf (New York: Basic Books, 1963), 50.
270. Mandelbrot, "About the Author," in Fractals: Form, Chance, and Dimension (San Francisco: W. H. Freeman, 1977).
271. Mandelbrot has since left IBM and is now Sterling Professor of Mathematics at Yale University.
272. Mandelbrot, Fractals, 4.
273. Emmanuel Wallerstein, The Modern World-System, 3 vols. (New York: Academic Press, 1974);
274. Frederic Jameson, "Magical Narratives: On the Dialectical Use of Genre Criticism," in The Political Unconscious: Narrative as a Socially Symbolic Act (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1981), 103-50.
275. Franco Moretti, "Conjectures on World Literature," New Left Review (January/February 2000): 54-68, quotation from 57. See also his The Modern Epic: The World-System to Garcia Marquez (New York: Verso, 1996); and Graphs, Maps, Trees (New York: Verso, 2005).
276. Moretti, "Conjectures," 57.
277. The classic statements here are Ian Watt, The Rise of the Novel: Studies in Defoe, Richardson, and Fielding (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1957);
278. Michael McKeon, The Origins of the English Novel, 1600-1740 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1987).
279. Thomas Hagg, The Novel in Antiquity (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1983);
280. S. J. Harrison, Oxford Readings in the Roman Novel (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999);
281. Arthur Heiserman, The Novel before Novel (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1977);
282. P. G. Walsh, The Roman Novel (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970); The Search for the Ancient Novel, ed. James Tatum (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994);
283. John J. Winkler, Auctor and Actor: A Narratological Reading of Apuleius' "Golden Ass" (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1985).
284. Margaret Anne Doody, The True History of the Novel (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1996).
285. Plato, The Republic, trans. Benjamin Jowett (New York: Vintage, 1991), no. 394, p. 94.
286. Aristotle, Poetics, trans. Gerald F. Else (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1970), section 24, 1459b23-1459b24, pp. 63-64.
287. Walter Burkert, The Orientalizing Revolution: Near Eastern Influence on Greek Culture in the Early Archaic Age, trans. Margaret E. Pinder and Walter Burkert (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1992), 116.
288. Benjamin R. Foster, introduction to The Epic of Gilgameth, trans. Benjamin R. Foster (New York: Norton, 2001), xx.
289. William J. Jackson, Heaven's Fractal Net: Retrieving Lost Visions in the Humanities (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2004), 41.
290. Dante's De vulgari eloquentia was written in Latin.
291. For the transition from Latin to Italian, see Ernst Pulgram, The Tongues of Italy: Prehistory and History (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1958), 402-17;
292. Cecil Grayson, A Renaissance Controversy: Latin or Italian? (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1960), 8-28.
293. Zygmunt G. Baranski, " 'Significar per verba': Notes on Dante and Plurilingualism," Italianist 6 (1986): 5-18, quotation from 13.
294. M. M. Bakhtin, "Epic and Novel," in The Dialogic Imagination, ed. Caryl Emerson and Michael Holquist (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1981), 3-40, quotation from 13.
295. Henry James, Preface, to The Wings of the Dove (New York: Scribner's, 1909), xix.
296. Henry James, The Portrait of a Lady (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1956), 423.
297. Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (New York: Verso, 1983), 30.
298. For an important critique of Anderson, see Jonathan Culler, "Anderson and the Novel," Diacritics 29 (winter 1999): 20-39.
299. Henry James, Preface to The Awkward Age (New York: Scribner's, 1908), xvii.
300. Little Review, August 1918.
301. Ezra Pound, "Henry James," in Literary Essays of Ezra Pound (New York: New Directions, 1968), 296.
302. W. H. Auden, "Address on Henry James," delivered October 24, 1946, published in the Gazette of the Grolier Club, February 1947; reprinted in Auden, Prose, Vol. 2, 1939-1948, ed. Edward Mendelson (London: Faber, 2002), 296-303, quotation from 303.
303. "Si pulvis nullus," said Ovid, / "Erit, nullum tamen excute": "And if a speck of dust should fall into your lady's lap, flick it off with your fingers; if there be no speck of dust, well, flick it off anyway." From Ovid, Ars amatoria, 1:149-51. See A Companion to the Cantos of Ezra Pound, 29.
304. "y cavals armatz" (and horses in armor), a quotation from Bertran de Born, see Terrell, A Companion to the Cantos of Ezra Pound, 29-30.
305. "And Dante's 'ciocco,' brand struck in the game": ciocco, "log," a reference to the image of the souls rising from the fifth circle to the sixth circle in the Paradiso. See Terrell, A Companion to the Cantos of Ezra Pound, 30.
306. "Un peu moisi, plancher plus bas que le jardin" (a little musty, the floor being below garden level), a quotation from Flaubert's Un Coeur Simple. See Terrell, A Companion to the Cantos of Ezra Pound, 30.
307. Ezra Pound, canto 7, lines 24-30.
308. Pound, "Henry James," 295.
309. "Grave incessu" mixes in Virgil's line "Vera incessu patuit dea" (and from her manner of walking knew her to be a goddess), from Aeneid, 1:405, quoted by Pound in his "Notes on Elizabethan Classicists," in Literary Essays of Ezra Pound, 246.
310. See Terrell, Companion to the Cantos of Ezra Pound, 31.
311. Hugh Kenner, The Pound Era (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1971), 3-22.
312. The word "babel" is suggested to me by Jonathan Arac's important essay, "Global and Babel: Language and Planet in American Literature," forthcoming in Shades of the Planet: American Literature as World Literature (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2007).
313. Lukacs, Theory of the Novel, 56.
314. Henry James, The Golden Bowl, vol. 1 (New York: Scribner's, 1909), 3, hereafter cited by page in the text.
315. Henry James, "Venice," in Italian Hours (New York: Ecco Press, 1909), 2-30, quotation from 18.
316. Plutarch's Lives: The Translation called Dryden's, Corrected from the Greek and Revised by Arthur Hugh Clough (Boston: Little, Brown, 1899), 5:184-85.
317. The Family of Darius before Alexander, by Paolo Veronese. A resume, some new deductions and some new facts, by Cecil Gould (London: National Gallery Publications Department, 1978), 13.
318. John Ruskin, Modern Painters (Boston: Dana Estes, 1873), 5:245.
319. Henry James, "Italy Revisited," in Italian Hours, 107-35, quotation from 127
320. James, "Two Old House." 73-74.
321. The Adoration of Kings was actually acquired from the Church of San Silvestro, not from a private family. See the National Gallery web site: http://www.nationalgallery_org.uk
322. Henry James, A Small Boy and Others (New York: Scribner's 1913), 5. James writes: ". . . mixed as such as a mixture, our Scotch with our Irish, might be, it had had still a grace to borrow from the third infusion or dimension."
323. The reminiscences of Thomas Sergeant Perry, cited in Robert C. Le Clair, Young Henry James (New York: Bookman Associates, 1955), 282.
324. James says of his education in Geneva: "I worried out Virgil and Tite-Live with M. Verchère." See Notes of a Son and Brother (New York: Scribner's, 1914), 8.
325. Family of Darius before Alexander, 9-10.
326. Veronese's Family of Darius was of course still in the Palazzo Pisani in Venice when Tiepolo was painting. Tiepolo's Alexander and the Family of Darius is now in a private collection.
327. Michael Levey, Giambattista Tiepolo: His Life and Art (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1986), 124.
328. Maria Elisa Avagnina, Fernado Rigon, and Remo Schivao, Tiepolo: The Vicentine Villas (Milano: Electa, 1990), 49.
329. James, The Golden Bowl, 2:287, hereafter cited by page in the text.
330. James, "Venice," in Italian Hours, 17.
331. Ruskin, "The Shrine of the Slaves," first supplement to vol. 3 of The Stones of Venice (New York: John Alden, 1885), 112.
332. Henry James, The Middle Years (New York: Scribner's, 1917), 50.
333. Terry Eagleton, The Ideology of the Aesthetic (Cambridge, MA: Basil Blackwell, 1990), 3, 2.
334. As a subject-centered theory, the Critique of Judgment will always be of marginal interest to those who see aesthetics as object-centered. For a lucid critique of Kant from the latter standpoint, see Genette, The Aesthetic Relation, 61-72.
335. Immanuel Kant, "Perpetual Peace," in Kant's Political Writings, ed. Hans Reiss, trans. H. B. Nisbet (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970), 93-130, quotation from 129.
336. As Hans Reiss points out, Frederick William II was much offended by Kant's Religion within the Limits of Reason Alone (1793), and issued a Royal Command forbidding him from writing any more on religion. See Reiss, introduction to Kant's Political Writings, 2.
337. For a discussion of Kant's "federalist" conception of world government, see Carl Friedrich, Inevitable Peace (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1948).
338. Kant, "Perpetual Peace," 93.
339. Hannah Arendt, Lectures on Kant's Political Philosophy, ed. Ronald Beiner (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982), 7, hereafter cited by page in the text.
340. For a lucid and respectful dissent from Arendt, see Patrick Riley, "Hannah Arendt on Kant, Truth and Politics," in Essays on Kant's Political Philosophy, ed. Howard Williams (Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 1992), 305-23.
341. Immanuel Kant, Critique of Judgment, trans. J. H. Bernard (New York: Hafner/Macmillan, 1951), 75. Hereafter cited by section in the text.
342. Rita Felski has also urged us to think of aesthetics as a category running across the full spectrum of the humanities. Felski, "Aesthetics and Cultural Studies," presentation at the Americanist Colloquium, Yale University, March 2003.
343. Ernst Cassirer, "Critical Idealism as a Philosophy of Culture," in Symbol, Myth, and Culture: Essays and Lectures of Ernst Cassirer, 1935-1945, ed. Donald Phillip Verene (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1979), 88.
344. Paul Guyer, Kant and the Claims of Taste (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1979), 297-307.
345. Eagleton, The Ideology of the Aesthetic, 96.
346. Robert Hillyer, "Treason's Strange Fruit: The Case of Ezra Pound and the Bollingen Award," Saturday Review of Literature, June 11, 1949, 10.
347. Norman Cousins and Harrison Smith, "Ezra Pound and the Bollingen Award," Saturday Review of Literature, June 11, 1949, 20.
348. This is the first of the two indictments against Pound. For a detailed account of this as well as of the second indictment, see Charles Norman, The Case of Ezra Pound (New York: Funk and Wagnalls, 1968), 62-82, quotation from 62-63.
349. The book was No. 2 on the New York Times bestseller list on July 20, 2003. For Coulter, treason is a long-practiced and never-acknowledged sin of the Democrats; it needs to be named, to be 'outed.' With no irony she recommends a return to McCarthyism.
350. Robert Hillyer, "Treason's Strange Fruit," 10.
351. Robert Hillyer, "Poetry's New Priesthood," Saturday Review (June 18, 1949), 7.
352. "A Glossary of the New Criticism" was published in Poetry: A Magazine of Verse (November 1948-January 1949).
353. Robert Hillyer, "Poetry's New Priesthood," 8.
354. Marjorie Perloff, "Fascism, Anti-Semitism, Isolationism: Contextualizing the case of EP," Paideuma 16, no. 3 (Winter 1987): 7-21. As Perloff shows, the intellectuals affiliated with the Partisan Review were almost uniformly antiwar.
355. Hillyer, "Poetry's New Priesthood," 38.
356. Walter Benjamin, epilogue to "The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction," in Illuminations, trans. Harry Zohn (New York: Schocken Books, 1969), 241.
357. Russell Berman, "The Aestheticization of Politics: Walter Benjamin on Fascism and the Avant-Garde," Stanford Italian Review 8, no. 1-2 (1990): 35-52, especially 49.
358. Walter Goodman, The Committee: The Extraordinary Career of the House Committee on Un-American Activities (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1968), 16, 18.
359. Library of Congress Information Office, Press Release no. 590, "Statement of the Committee of the Fellows of the Library of Congress in American Letters in Reply to Published Criticisms of the Bollingen Prize in Poetry," 10.
360. Canto 74, in The Cantos of Ezra Pound (New York: New Directions Books, 1996), 445.
361. Richard B. Lyttle, Il Duce: The Rise and Fall of Benito Mussolini (New York: Atheneum, 1987), 97-98.
362. Pound, Jefferson and/or Mussolini (New York: Liveright, 1935), ix.
363. Pound, canto 74, Cantos, 446.
364. Theodor Adorno, Aesthetic Theory, trans. C. Lenhardt (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1984), 48, 366.
365. Pound, canto 74, Cantos, 450.
366. Radio Broadcast no. 6, "On Resuming" (January 29, 1942), in Ezra Pound Speaking: Radio Speeches of World War II, ed. Leonard W. Doob (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1978), 23.
367. Pound, Radio Broadcast no. 6, in Ezra Pound Speaking, 26.
368. Pound, Radio Broadcast no. 6, Ezra Pound Speaking, 23.
369. Aristotle, Physics, ed. W. D. Ross (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1936), IV.219b.5-7, p. 386.
370. Homi K. Bhabha, "DissemiNation: Time, Narrative, and the Margins of the Modern Nation," in The Location of Culture (London: Routledge, 1994), 139-70.
371. Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (London: Verso, 1983), 30.
372. Bhabha here draws on Julia Kristeva, "Women's Time," in The Kristeva Reader, ed. Toril Moi (Oxford: Blackwell, 1986), 187-213.
373. Bhabha, "DissemiNation," 153.
374. J. M. Coetzee, "Newton and the Ideal of a Transparent Scientific Language," Journal of Literary Semantics 11 (1982): 3-13
375. Coetzee, Doubling the Point: Essays and Interviews, ed. David Attwell (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1992), 181-94.
376. Though Coetzee does not explicitly mention W.V.O. Quine, his position is very much compatible with Quine's rejection of any language-transcendent semantic content. See Quine, Word and Object (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1960), 26-79.
377. Albert Einstein, "Autobiographical Notes," in Albert Einstein: Philosopher- Scientist, ed. Paul Arthur Schilpp (La Salle, IL: Open Court, 1969), 33.
378. Albert Einstein, Relativity: The Special and the General Theory, trans. Robert W. Lawson (New York: Crown, 1961), 26.
379. For a useful account of Einstein and non-Euclidean geometry, see Rudolf Carnap, An Introduction to the Philosophy of Science, ed. Martin Gardner (New York: Dover, 1995), 132-76.
380. Einstein's commitment to mathematical formalization is steadfast. See, for instance, Abraham Pais, "Subtle is the Lord": The Science and Life of Albert Einstein (New York: Oxford University Press, 1982), 111-291.
381. Roger Chartier, The Order of Books: Readers, Authors, and Libraries in Europe between the Fourteenth and Eighteenth Centuries, trans. Lydia G. Cochrane (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1994), viii.
382. For theories and practices of translation, by Lowell himself and by others, see D. S. Carne-Ross, "Conversation with Robert Lowell," in Robert Lowell: Interviews and Memoirs, ed. Jeffrey Meyers (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1988), 129-40.
383. Robert Lowell, introduction to Imitations (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1961), xi.
384. Robert Lowell, "Half a Century Gone," in Notebook (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1970), 258.
385. Helen Vendler identified Horace as a central inspiration for Lowell in her review of Day by Day (1977). See her "The Poetry of Autobiography," New York Times Book Review (August 14, 1977), 1, 24-25.
386. I am much indebted to this careful analysis. See Stephen Yenser, Circle to Circle: The Poetry of Robert Lowell (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1975), 268-69.
387. Horace, Odes 1:37, in Odes and Epodes, in Latin and English, trans. Niall Rudd (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2004), 92.
388. Gaius Julius Caesar Germanicus (12-41), nicknamed Caligula (literally, "baby boot"), was Roman emperor from 37 to 41. His short reign, which ended with his assassination, was synonymous with tyranny.
389. Lowell, "Caligula," in For the Union Dead (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1964), 49.
390. Helen Vendler, The Given and the Made: Strategies of Poetic Redefinition (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1995), 20-21.
391. Lowell, "Caligula," 51.
392. Lowell, "Waking Early Sunday Morning," in Near the Ocean (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1967), 24.
393. George C. Herring, America's Longest War: The United States and Vietnam, 1950-1975 (New York: Wiley, 1979), 129-35.
394. As Robert von Hallberg points out, the letter went through at least five drafts. See American Poetry and Culture, 1944-1980 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1985), 170. The drafts are in the Houghton Library, Harvard University.
395. Robert Lowell to President Lyndon Johnson, New York Times, June 3, 1965, p. 1, collected in Robert Lowell: Collected Prose, ed. Robert Giroux (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1987), 371.
396. Lowell, "Waking Early Sunday Morning," 23.
397. See Yenser's excellent discussion of this passage, in Circle to Circle, 249-50.
398. Lowell, "The Ruins of Time," in Near the Ocean, 124.
399. Lowell "Liberalism and Activism," Commentary 47, no. 4 (April 1969)
400. This was the second exchange between Lowell and Diana Trilling, starting with Trilling's long essay, "On the Steps of Low Library," Commentary 46, no. 5 (November 1968), 29-55.
401. Lowell, note to Near the Ocean.
402. Lowell's translation of Juvenal, "The Vanity of Human Wishes," in Near the Ocean, 98.
403. R. E. Park, "The Conflict and Fusion of Cultures with Special Reference to the Negro," Journal of Negro History 4 (1919): 116.
404. E. F. Frazier, The Negro Family in the United States (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1939), 21.
405. Gilles Deleuze and Felix Guattari, On the Line, trans. John Johnston (New York: Semiotext[e], 1983), 1-68.
406. See, for instance, Philip D. Curtin, The Atlantic Slave Trade (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1969)
407. James Rawley, Transatlantic Slave Trade (New York: Norton, 1981).
408. Patricia Jones-Jackson, When Roots Die: Endangered Traditions on the Sea Islands (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1987), 9.
409. Melville J. Herskovits, The Myth of the Negro Past (New York: Harper Brothers, 1941), 6.
410. Robert A. Hall, Pidgin and Creole Languages (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1966).
411. T. L. Markey, editor's note, to Hugo Schuchardt's The Ethnography of Variation: Selected Writings on Pidgins and Creoles, ed. and trans. T. L. Markey (Ann Arbor, MI: Karoma, 1979), xxi.
412. Schuchardt, "On Lingua Franca," 26, 32, 27-28.
413. For a contemporary plea in this spirit, see Doris Sommer, Bilingual Aesthetics: A New Sentimental Education (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2004).
414. I am thinking, of course, of Samuel Huntington.
415. Schuchardt, "Saramaccan," in Ethnography of Variation, 75-76.
416. Hall, Pidgin and Creole Languages, 141.
417. William A. Stewart, "Continuity and Change in American Negro Dialects" (1968), Florida FL Reporter, 6, no. 1 (Spring 1968), 3-4, 14-16, 18, reprinted in Perspectives on Black English, 233-47, quotation from 243.
418. William Labov, Language in the Inner City: Studies in the Black English Vernacular (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1972).
419. This is a crude summary of Labov's complex argument in "Contraction, Deletion, and Inherent Variability of the English Copula," 65-129.
420. For a good account of Chomsky's impact on linguistics, see Howard Gardner, The Mind's New Science: A History of the Cognitive Revolution (New York: Basic Books, 1985).
421. Steven Pinker, The Language Instinct: How the Mind Creates Language (New York: HarperPerennial, 1995).
422. Labov, Language in the Inner City, 217
423. Pinker, The Language Instinct, 31.
424. Pinker, 31.
425. Labov, Language in the Inner City, 222
426. Pinker, The Language Instinct, 31.
427. See for instance, Daniel Dennett, Consciousness Explained (Boston: Little, Brown, 1991)
428. Jerry Fodor, The Language of Thought (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1975)
429. Gerald Edelman, Bright Air, Brilliant Fire: On the Matter of the Mind (New York: Basic Books, 1992).
430. Ned Block, "The Mind as the Software of the Brain," in An Invitation to Cognitive Science, 2nd ed., 4 vols. (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1995), 3: 377-426.
431. Damasio, The Feeling of What Happens, 186.
432. Robert Chaudenson, Creolization of Language and Culture, rev. in collaboration with Salikoko S. Mufwene, trans. Sheri Pargman et al. (London: Routledge, 2001), 79.
433. Drums and Shadows: Survival Studies among the Georgia Coastal Negroes, by the Savannah Unit, Georgia Writers' Project, Work Projects Administration (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1940).
434. Derek Walcott, "A Tropical Bestiary," in The Castaway and Other Poems (London: Jonathan Cape, 1965), 21.
435. The phrase is from the poem "The phrases of a patois rooted in this clay hillside," from Walcott, The Bounty (New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 1997), 38.
436. Kofi Agawu, African Rhythm: A Northern Ewe Perspective (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 6.
437. J. H. Kwabena Nketia, The Music of Africa (New York: Norton, 1974).
438. J. H. Kwabena Nketia, Drumming in Akan Communities in Ghana (London: Thomas Nelson and Sons, 1963), 32-50.
439. Jack Berry, "Language Systems and Literature," in The African Experience, ed. John Paden and Edward Soja (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 1970), 87.
440. Sherley Anne Williams, "The Blues Roots of Contemporary Afro-American Poetry," in Afro-American Literature, ed. Dexter Fisher and Robert B. Stepto (New York: Modern Language Association, 1978), 72-87.
441. Kamau Brathwaite, "Jazz and the West Indian Novel," in Roots (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1993), 55-110.
442. Edward Brathwaite, "The Making of the Drum," in Masks (London: Oxford University Press, 1968), 7-10, quotation from 8.
443. Wilson Harris, introduction to The Womb of Space: The Cross-Cultural Imagination (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1983), xv-xx, quotation from xix. Italics in original.
444. Wilson Harris, "History, Fable and Myth in the Caribbean and Guianas," in Explorations (Mundelstrup, Denmark: Dangaroo Press, 1981), 20-42.
445. Gloria Naylor, Mama Day (New York: Vintage, 1989), 5.
446. Paule Marshall, Praisesong for the Widow (New York: Dutton, 1983), 38-39.
447. Jeremy Bentham, Introduction to the Principles of Moral and Legislation (1789; rpt., Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1907) chap. 18, sec. 1, note.
448. Michael Pollan, "An Animal's Place," New York Times Magazine, November 11, 2002, at http://www.nytimes.com/2002/11/10/magazine/10ANIMAL.html
449. J. M.Coetzee, The Lives of Animals (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1999), 21.
450. Singer, Animal Liberation (New York: Random House, 1975), 11.
451. Jared Diamond, The Third Chimpanzee: The Evolution and Future of the Human Animal (New York: HarperPerennial, 1992), 2.
452. Immanuel Kant, "Duties towards Animals and Spirits," in Lectures on Ethics, trans. Louis Infield (London: Methuen, 1930), 239-41, quotation from 240.
453. Kant, The Metaphysical Principles of Virtues, trans. James Ellington (Indianapolis, IN: Bobbs-Merrill, 1984), 106.
454. Lawrence Tribe, "Ways Not to Think about Plastic Trees," Yale Law Journal 83 (1974): 1315-48, quotation from 1331.
455. Aldo Leopold, Sand County Almanac (New York: Oxford University Press, 1949), 220.
456. Rachel Carson, Silent Spring (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1962), 297.
457. Martin Rees, Our Final Hour: A Scientist's Warning (New York: Basic Books, 2003).
458. Gary Snyder, "Poetry and the Primitive: Notes on Poetry as an Ecological Survival Technique," in Earth House Hold (New York: New Directions, 1969), 117-30, quotation from 127.
459. For much of that time he studied under the tutelage of Oda Sesso Roshi, Rinzai Zen master and head abbot of Daitoku-ji Temple, Kyoto. See Patrick Murphy, Understanding Gary Synder (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1992), 8.
460. The connection between these two has been increasingly remarked upon. See, for instance, Buddhism and Ecology, ed. Mary Evelyn Tucker and Duncan Ryuken Williams (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1997).
461. For an important critique of the Judeo-Christian tradition as a tradition unfriendly to the environment, see Lynn White, "The Historical Root of the Ecocrisis," Science 155 (1967): 1203-7. Reprinted in White, Machina Ex Deo (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1968), 75-94.
462. Gary Snyder, "Buddhism and the Coming Revolution," Earth House Hold, 90-93, quotation from 91-92.
463. Snyder, "Poetry and the Primitive," in Earth House Hold, 117-30, quotation from 126.
464. Gary Snyder, "What Happened Here Before," in Turtle Island (New York: New Directions, 1974), 78-81, quotation from 78, 79.
465. Simon J. Ortiz, "Speaking," in A Good Journey (Berkeley: Turtle Island, 1977), 52.
466. Snyder, introduction note, in Turtle Island, 1.
467. Chris Stringer and Robin McKie, African Exodus (London: Jonathan Cape, 1996), esp. chapter 8, "Africans under the Skin," 170-83.
468. Hans Peter Duerr, Dreamtime: Concerning the Boundary between Wilderness and Civilization (Oxford: Blackwell, 1985), 110-11.
469. Willa Cather, Death Comes for the Archbishop (New York: Vintage, 1971), 233.
470. Snyder, interview with the East West Journal, collected in The Real Work: Interviews and Talks, 1964-1979 (New York: New Directions, 1980), 92-137, quotation from 115.
471. Snyder, "The Incredible Survival of Coyote," in The Real Work, 70-71.
472. For the "anonymity" of Native American literature, see Arnold Krupat, in Recovering the Word, ed. Brian Swann and Arnold Krupat (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1987).
473. Ramsey, Reading the Fire.
474. Simon Ortiz, "Telling about Coyote," in A Good Journey, 15-18, quotation from 16.
475. "A Berry Feast" was first published in Evergreen Review 2 (1957): 110-14, reprinted in Snyder, Back Country (New York: New Directions, 1968), 13-16.
476. Snyder, "A Berry Feast," Back Country, 15.
477. Snyder, "The Incredible Survival of Coyote," 84.
478. Leslie Silko, "Toe'esh: A Laguna Coyote Story," in Storyteller (New York: Seaver Books, 1981), 236-39, quotation from 239.
479. Paul Radin, The Trickster: A Study in American Indian Mythology, with Commentaries by Karl Kerenyi and C. G. Jung (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1956), 132.
480. Karl Kerenyi, "The Trickster in Relation to Greek Mythology," in Radin, The Trickster, 171-91, quotation from 180.
481. David Padwa, "What's the Sanskrit Word for Coyote?" in Gary Snyder: Dimensions of a Life, ed. John Halper (San Francisco: Sierra Club Books, 1991), 302-11.
482. A. R. Aryan, Hanuman: Art, Mythology, and Folklore, 2nd ed. (New Delhi: Rekha Prakashan, 1994), 13.
483. Shanti Lal Nagar, Hanuman: In Art, Culture, Thought and Literature (New Delhi: Intellectual Publishing House, 1995), xv.
484. For an interesting account of the debate, see Ludvik, Hanuman, 2.
485. Shanti Lal Nagar, Hanuman in Art, Culture, Thought and Literature (New Delhi: Intellectual Publishing House, 1995), x.
486. Ramayana, 51:24-27.
487. Ramayana, 51:13.
488. Ramayana, 51:39.
489. Claude Levi-Strauss, Structural Anthropology, trans. Claire Jacobson and Brooke Grundfest Schoef (New York: Basic Books, 1963), 246.
490. Lévi-Strauss, Structural Anthropology, 248.
491. Monkey: Folk Novel of China by Wu Ch'eng-en.
492. Gates focuses on the African trickster, Esu-Elegbara. See The Signifying Monkey: A Theory of Afro-American Literary Criticism (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988).
493. Neila C. Seshachari, "Reinventing Peace: Conversations with Tripmaster Maxine Hong Kingston," in Conversations with Maxine Hong Kingston, ed. Paul Skenazy and Tera Martin (Jackson: University of Mississippi Press, 1998), 192-214, quotation from 204.
494. Gerald Vizenor, "December 1946: Saturnalia at Dayton's," in Interior Landscapes (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1990), 50-56, quotation from 50.
495. Vizenor, "Families of the Crane," in Interior Landscapes, 3-20, quotation from 4-5.
496. Vizenor, "June 1936: Measuring My Blood," in Interior Landscapes, 26-33, quotation from 27.
497. Gerald Vizenor, Griever: An American Monkey King in China (Normal: Illinois State University Fiction Collective, 1987), 51.
498. Vizenor, "June 1936: Measuring My Blood," 26.
499. Leslie Marmon Silko, Ceremony (New York: Penguin, 1977), 7-8.