Shakespeare's brain: Reading with cognitive theory

Shakespeare's Brain: Reading with Cognitive Theory

Volumn , Issue , 2010, Pages 1-265

  Crane, Mary Thomas ^a  

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References (433)

1. Michel Foucault, "What Is an Author?" in Language, Counter-Memory, Practice: Selected Essays and Interviews by Michel Foucault, ed. Donald F. Bouchard (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1977), 113.
2. G. Wilson Knight, "On the Principles of Shakespeare Interpretation," from The Wheel of Fire, as excerpted in Modern Shakespearean Criticism: Essays on Style, Dramaturgy, and the Major Plays, ed. Alvin B. Kernan (New York: Harcourt, 1970), 5.
3. A full bibliography of psychoanalytic criticism of Shakespeare is clearly beyond the scope of a single note. A very basic list might include C. L. Barber and Richard P. Wheeler, The Whole Journey: Shakespeare's Power of Development (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1986);
4. Meredith Anne Skura, Shakespeare the Actor and the Purposes of Playing (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993);
5. Janet Adelman, Suffocating Mothers: Fantasies of Maternal Origin in Shakespeare's Plays, Hamlet to The Tempest (New York: Routledge, 1992);
6. Norman Holland, Psychoanalysis and Shakespeare (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1966);
7. Murray Schwartz and Coppélia Kahn, eds., Representing Shakespeare:New Psychoanalytic Essays (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1980).
8. As George Lakoff puts it, "Because concepts and reason both derive from, and make use of, the sensorimotor system, the mind is not separate from or independent of the body" (George Lakoff and Mark Johnson, Philosophy in the Flesh:The Embodied Mind and Its Challenge to Western Thought [New York: Basic Books, 1999], 555).
9. As Paul Smith has noted, "Any ideology must lodge itself in the subject/ individual in order to function as ideology" (Discerning the Subject [Minneapolis:University of Minnesota Press, 1988], 29).
10. Stephen Greenblatt, Shakespearean Negotiations (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1988), 2.
11. For a hostile (and reductive) reading of the attribution of agency to the text rather than to the author in materialist criticism, see Richard Levin, "The Poetics and Politics of Bardicide," PMLA 105 (1990): 491-504.
12. Francis Barker, The Tremulous Private Body: Essays in Subjection (London:Methuen, 1984), 63.
13. Jonathan Sawday, The Body Emblazoned: Dissection and the Human Body in Renaissance Culture (New York: Routledge, 1995), 4.
14. Gail Kern Paster, The Body Embarrassed: Drama and the Disciplines of Shame in Early Modern England (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1993), 5-6.
15. Judith Butler, The Psychic Life of Power: Theories in Subjection (Stanford:Stanford University Press, 1997), 2.
16. Scott Manning Stevens, "Sacred Heart and Secular Brain," in Hillman and Mazzio, Body in Parts, 278.
17. Terence W. Deacon, The Symbolic Species: The Co-evolution of Language and the Brain (New York: Norton, 1997), 111.
18. See N. Katherine Hayles, "The Materiality of Informatics," Configurations 1 (1992): 153, where she attributes this conclusion to Scarry. See also Elaine Scarry, The Body in Pain: The Making and Unmaking of the World (Oxford:Oxford University Press, 1985).
19. R. N. Shepard and Jacqueline Metzler, "Mental Rotation of Three-Dimensional Objects," Science 171 (1971): 701-3. They measured the amount of time it took for subjects to solve the problem and concluded that "reaction time is a strikingly linear function of the angular difference between the two three-dimensional objects portrayed" (703).
20. Mandler, "How to Build a Baby," 591-92.
21. Gerald Edelman, Bright Air, Brilliant Fire: On the Matter of the Mind (New York: Basic Books, 1992), 94-101, 245-46.
22. Mandler, "How to Build a Baby," 598.
23. Lakoff, Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things, xiv-xv.
24. Turner, Death Is the Mother of Beauty, 12.
25. Antonio Damasio, Descartes' Error: Emotion, Reason, and the Human Brain (New York: Avon, 1994).
26. David Silverman and Brian Torode, The Material Word: Some Theories of Language and Its Limits (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1980), 3-4.
27. As noted above, a number of critics have begun to explore the implications of cognitive science for literary study; indeed, it would be impossible to acknowledge all of them in a note. For summaries and assessments of some of the most important contributions to this field, see Crane and Richardson, "Literary Studies and Cognitive Science," esp. 132-37.
28. Stephen Kosslyn and Oliver Koenig, Wet Mind: The New Cognitive Neuroscience (New York: Free Press, 1992), 4.
29. See Leslie Brothers, Friday's Footprint: How Society Shapes the Human Mind (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), 56-65.
30. John R. Taylor, Linguistic Categorization: Prototypes in Linguistic Theory, 2nd ed. (Oxford: Clarendon, 1995), 6.
31. Hart, "Matter, System, and Early Modern Studies," 6.
32. Taylor, Linguistic Categorization, 141.
33. Brent Berlin and Paul Kay, Basic Color Terms: Their Universality and Evolution (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1969).
34. Taylor, Linguistic Categorization, 9.
35. Kosslyn and Koenig, Wet Mind, 47-48.
36. Deacon, Symbolic Species, 117-21. His point here is that "the universality of color term reference is an expression of shared neurological biases, but-and this is the crucial point-the translation of this biological constraint into a social universal is brought about through the action of nongenetic evolutionary forces" (119-20).
37. Ludwig Wittgenstein, Philosophical Investigations, trans. G.E.M. Anscombe (Oxford: Blackwell, 1978), perhaps first questioned the current logical interpretation of categorization, without, however, suggesting a cognitivist alternative; see Taylor, Linguistic Categorization, 38-39, for Wittgenstein's relation to cognitive theory.
38. For the theory of mental spaces, see Gilles Fauconnier, Mental Spaces: Aspects of Meaning Construction in Natural Language (1985; reprint, Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 1994). For scripts, see Roger Schank and R. P. Abelson, Scripts, Plans, Goals, and Understanding: An Inquiry into Human Knowledge Structures (Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum, 1977).
39. Lacan again anticipates elements of cognitive theory in recognizing the centrality of metaphor and metonymy to signification (see Jacques Lacan, "The Agency of the Letter in the Unconscious," in Ecrits: A Selection, trans. Alan Sheridan [New York: Norton, 1977], 166-67); his reliance on metaphor and metonymy alone is overly schematic and probably reflects the influence of Roman Jakobson's structuralist linguist theory.
40. Taylor, Linguistic Categorization, 81-141.
41. Eve Sweetser, "Mental Spaces and the Grammar of Conditional Constructions," in Spaces, Worlds, and Grammar, ed. Gilles Fauconnier and Eve Sweetser (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996). For pioneering work on the motivation of grammar by cognitive structures, see Langacker, Foundations of Cognitive Grammar, vols. 1 and 2, Descriptive Application.
42. Spolsky, Satisfaction, ms. p. 28.
43. See Judith Anderson, "Translating Investments: The Metaphoricity of Language, 2 Henry IV, and Hamlet," Texas Studies in Literature and Language 40 (1998): 236;
44. Idem, Words That Matter: Linguistic Perception in Renaissance England (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1996). Her reading in the essay (242-53) of Shakespeare's complex and metaphorically packed use of the word investment is similar in many ways to the kinds of reading that I attempt here.
45. Anderson, "Translating Investments," 232.
46. Michel Foucault, The Order of Things: An Archaeology of the Human Sciences (New York: Vintage, 1973), 55.
47. F. Elizabeth Hart has suggested the same of Derrida.
48. See Lakoff and Johnson, Philosophy in the Flesh, esp. 404-9, for the origins of Cartesian rationalism and a critique of it.
49. See Kosslyn and Koenig, Wet Mind, 13-14, for parts of the brain.
50. Jean Aitchison, Words in the Mind: An Introduction to the Mental Lexicon, 2nd ed. (Oxford: Blackwell, 1994), provides a helpful introduction to the human word store and its organization.
51. Jacques Derrida, Of Grammatology, trans. Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, 5th paperback ed. (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1982), 3-4, identifies science's distrust of natural language as the beginning of a dislocation within logocentrism.
52. John Searle, Minds, Brains, and Science (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1984), 14.
53. Michel Pecheux, Language, Semantics, and Ideology (New York: St. Martin's, 1975), 51.
54. Smith, Discerning the Subject, 22. Smith argues that psychoanalysis can provide the theoretical basis for this clarification; however, cognitive theory pro 75. Damasio, Descartes' Error, 240.
55. Bucci, Psychoanalysis and Cognitive Science, 2. She usefully summarizes Freud's changing theories about the structure of the mind, from his early "topographic" system, in which the mind is divided into conscious, preconscious, and unconscious "regions," and a later "structural" theory, with its division into id, ego, and superego (17-30).
56. See Hart, "Matter, System, and Early Modern Studies," for a slightly different argument that cognitive science offers new ways to theorize "the ideological means by which the human subject is constructed and the limits to agency imposed on the subject through its interpellation by the cultural system" (312).
57. The Marxist/psychoanalytic definition is from Smith, Discerning the Subject, xxxv; Lakoff and Johnson define subject and self in Philosophy in the Flesh, 268.
58. Smith, Discerning the Subject, xxxv.
59. Mandler, "How to Build a Baby," 596.
60. Lars Engle, Shakespearean Pragmatism: Market of His Time (Chicago:University of Chicago Press, 1993), 61.
61. The philosopher Daniel Dennett has most persistently challenged the "homunculus" theory (see Daniel Dennett, Consciousness Explained [New York: Little, Brown, 1991]).
62. Minsky, Society of Mind, 50.
63. Kosslyn and Koenig, Wet Mind, lists division of labor, weak modularity (including functional relations among subsystems and localization in the brain), constraint satisfaction, coarse coding, concurrent processing, and opportunism as five principles of brain function. These all suggest ways in which neurons are able to work within networks, and networks within larger brain systems, to accomplish many complex tasks at the same time (without a single directing "intelligence").
64. Damasio, Descartes' Error, 238.
65. George Lakoff, "Sorry, I'm Not Myself Today: The Metaphor System for Conceptualizing the Self," in Fauconnier and Sweetser, Spaces, Worlds, and Grammar, 118.
66. Frederic Jameson, "Imaginary and Symbolic in Lacan: Marxism, Psychoanalytic Criticism, and the Problem of the Subject," in Literature and Psychoanalysis:The Question of Reading: Otherwise, ed. Shoshana Felman (Baltimore:Johns Hopkins University Press, 1982), 363-64.
67. On this evidence, see Pinker's summary of the work of Derek Bickerton on creolization in Hawaii and also among deaf children learning sign language (Pinker, Language Instinct, 32-39).
68. On various possible applications of the Silverstein hierarchy, see Paul W. Deane, Grammar in Mind and Body: Explorations in Cognitive Syntax (New York: Mouton, 1992), 200-222.
69. Transcript of an interview with a patient suffering from Broca's aphasia, cited in Aitchison, Words in the Mind, 107.
70. For a summary of this controversy in the field of cognitive psychology, for example, see Jeanette Altarriba, ed., Culture and Cognition: A Cross-Cultural Approach to Cognitive Psychology (New York: North-Holland, 1993), v-viii. Altarriba espouses what she calls a "universalist" position, which assumes both "commonality in experience" and the importance of cultural differences (vi).
71. The most notorious attempt to correlate intelligence and race is Richard J. Herrnstein and Charles Murray, The Bell Curve: Intelligence and Class Structure in American Life (New York: Free Press, 1994). For a strong restatement of Chomsky's position that language is innate, see Pinker, Language Instinct, 297-331. Pinker, interestingly and perhaps predictably, uses Shakespeare as an example of a genetic predisposition to use language effectively (330-31).
72. Taylor, Linguistic Categorization, 81-98, sketches out various accounts of the cultural domains, schemas, or scripts that have been posited as the mechanisms for establishing the meaning of linguistic forms.
73. Pinker, Language Instinct, 428.
74. Edelman, Bright Air, Brilliant Fire, 174.
75. Hart has argued the same in "Matter, System, and Early Modern Studies."
76. See G. L. Brook, The Language of Shakespeare (London: Andre Deutsch, 1976), 26-64, for a general description of Shakespearean word use. See also S. S. Hussey, The Literary Language of Shakespeare (New York: Longman, 1982), 37-60, on Shakespeare's vocabulary.
77. For a brief cognitive account of Shakespeare and the expanding early modern vocabulary, see Hart, "Matter, System, and Early Modern Studies," 333-43.
78. Eve Sweetser, From Etymology to Pragmatics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 5.
79. Nancy G. Siraisi, Medieval and Early Renaissance Medicine: An Introduction to Knowledge and Practice (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990), 106.
80. These examples are cited in Hussey, Literary Language of Shakespeare, 22-23. Hussey particularly remarks Shakespeare's tendency to "double" native and Latinate words.
81. Aitchison, Words in the Mind, notes that information about lexical storage can be obtained from "slips of the tongue" as well as from word-association tests; such slips usually involve errors of meaning (week for day) or sound (malapropisms) or a combination of the two (see 19-21).
82. Lewis, Studies in Words, 11.
83. Empson, Structure of Complex Words, 115.
84. Parker, Shakespeare from the Margins, 13.
85. Aitchison, Words in the Mind, 229.
86. Masten, "Beaumont and/or Fletcher," 345.
87. Brothers, Friday's Footprint, 146.
88. See esp. Arthur Marotti, Manuscript, Print, and the English Renaissance Lyric (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1995);
89. Joseph Loewenstein, "The Script in the Marketplace," in Representing the English Renaissance, ed. Stephen Greenblatt (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1988): 265-78;
90. Mary Thomas Crane, Framing Authority: Sayings, Self, and Society in Sixteenth-Century England (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993).
91. See Jean E. Howard, The Stage and Social Struggle in Early Modern England (New York: Routledge, 1994), 9;
92. Greenblatt, Shakespearean Negotiations, 5.
93. Anne Barton, introduction to The Comedy of Errors in The Riverside Shakespeare, ed. G. Blakemore Evans (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1974), 81. All quotations from Shakespeare's plays are from this edition.
94. See Katherine Eisaman Maus, Inwardness and Theater in the English Renaissance (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995), 1-34, for an account and critique of the argument that inwardness was only beginning to be developed as a concept in this period.
95. Harold Brooks, "Themes and Structure in The Comedy of Errors," in Early Shakespeare (New York: St. Martin's, 1961), 70.
96. Barbara Freedman, Staging the Gaze: Postmodernism, Psychoanalysis, and Shakespearean Comedy (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1991), 110.
97. George Lakoff, "Sorry, I'm Not Myself Today: The Metaphor System for Conceptualizing the Self," in Spaces,Worlds, and Grammar, ed. Gilles Fauconnier and Eve Sweetser (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996), 91-123, argues that in contemporary English-speaking culture the spatial metaphors used to conceptualize subjectivity are complex and inconsistent.
98. See Jacques Lacan, "The Mirror Stage," in Ecrits: A Selection, trans. Alan Sheridan (New York: Norton, 1977), 1-7.
99. Frederic Jameson, "Imaginary and Symbolic in Lacan: Marxism, Psychoanalytic Criticism, and the Problem of the Subject," in Literature and Psychoanalysis: The Question of Reading: Otherwise, ed. Shoshana Felman (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1982), 351-58, provides a useful explication of the spatial implications of the mirror stage.
100. Antonio Damasio, Descartes' Error: Emotion, Reason, and the Human Brain (New York: Avon, 1994), 230.
101. However, Elizabeth Bradburn has argued that the Lacanian mirror stage shares with cognitive theory a sense of the subject as "the location for the registration of movement," ("The Poetics of Embodiment" [paper presented at the annual meeting of theModern Language Association, San Francisco, December 1998], 6).
102. Bruce Fink, The Lacanian Subject: Between Language and Jouissance (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995), 6.
103. Joan Copjec, Read My Desire: Lacan Against the Historicists (Cambridge:MIT Press, 1995), 50.
104. Damasio, Descartes' Error, 95.
105. Gaston Bachelard, The Poetics of Space, trans. Marie Jolas, rev. ed. (Boston:Beacon, 1994), xxxvi. His assumption that thought is deeply imagistic, as well as his sense of the centrality of spatial images to thought, seems very similar to cognitive theory.
106. R.R., "The House-holders Helpe, for Domesticall Discipline: Or, a Familiar Conference of Household Instruction and Correction, Fit for the Godly Government of Christian Families" (London, 1615), quoted in Lena Cowen Orlin, Elizabethan Households: An Anthology (Washington, D.C.: Folger Shakespeare Library, 1995), 27.
107. Damasio describes anosognosiacs as having lost "the substrate of the neural self" (Descartes' Error, 237).
108. Freedman, Staging the Gaze, 5, where Freedman discusses her practice of bringing "early modern and postmodern models of the mind into dialogue." 22. Lakoff, "Sorry, I'm Not Myself Today," suggests that contemporary metaphors used to imagine our subjectivity reflect a similar split.
109. Margreta de Grazia and Peter Stallybrass, "The Materiality of the Shakespearean Text," Shakespeare Quarterly 44 (1993): 267.
110. Harry F. Berger Jr., Making Trifles of Terrors: Redistributing Complicities in Shakespeare (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1997), 213.
111. De Grazia and Stallybrass, "Materiality of the Shakespearean Text," 269.
112. Freedman, Staging the Gaze, 25.
113. Meredith Anne Skura, Shakespeare the Actor and the Purposes of Playing (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993), esp. the afterword, "Circles and Centers." 31. See DavidW. Lloyd, The Making of English Towns (Hampshire: Gollancz, 1984), 48-51, on urban houses in the late medieval and early modern periods.
114. Jeremy Boulton, Neighbourhood and Society: A London Suburb in the Seventeenth Century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), stresses that "pre-industrial urban society can be seen as an aggregate of households" and that households were "the primary social unit" (102).
115. On this shift, see Valerie Pearl, "Change and Stability in Seventeenth-Century London," London Journal 5 (1979): 15.
116. Boulton, Neighbourhood and Society, 102.
117. Ferguson, Quilligan, and Vickers, in their introduction to Rewriting the Renaissance, xviii-xix, provide a useful summary of historical information.
118. Alice T. Friedman, House and Household in Elizabethan England: Wollaton Hall and theWilloughby Family (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989), 49.
119. Catherine Belsey, Subject of Tragedy, 145.
120. Boulton, Neighbourhood and Society, concludes that in the London suburb of Boroughside, only "a substantial minority" of households "were involved in locally based kin networks" (260). Such "kin networks were loose," and "extensive kin networks were untypical," probably because of mobility, "turnover and population increase" (261).
121. Jean-Christophe Agnew, Worlds Apart: The Market and the Theater in Anglo-American Thought, 1550-1750 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), 41-42.
122. Barbara Freedman, Staging the Gaze, makes a similar move in her chapter on this play, beginning with an identification of "the major reading styles offered by the major characters" (84), then going on to complicate this approach.
123. For an excellent discussion of the chain as a means of exploring new mechanisms of identity formation and social relationships, see Bruster, "Local Tempest," 73-77.
124. Damasio describes a case of "transient anosognosia" or "asomatognosia," wherein the patient experienced "loss of the sense of her entire body frame and body boundary (both left and right sides) but was nonetheless well aware of visceral functions (breathing, heartbeat, digestion)" (Descartes' Error, 237).
125. Gerald Edelman, Bright Air, Brilliant Fire: On the Matter of the Mind (New York: Basic Books, 1992), 150.
126. Bruster, "Local Tempest," 74, notes that "as in one of its source plays, Plautus' Amphitruo, identity in Shakespeare's play is connected with gold."
127. Members of the Boston College doctoral seminar in the fall of 1992 called to my attention the role of beating as a means of stabilizing identity in this play.
128. Freedman, Staging the Gaze, 92.
129. Jean Howard, "Scripts and/versus Playhouses: Ideological Production and the Renaissance Public Stage," in Wayne, Matter of Difference, 221-25, cites the concern of antitheatrical tracts in the period to keep women confined to home and out of the playhouses.
130. See, e.g., the note to 1.2.9 in the Riverside Shakespeare: "Not only inns but shops had such signs; see below, I.ii.75, where we learn that the house in which Antipholus of Ephesus lives and carries on his business is called the Phoenix."
131. Dayton Haskin reminded me, in comments following a talk based on this chapter at Boston College in November 1992, that the abbey would also have been known as a religious "house."
132. Brooks, "Themes and Structure in The Comedy of Errors," 68.
133. See Patricia Parker, Shakespeare from the Margins: Language, Culture, Context (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996), 56-82, for a similar conclusion that the play offers a "disjunctive combination of old and new, commercial and biblical Ephesus, apocalyptic end with elements not so easily assimilable to it" (81).
134. Andrew Gurr, The Shakespearean Stage, 1574-1642, 3rd ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 115.
135. Dorsch, New Cambridge Shakespeare, 22-24, concludes that staging in front of the screen was the most likely alternative. Foakes, Arden edition, xxxv, mentions the audience's awareness of "the conventionalized arcade settings with which Renaissance editors illustrated editions of Terence and Plautus, apparently in the belief that they were imitating the Roman stage."
136. Alan Nelson, Early Cambridge Theatres: College, University and Town Stages, 1464-1720 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 124.
137. Scholars are divided over whether the three domi constituted the only possible means of entrance and egress or there were also side entrances that could represent arrival from or departure to seaport or mart. Dorsch, New Cambridge Shakespeare, believes that the five doors of the Gray's Inn hall screen could provide both the three "houses" and two other means of entrance or exit (24).
138. The Cambridge play Gammer Gurton's Needle capitalizes for humorous effect on the inability of the audience to see inside the stagehouses.
139. Barton, introduction in the Riverside Shakespeare, 81.
140. Foakes, Arden edition, xxxvii.
141. The drawings are reproduced in Dorsch, New Cambridge Shakespeare, 25-27.
142. Controversy over the role of such freestanding "houses" in pre-Shakespearean private performance has been as heated as that over the public theater "inner stage" and indeed probably stems from similar ideas about the representation of domestic space. Richard Southern, The Staging of Plays before Shakespeare (London: Faber&Faber, 1973), 146-54, summarizes various arguments and concludes that no such "houses" existed. I tend to think he is right.
143. The Comedy of Errors, ed. J. Dover Wilson and Arthur Quiller-Couch (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1922), 98.
144. Richard Southern, The Open Stage and the Modern Theatre in Research and Practice (London: Faber & Faber, 1953);
145. John Cranford Adams, The Globe Playhouse (1942; reprint, New York: Barnes & Noble, 1961), 135-71, 275-85.
146. For refutations of the inner-stage theory, see C.Walter Hodges, The Globe Restored (London: Ernest Benn, 1953), 50-54
147. Richard Hosley, "The Discovery-Space in Shakespeare's Globe," Shakespeare Survey 12 (1959): 35-46.
148. Adams, Globe Playhouse, 275. He believed that the entire tiring-house facade was based on "a short row of London houses" (135).
149. Robert Weimann, "Bifold Authority in Shakespeare's Theatre," Shakespeare Quarterly 39 (1988): 409.
150. Lawrence Stone, in The Family, Sex and Marriage in England, 1500-1800, abr. ed. (London: Penguin, 1979), 169-72, argues that "the most striking change in the life-style of the upper classes in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries was the increasing stress laid upon personal privacy" (169). See also Girouard, Life in the English Country House, 1-118, for the architectural innovations that contributed to the development of domestic privacy.
151. Adams, Globe Playhouse, 284.
152. On the shocking nature of this scene and the importance of the location of the bed throughout the play, see Michael Neill, "Unproper Beds: Race, Adultery, and the Hideous in Othello," Shakespeare Quarterly 40 (1989): 383-412.
153. Hodges, Globe Restored, 54.
154. Their opinions are based on stage directions such as that preceding Othello 5.2, "Enter Othello and Desdemona in her bed."
155. Freedman, Staging the Gaze, 25.
156. Steven Mullaney, The Place of the Stage: License, Play and Power in Renaissance England (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988), 54.
157. Catherine Belsey argues that "the impression of interiority" was largely produced by "the formal development of the soliloquy," another means of revealing what is inside to public view (Subject of Tragedy, 42).
158. Bruster, "Local Tempest," 1-28, describes some of the implications of the theater as market and of playhouses as "centers for the production and consumption of an aesthetic product" (3).
159. John Stockton, A Sermon Preached at Paules Crosse, 24 August 1678, quoted in E. K. Chambers, The Elizabethan Stage, 4 vols. (Oxford: Clarendon, 1903-23), 4:200.
160. Bruster, "Local Tempest," 2, cites other similar passages.
161. Thomas White, A Sermon preached at Pawles Crosse on Sunday the thirde of November 1577 in the times of the Plague, in Chambers, Elizabethan Stage, 4:197.
162. See Girouard, Life in the English Country House, 34-36, which details the ceremonial and hierarchical traditions associated with dining in the great hall.
163. Richard Hosley, "The Origins of the Shakespearean Playhouse," Shakespeare Quarterly 15 (1964): 29-40.
164. However, Alan Nelson, "Hall Screens and Elizabethan Playhouses," in The Development of Shakespeare's Theater, ed. John H. Astington (New York: AMS Press, 1992), 57-76, has argued that since hall screens were not used as backgrounds for performances in halls, it is unlikely that they provided a model for the tiring-house facade in the public theater.
165. Jean Howard, Stage and Social Struggle, 221-23, notes anxiety about the social leveling that might occur when money, rather than social status, allowed one access to performances.
166. Nelson, "Hall Screens and Elizabethan Playhouses," 71.
167. Suzanne Westfall, Patronage and Performance: Early Tudor Household Revels (Oxford: Clarendon, 1990), 109-25, discusses the ambiguous place of players within noble households during the period before public theaters.
168. Antony Munday (?), A Second and third blast of retrait from plaies and Theaters (1580), in Chambers, Elizabethan Stage,, 4:210-12.
169. Gosson, Schoole of Abuse, 218.
170. I.H., This World's Folly (1615), in Chambers, Elizabethan Stage, 4:254.
171. Munday (?), A Second and third blast, 209.
172. As Stallybrass, "Worn Worlds," 292, has noted, their livery marked the location of "the London professional theater at the juncture of the court and the city guilds." Actors' livery "thus simultaneously related to the 'servitude' of household livery and to the 'freedom' of guild livery."
173. For the term housekeeper, see Chambers, Elizabethan Stage, 2:417. The term seems to have become current somewhat later than the period under discussion here, surfacing in seventeenth-century lawsuits among the heirs of original shareholders.
174. Sigmund Freud, "The 'Uncanny,' " in The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works, trans. James Strachey, vol. 17 (London: Hogarth, 1953), 245.
175. Freedman, Staging the Gaze, 56.
176. On the workings of ideology to reproduce conditions of production see Louis Althusser, "Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses," in Lenin and Philosophy and Other Essays, trans. Ben Brewster (New York: Monthly Review, 1971), 127-88.
177. See George Lakoff, Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things: What Categories Reveal about the Mind (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987), 283 ff., for the idea that "hierarchical structure is understood in terms of PART-WHOLE schemas and UP-DOWN schemas."
178. E. K. Chambers, The Elizabethan Stage, 4 vols. (Oxford: Clarendon, 1923), 4:340-41.
179. Charles Read Baskervil, The Elizabethan Jig and Related Song Drama (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1929), 113-19. Contemporary references, cited at length by Baskervil, suggest that the jig centered around an itinerant garlic seller and included a prostitutes' dance.
180. On postperformance admission to jigs, see David Wiles, Shakespeare's Clown (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), 46-47, who speculates, partly based on the passage cited above, that the "anarchy" attendant upon jig performances was in part caused by "the swelling of the audience by many who could not afford the entry fee for the main play," although "whether they paid, stampeded their way in, or entered freely is still unclear."
181. Baskervil, Elizabethan Jig, 55, 117, gives evidence for such baboon dances, including the passage cited above.
182. Wiles, Shakespeare's Clown, 14-16, describes the practice of Richard Tarlton, the first famous Elizabethan clown, who would reply to rhymes suggested by the audience.
183. Baskervil, Elizabethan Jig, 110-11, cites both quotations and several more. The satirist is Edward Guilpin, in his Skialetheia, satire 5.
184. Wiles, Shakespeare's Clown, 56.
185. On Kemp's Norwich undertaking, see Max W. Thomas, "Kemps Nine Daies Wonder: Dancing Carnival into Market," PMLA 107 (1992): 511-23. Thomas argues that Kemp's published account of his journey is part of "a larger cultural transition, which effectively replaced the liminal space offered by the carnivalesque with the fungible commodity of Renaissance theatrical representation" (521). I am arguing that Shakespeare in As You Like It uses the absence of Kemp to do something very similar.
186. See Peter Thomson, Shakespeare's Theatre, 2nd ed. (New York: Routledge, 1992), 12; Wiles, Shakespeare's Clown, 47; and Baskervil, Elizabethan Jig, 114, which suggests that "after 1600 the policy of private houses probably tended to discredit the jig and to throw it more definitely into the hands of companies that catered to the populace. The fact that by 1600 Kemp had left the Chamberlain's Men and by 1602 had joined Worcester's may reflect a shift in attitude on the part of his old company." Max Thomas, "Kemps Nine Daies Wonder," similarly attributes Kemp's departure from the company to possible "resentment" over his tendency to improvise, his "derogatory jests and exaggerated gestures" (511).
187. Wiles, Shakespeare's Clown, 47.
188. Margreta de Grazia and Peter Stallybrass, "The Materiality of the Shakespearean Text," Shakespeare Quarterly 44 (1993): 255-83, suggest some of the ways the problematic status of the text forces us to "reconceptualize the fundamental category of a work by Shakespeare" (255). A consideration of material conditions of performance is beyond the scope of their essay, but I believe that the presence of the jig similarly problematizes our conception of the Shakespearean play. a reconstituted order" (14).
189. A recent example of this approach is Annabel Patterson, Shakespeare and the Popular Voice (Oxford: Blackwell, 1989), who ties some very persuasive evidence of interest in popular political goals to be found in Shakespeare's plays with insistence on a "common-sense" (87) view of agency and authorship arguing that Shakespeare was engaged in a "conscious analytic project" (65) in his plays.
190. Thus Helgerson sees the history plays as standing for "a particularly anachronistic state formation based at least symbolically on the monarch and an aristocratic governing class" (Forms of Nationhood, 244).
191. See A. L. Beier, Masterless Men: The Vagrancy Problem in England, 1560-1640 (London: Methuen, 1985).
192. For one account of this familiar story of sheep enclosure, deracination, and increasing vagrancy, see Richard Halpern, The Poetics of Primitive Accumulation: English Renaissance Culture and the Genealogy of Capital (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1991), 71-73.
193. C. S. Lewis, Studies in Words, 2nd ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1967), 21.
194. Geoffrey Hughes, for example, has suggested that this pattern of change has its roots in the Anglo-Saxon legal system and its "concept of wergild, an equation between a person's status and material value, and a strong correlation between status and implied moral quality" (Words in Time, 47).
195. Lee Patterson, Chaucer and the Subject of History (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1991), 262. Patterson cites Rodney Hilton, Class Conflict and the Crisis of Feudalism (London: Hambledon Press, 1985), 138, for this "caste interpretation of peasant status."
196. Patterson, Chaucer and the Subject of History, cites, among others, Honorius of Autun, De imagine mundi, for peasants' descent from Ham.
197. For this proverb, see Albert B. Friedman, " 'When Adam Delved . . .': Contexts of an Historic Proverb," in The Learned and the Lewd: Studies in Chaucer and Medieval Literature, ed. Larry D. Benson (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1974), 213-30.
198. Quotation from The Boke of Seynt Albans (St. Albans, 1486) in Patterson, Chaucer and the Subject of History, 268.
199. Halpern, Poetics of Primitive Accumulation, 88.
200. The etymology of clown is obscure. Wiles notes a spurious etymology deriving it from the Latin colonus (farmer) (Shakespeare's Clown, 61), but the OED suspects a derivation from Germanic terms for "clod, clot, lump."
201. Wiles, Shakespeare's Clown, 62.
202. Wiles traces this shift in a chapter called " 'The Clown' in Playhouse Terminology" (Shakespeare's Clown, 61-72).
203. On the "cultural work" of pastoral in this regard, see Montrose, "Of Gentlemen and Shepherds," and for the negotiations of status and mobility in this play, see idem, "The Place of a Brother."
204. Wilson, " 'Like the old Robin Hood,' " 17, 16.
205. Wilson, " 'Like the old Robin Hood,' " similarly notes the ways in which the play "graft[s] the old rural games" onto classical mythology in order to "neutralize" their disruptive force (16-17). He does not see the irony and regret about this neutralization that I argue for here.
206. Thomson, Shakespeare's Theatre, 66-68, 94-96, discusses the roles of Kemp and Armin in the company and suggests that As You Like It alludes to the change. Wiles, Shakespeare's Clown, 146, makes a similar argument.
207. Althusser, "Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses," 171-72.
208. Daniel Stern, The InterpersonalWorld of the Infant: A View from Psychoanalysis and Developmental Psychology (New York: Basic Books, 1985), 42.
209. Gerald Edelman, Bright Air, Brilliant Fire: On the Matter of the Mind (New York: Basic Books, 1992), 170.
210. Hughes has noted that this linguistic change involves movement from viewing fortune as "something which controlled one" to "something which can be 'made,' allowing one control over one's life" (Words in Time, 69).
211. Quoted from An Acte for the punishment of Vacabondes and for Releif of the Poore and Impotent (14 Eliz., c. 5), of 29 June 1572, as cited in Chambers, Elizabethan Stage, 4:269-70.
212. For the argument about the class affiliation and financial means of Shakespeare's audience, see Ann Jennalie Cook, The Privileged Playgoers of Shakespeare's London, 1576-1642 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1981), who argues against an earlier view that the theaters brought together a socially heterogeneous audience; and Andrew Gurr, Playgoing in Shakespeare's London (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), who argues that different theaters had different audiences.
213. Wilson, " 'Like the old Robin Hood,' " 6-7, suggests that Orlando, with his "combination of rebelliousness and conservatism," represents a "noble robber" or upper-class leader of a peasant revolt. In my view, Orlando, as upperclass "rebel," voices a more conservative view than the play as a whole seems to support.
214. Montrose has suggested the importance of a character named Adam in establishing "resonances" between the brotherly animosities in the play and the story of Cain and Abel in Genesis ("The Place of a Brother," 45-46).
215. Montrose, "Of Gentlemen and Shepherds," 432. Montrose argues that pastoral forms, "by reconstituting the leisured gentleman as the gentle shepherd, obfuscates a fundamental distinction in cultural logic: a contradiction between the secular claims of aristocratic prerogative and the religious claims of common origins" (432). See also Patterson, Chaucer and the Subject of History, 262.
216. Rodney Hilton, Bond Men Made Free (London: Methuen, 1977), 72.
217. Quoted from a proclamation "Prohibiting Encroachment inWaltham Forest," Westminster, 17 June 1548, 2 Edw. 6, in Tudor Royal Proclamations, ed. Paul L. Hughes and James F. Larkin, vol. 1, The Early Tudors (1485-1553) (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1964), 430. For the frequency of charges of stealing wood in manorial court records, see John West, Village Records (London: Macmillan, 1962), 35.
218. Hilton, Bond Men Made Free, 72. Lee Patterson connects this peasant desire for control over nature to a desire to return to the prelapsarian state of equality, "when Adam dalf, and Eve span" (Chaucer and the Subject of History, 265).
219. Helen Child Sargent and George Lyman Kittredge, eds., English and Scottish Popular Ballads (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1904), 274.
220. Anne Barton, "The King Disguised: Shakespeare's Henry V and the Comical History," in The Triple Bond, ed. Joseph G. Price (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1975), 97, alludes to this ballad as illustrating the motif of "the King-in-disguise," a "wish-dream of a peasantry harried and perplexed by a new class of officials" that they could have recourse to the king himself. Barton sees a critique of this motif in Henry V; however, Annabel Patterson, Shakespeare and the Popular Voice, 89-90, argues that Henry's appropriation of the motif is questioned by a lower-class voice.
221. See Helgerson, Forms of Nationhood, 231-32, which suggests that Shakespeare's Henry V alludes to the dream of "commonality . . . between the ruler and the ruled" found in the Robin Hood ballads but then "unequivocally denies it."
222. Wilson, " 'Like the old Robin Hood,' " 8.
223. On hunting and other leisure activities as manifestations of aristocratic privilege, see Mervyn James, Society, Politics, and Culture: Studies in Early Modern England (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), 271-78; Frank Whigham, Ambition and Privilege: The Social Tropes of Elizabethan Courtesy Theory (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1984), 88; and Mary Thomas Crane, Framing Authority: Sayings, Self, and Society in Sixteenth-Century England (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993), 101-2.
224. Orlando Patterson, Freedom in the Making ofWestern Culture (New York: Basic Books, 1991), 344-75, discusses the use of such terms as nativus and villanus initially to distinguish between slaves and serfs, but as these two categories fused during the medieval period, the words became synonyms.
225. Montrose, "Of Gentlemen and Shepherds," 452.
226. Ceorl was the Anglo-Saxon term for "serf"; it was replaced after 1066 by its French equivalent, villein. However, the term depreciated in a similar way.
227. Montrose, "Of Gentlemen and Shepherds," 429-33.
228. Wiles, Shakespeare's Clown, 20-23, 104.
229. Thomson, Shakespeare's Theatre, 9-12; Wiles, Shakespeare's Clown, 40-
230. See also Thomas, "Kemps Nine DaiesWonder," for a treatment of one episode in Kemp's subsequent career.
231. See Wiles, Shakespeare's Clown, 136-63. M. C. Bradbrook, Shakespeare the Craftsman (London: Chatto & Windus, 1969), notes that Armin's fool often "underlines or calls attention to social gradations; although living outside the social order he enforces it" (57). See Helgerson, Forms of Nationhood, 199, for Kemp's replacement as part of the transition from a "player's theater" to an "author's theater."
232. Helen Gardner, "As You Like It," in Modern Shakespearean Criticism: Essays on Style, Dramaturgy, and the Major Plays, ed. Alvin B. Kernan (New York: Harcourt, 1970), 191.
233. Wiles, Shakespeare's Clown, 56-60, argues for an assimilation of jig elements into Hamlet, arguing that once "the possibility of perfect order disintegrates [in the tragedies and dark comedies], the celebration of anarchy ceases, necessarily, to be an admissible complement to the play" (60). I see the incorpora tion of jig elements into the play as perhaps a bit more problematic, both for the play and for the jig ethos, than Wiles does.
234. Bono notes that Orlando has "painfully earned the 'real' love he is given" ("Mixed Gender, Mixed Genre," 204. He must seem to "earn" his new status as well.
235. Wiles argues that in this scene "the traditional simple-minded rustic clown is symbolically dismissed from the new Globe stage" (Shakespeare's Clown, 146).
236. Baskervil, Elizabethan Jig, 432.
237. Doran, "Yet am I inland bred," 106-11, traces the history of "viewing civilized man as sophisticated and in some sense morally declined from an earlier stage of innocence and honest simplicity" (106).
238. Wiles, Shakespeare's Clown, 52-56, where he notes that "the clown in As You Like It is allowed to complete his wooing" (55).
239. See Chambers, Elizabethan Stage, 4:270.
240. See Helgerson, Forms of Nationhood, 199.
241. On the role of Shakespeare's contemporary Ben Jonson in formulating and promulgating the concept of the author's ownership of, and control over, his text, see, e.g., Joseph Loewenstein, "The Script in the Marketplace," in Representing the English Renaissance, ed. Stephen Greenblatt (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1988), 265-78.
242. Antonio Damasio, Descartes' Error: Emotion, Reason, and the Human Brain (New York: Avon, 1994);
243. Leslie Brothers, Friday's Footprint: How Society Shapes the Human Mind (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997).
244. See esp. C. L. Barber and Richard P. Wheeler, The Whole Journey: Shakespeare's Power of Development (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1986); and Marianne Novy, "The Bonds of Brotherhood" in Shakespeare's Personality, ed. Norman N. Holland, Sidney Homan, and Bernard J. Paris (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1989), 103-15.
245. Cristina Malcolmson, " 'What You Will': Social Mobility and Gender in Twelfth Night," in The Matter of Difference: Materialist Feminist Criticism of Shakespeare, ed. ValerieWayne (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1991), 32, notes the universality of the perception of desire while extending its scope from desire for love and music to desire for social status.
246. Barbara Freedman, Staging the Gaze: Postmodernism, Psychoanalysis, and Shakespearean Comedy (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1991), 192-236;
247. Geoffrey Hartman, "Shakespeare's Poetical Character in Twelfth Night," in Shakespeare and the Question of Theory, ed. Patricia Parker and Geoffrey Hartman (London: Methuen, 1985), 45. Greenblatt, "Fiction and Friction," similarly offers a reading that disrupts the illusion that sexual difference is reaffirmed at the end of the play.
248. Taylor, Linguistic Categorization, 119-20, entertains the idea "that a category, no matter how extended or rambling, cannot accommodate contraries." But he is able to find "many cases where different meanings of a polysemous word are characterized by incompatible attribute specifications."
249. George Lakoff, Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things: What Categories Reveal about the Mind (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987).
250. Daniel Stern, The Interpersonal World of the Infant: A View from Psychoanalysis and Developmental Psychology (New York: Basic Books, 1985), 42.
251. Gerald Edelman, Bright Air, Brilliant Fire: On the Matter of the Mind (New York: Basic Books, 1992), 131-32.
252. F. Elizabeth Hart, "Matter, System, and Early Modern Studies: Outlines for a Materialist Linguistics," Configurations 6 (1998): 343.
253. Lakoff, Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things, 275.
254. Greenblatt, "Fiction and Friction," 68.
255. For the idea that "we have universal, perceptually determined possible options for spatializing time," see Eve Sweetser, From Etymology to Pragmatics: Metaphorical and Cultural Aspects of Semantic Structure (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 7.
256. John West, Village Records (London: Macmillan, 1962), 30.
257. C. E. Moreton, The Townshends and TheirWorld: Gentry, Law, and Land in Norfolk, c. 1450-1551 (Oxford: Clarendon, 1992), 82-114.
258. Paul L. Hughes and James F. Larkin, eds., Tudor Royal Proclamations, vol. 3, The Late Tudors (1588-1603) (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1969), 121.
259. See Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison, trans. Alan Sheridan (New York: Vintage, 1979).
260. Peter Stallybrass, "Worn Worlds: Clothes and Identity on the Renaissance Stage," in Subject and Object in Renaissance Culture, ed. Margreta de Grazia, Maureen Quilligan, and Peter Stallybrass (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 289-90.
261. "Antik sutes" is a category of an inventory in the hand of Edward Alleyn; "The Enventary of the Clownes Sewtes and Hermetes Sewtes" lists costumes of the Lord Admiral's Men as of 10 March 1598; the specific costumes are taken from an "Enventorey of all the aparell of the Lord Admeralles men, taken the 13th Marche 1598," in Philip Henslowe, Henslowe's Diary, ed. R. A. Foakes and R. T. Rickert (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1961), 292, 317, 321-23.
262. See Jean MacIntyre, Costumes and Scripts in the Elizabethan Theatres (Edmonton: University of Alberta Press, 1994), 187-88; and Henslowe, Henslowe's Diary, 205.
263. Malcolmson, "What You Will," 44.
264. I.M., A Health to the Gentlemanly Profession of Serving-Men, ed. A. V. Judges (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1931), H2v.
265. House appears approximately 21 times in the play, home only 6 times, possibly reflecting the sense that home is associated with households of lower status.
266. Greenblatt, "Fiction and Friction," 68, makes this point. Howard, "Power and Eros," stresses that Olivia's "unruliness" in rejecting Orsino is "punished, comically but unmistakably" (114); however, she is not made to marry Orsino.
267. As Freedman puts it, it "is not simply that there is an absence in Olivia's house which all the hangers-on seek to fill, but that there is an absence in that object Olivia which nothing can close up" (Staging the Gaze, 218).
268. See Howard, "Power and Eros," 112-16.
269. Heather Dubrow, Shakespeare and Domestic Loss: Forms of Deprivation, Mourning, and Recuperation (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 45-61, provides a complex discussion of the early modern cultural analogy between a woman's body and her house in the context of Shakespeare's Rape of Lucrece.
270. Peter Thomson, Shakespeare's Theatre, 2nd ed. (New York: Routledge, 1992), 112.
271. Interestingly, the author of the Health to the Gentlemanly Profession of Serving-Men associates sober qualities such as those that make Malvolio "suitable" for Olivia with exactly the kind of preferment through marriage that he comes so unsuitably to desire: "Some of them [gentlemen servants] would cary themselues so soberly, discreetely, and wisely, as they came to great wealth, worth, and preferment by Mariage" (E4v).
272. Gail Kern Paster, The Body Embarrassed: Drama and the Disciplines of Shame in Early Modern England (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1993), 34.
273. Alice T. Friedman, House and Household in Elizabethan England: Wollaton Hall and theWilloughby Family (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989, 185-86.
274. I.M., A Health to the Gentlemanly Profession of Serving-Men, G4v.
275. Susan Amussen, An Ordered Society: Gender and Class in Early Modern England (Oxford: Blackwell, 1988), 8, notes that "between 1500 and 1620 . . . prices multiplied sixfold."
276. I.M., A Health to the Gentlemanly Profession of Serving-Men, D2v.
277. Malcolmson, "What You Will," 37, notes that Viola rewards the captain "bounteously" as a sign that "she is no commoner." Viola thus twice rewards servants appropriately, whereas Olivia never does so.
278. L. G. Salingar, "The Design of Twelfth Night," in Twelfth Night: Critical Essays, ed. Stanley Wells (New York: Garland, 1986), 212, notes that Feste is "exceptionally given to scrounging for tips." I think the play emphasizes the comparative generosity (or lack of generosity) on the part of the wealthier characters in the play, as well as Feste's interest in remuneration.
279. Howard, "Power and Ethos,"115.
280. Karen Greif, "Plays and Playing in Twelfth Night," inWells, Twelfth Night: Critical Essays, 263.
281. Malcolmson, "What You Will," 37.
282. See Jean Howard, "Crossdressing, the Theatre, and Gender Struggle in Early Modern England," Shakespeare Quarterly 39 (1988): 418-40;
283. Lisa Jardine, " 'As Boys andWomen are for the Most Part Cattle of This Colour': Female Roles and Elizabethan Eroticism," in Still Harping on Daughters: Women and Drama in the Age of Shakespeare, 2nd ed. (New York: Columbia University Press, 1989), 9-36;
284. Catherine Belsey, "Disrupting Sexual Difference: Meaning and Gender in the Comedies," in Alternative Shakespeares, ed. John Drakakis (New York: Routledge, 1985), 166-90.
285. Malcolmson, "What You Will," 38.
286. See G. K. Hunter, "Flat Caps and Blue Coats," Essays and Studies, n.s., 33 (1980): 27-28; and MacIntyre, Costumes and Scripts in the Elizabethan Theatres, 13.
287. Jardine, "As Boys andWomen are for the Most Part Cattle of This Colour," 141.
288. MacIntyre, Costumes and Scripts in the Elizabethan Theatres, 13.
289. The size of the Duke's household is indicated by the presence of attendants and musicians in scenes where he appears, as well as by Maria's comment that Cesario is "a fair young man, and well attended" (1.5.102).
290. MacIntyre, Costumes and Scripts in the Elizabethan Theatres, 87, notes that such costumes for the gentry make up most of Henslowe's costume inventory, because "a gallant's doublet, hose, cloak, and hat . . . were subject to whimsical changes in the fashion and so would become stale if shown too often."
291. Stallybrass, "Worn Worlds," 294-301.
292. See Ashelford, Visual History of Costume, 134, fig. 148, portrait of "The Browne brothers and their page," where "difference in social rank is indicated by dress. The brothers wear the latest fashion, whereas their page does not."
293. Jardine, "As Boys andWomen are for the Most Part Cattle of This Colour," 29, argues that "these figures [cross-dressed female characters] are sexually enticing qua transvestied boys, and that the plays encourage the audience to view them as such."
294. Stephen Gosson, The Schoole of Abuse (1579), quoted in Chambers, Elizabethan Stage, 4:204.
295. See MacIntyre, Costumes and Scripts in the Elizabethan Theatres, 76.
296. "Regulations for the Apparel of London Apprentices," quoted from John Nichols, The Progresses of Queen Elizabeth, 2.204-6, in Hunter, "Flat Caps and Blue Coats," 30. On the nature of theatrical apprenticeship in this period, see Gerald Eades Bentley, The Profession of Player in Shakespeare's Time (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984), 125-26.
297. Stern, Interpersonal World of the Infant, 162.
298. Jacques Lacan, "The Agency of the Letter in the Unconscious," in Ecrits: A Selection, trans. Alan Sheridan (New York: Norton, 1977), 154.
299. Maus, Inwardness and Theater, 29-30.
300. Ellen Spolsky, Gaps in Nature: Literary Interpretation and the Modular Mind (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1993), 61-72.
301. Barker, Tremulous Private Body, 35.
302. There have been too many psychoanalytic readings of Hamlet to cite even a representative sample. A few major examples include Ernest Jones, Hamlet and Oedipus (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1954);
303. Norman Holland, Psychoanalysis and Shakespeare (1966; reprint, New York: Octagon Books, 1979), 163-206;
304. Janet Adelman, Suffocating Mothers: Fantasies of Maternal Origin in Shakespeare's Plays, Hamlet to The Tempest (New York: Routledge, 1992), 11-37.
305. Judith Butler, "Performative Acts and Gender Constitution: An Essay in Phenomenology and Feminist Theory," Theatre Journal 40 (1988): 523.
306. See, e.g., Belsey, Subject of Tragedy, 42-54, on the development of the soliloquy and the construction of the bourgeois individual.
307. Maus, Inwardness and Theater, 1-2, notes that for Hamlet, "the frank fakeries of the playhouse, its disguisings and impersonations, stand for the opacities that seem to characterize all relations of human beings to one another."
308. James L. Calderwood, To Be and Not to Be: Negation and Metadrama in Hamlet (New York: Columbia University Press, 1983), 32.
309. Here I follow Emily Bartels, who has made a similar argument, in "Breaking the Illusion of Being: Shakespeare and the Performance of Self," Theatre Journal 46 (1994): 173-75, suggesting that "Hamlet's problem (and our problem with him), then, is not that he plays by the book, but, paradoxically, that he does not" (174).
310. Belsey, Subject of Tragedy, 42, argues that the Hamlet of act 5, "who no longer struggles towards identity and agency," is "an inhabitant of a much older cosmos, no more than the consenting instrument of God, received into heaven at his death by flights of angels."
311. Both Wilson, What Happens in Hamlet, and O'Sullivan, "Hamlet and Dr. Timothy Bright," argue that Hamlet shows some but not all of the clinical signs of melancholy.
312. My account of Bright's purposes, as well as all quotations from the text, are taken from A Treatise of Melancholie by Timothy Bright, ed. Hardin Craig (New York: Facsimile Text Society, 1940); hereafter, all page references appear in the text.
313. See Antonio Damasio, Descartes' Error: Emotion, Reason, and the Human Brain (New York: Avon, 1994), 247-52, for a discussion of ways in which modern cognitive neuroscience approaches the mind-body problem. Damasio identifies with Descartes the erroneous "separation of the most refined operations of mind from the structure and operation of a biological organism" (250). Before Descartes, Galenic medicine offered the possibility of a material theory of mind; Bright, in his concern to separate soul and body, anticipates the Cartesian split.
314. Katherine Rowe, " 'God's handy worke': Divine Complicity and the Anatomist's Touch," in The Body in Parts: Fantasies of Corporeality in Early Modern England, ed. David Hillman and Carla Mazzio (New York: Routledge, 1997), traces how anatomy texts in the period focused on the hands in their representation of "a mechanics of agency relations" (287), which seems very similar to Bright.
315. Michael Goldman, "Hamlet and Our Problems," from Shakespeare and the Energies of Drama (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1972), reprinted in Critical Essays on Shakespeare's Hamlet, ed. David Scott Kastan (New York: G. K. Hall, 1995), 44.
316. While not quite making this connection, Barker, Tremulous Private Body, 31, argues that in the world of Hamlet "the body of the king is . . . the body that encompasses all mundane bodies within its build" and "is the deep structural form of all being in the secular realm." John Hunt, "A Thing of Nothing: The Catastrophic Body in Hamlet," Shakespeare Quarterly 39 (1988), traces how "isolated parts of the body function as metonymic or synecdochal equivalents for actions and states of being."
317. See Jonathan Gil Harris, Foreign Bodies and the Body Politic: Discourses of Social Pathology in Early Modern England (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), for a recent reassessment of the role of this organic metaphor in early modern England.
318. Margaret W. Ferguson, "Hamlet: Letters and Spirits," in Shakespeare and the Question of Theory, ed. Patricia Parker and Geoffrey Hartman (London: Methuen, 1985), 295.
319. Stephen Booth, "On the Value of Hamlet," in Kastan, Critical Essays on Shakespeare's Hamlet, 20-23.
320. In Adelman's psychoanalytic reading, Hamlet's imagery here reflects "the deep fantasy" that Gertrude is "the missing Eve: her body is the garden in which her husband dies, her sexuality the poisonous weeds that kill him, and poison the world" (Suffocating Mothers, 30). I want to emphasize not the psychological resonance of these images but their relation to an interest in cognitive process and particularly in the extent to which excrescences (such as tears or vegetative growth) accurately reveal the matter from which they are produced.
321. According to Alexander, Claudius repeatedly "uses the great cannon of the castle to emphasize his own power and position" (Poison, Play, and Duel, 185). I want to emphasize his tendency to use them to display his emotions outwardly, using the castle itself as an extension of his own body.
322. Bright, as noted above, allows some scope for the influence of occupational custom on the perceptions of the senses but does not admit that such customary action can alter the mind or soul.
323. See Ferguson, "Hamlet: Letters and Spirits," 295.
324. David Scott Kastan, " 'His semblable is his mirror': Hamlet and the Imitation of Revenge," in Kastan, Critical Essays on Shakespeare's Hamlet, 200.
325. Booth, "On the Value of Hamlet," 34, has argued that Hamlet is sometimes mad.
326. Patricia Parker, Shakespeare from the Margins: Language, Culture, Context (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996), 260. Parker cites, among others, Alison Plowden, The Elizabethan Secret Service (New York: St. Martin's, 1991).
327. Patricia Parker suggestively links issues of showing and telling in this play with a contemporary "crisis of representation . . . a problem shared by the lawcourts and other contestatory sites of epistemological or evidentiary certainty, of what might be reliably substituted for what could not be directly witnessed" (Shakespeare from the Margins, 259).
328. The "problem of the dumb-show" and question why the poisoning scene is performed twice and why Claudius does not react to it the first time are longstanding issues. Wilson, What Happens in Hamlet, 138-63, clearly outlines the problems and provides various unsatisfactory answers.
329. However, see Adelman, Suffocating Mothers, 11-37, for a psychoanalytic reading of Hamlet's obsession with imagining women's inner spaces.
330. Maus, Inwardness and Theater, 191.
331. Adelman, Suffocating Mothers, 34, suggests that Gertrude here "seems to accept [Hamlet's] version of her soiled inner body" but nevertheless remains "relatively opaque, more a screen for Hamlet's fantasies about her than a fully developed character in her own right." Her opacity, as well as Hamlet's fantasies, might also be read as part of the play's general preoccupation with essentially unknowable inner processes.
332. Elaine Showalter, "Representing Ophelia: Women, Madness, and the Responsibilities of Feminist Criticism," in Parker and Hartman, Shakespeare and the Question of Theory, 80.
333. R. D. Laing, The Divided Self: An Existential Study in Sanity and Madness (London, 1960), 95, quoted in David Leverenz, "TheWoman in Hamlet: An Interpersonal View," in New Casebooks: Hamlet, ed. Martin Coyle (New York: St. Martin's, 1992), 134.
334. Calderwood, To Be and Not to Be, 15-17.
335. See Bartels, "Breaking the Illusion of Being," 173-74, for the theatricality of this and other moments in the play.
336. Terence Hawkes, "Telmah," in Parker and Hartman, Shakespeare and the Question of Theory, 312. His name for this recursive play is Telmah, or Hamlet backwards.
337. Jennifer Low, "The Art of Fence and the Sense of Masculine Space," in Manhood and the Duel: Constructing Masculinity in Early Modern Drama (forthcoming), describes some of the ways in which fencing with a rapier involved an extension of "the fencer's sense of personal space as far as his outstretched hand or even to the point on the sword where it can parry most effectively." 47. Goldman, "Hamlet and Our Problems," 52.
338. Harris, Foreign Bodies and the Body Politic, 52.
339. Ferguson, "Hamlet: Letters and Spirits," 304, makes this connection.
340. So Terence Hawkes, who notes that "it is Horatio who gets it wrong. We know, from what we have seen, that the story he proposes to recount to the 'yet unknowing world' . . . is not really the way it was. It was not as simple, as like an 'ordinary' revenge play, as that" (Hawkes, "Telmah," 310-11).
341. J. L. Austin, How to Do Things withWords (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1962).
342. Maus, Inwardness and Theater, 21. Austin, of course, distinguishes between the validity of a performative and what he calls its "felicity," which may, in fact, depend upon "having certain thoughts or feelings" (Austin, How to Do Things with Words, 15).
343. Maus, Inwardness and Theater, 20-23, citing Henry Garnet, A Treatise of Equivocation, ed. David Jardine (London: Longman, Brown, 1851), 9-12.
344. See Judith Anderson, "Translating Investments: The Metaphoricity of Language, 2 Henry IV, and Hamlet," Texas Studies in Literature and Language 40 (1998): 250-53.
345. Austin distinguishes locutionary acts, "roughly equivalent to uttering a certain sentence with a certain sense and reference"; illocutionary acts, "such as informing, ordering, warning, undertaking, etc., i.e. utterances which have a certain (conventional) force"; and perlocutionary acts, "what we bring about or achieve by saying something" (Austin, How to Do with Words, 108).
346. Ellen Spolsky, Satisfying Skepticism: The Evolved Mind in the Early ModernWorld (forthcoming), argues persuasively that our flawed cognitive apparatus leads to a skepticism that is not necessarily tragic, though it may be culturally interpreted as such.
347. See Leonard Tennenhouse, "Representing Power: Measure for Measure in Its Time," Genre 15 (1982): 139-58;
348. Steven Mullaney, "Apprehending Subjects," chap. 6 in The Place of the Stage: License, Play and Power in Renaissance England (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988);
349. Jonathan Dollimore, "Transgression and Surveillance in Measure for Measure," in Political Shakespeare: New Essays in Cultural Materialism, ed. Jonathan Dollimore and Alan Sinfield (Ithaca:Cornell University Press, 1985), who argues that the play "is about both kinds of discipline, the enforced and the internalised" (75);
350. Jonathan Goldberg, James I and the Politics of Literature (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1983), 230-39;
351. and Steven Greenblatt, "Martial Law in the Land of Cockaigne," in Shakespearean Negotiations (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1988), 129-64.
352. Dollimore, "Transgression and Surveillance," 74.
353. Thus, Harry F. Berger argues in Making Trifles of Terrors: Redistributing Complicities in Shakespeare (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1997) that in Measure for Measure "speech and discourse are not about sexuality, but rather sexuality and the sins associated with it are about discourses" (415).
354. Mullaney, "Apprehending Subjects," 113.
355. Berger, Making Trifles of Terrors, similarly argues that the play focuses not so much on "the generic ideological and political practices of patriarchal rulers" as on "the particular discursive and ethical practices of Duke Vincentio" (365). Berger is mostly interested in the Duke's "ethical self-representation" (365) and sees him as maintaining more control over his various discursive strategies than I believe he does.
356. See Gail Kern Paster, The Body Embarrassed: Drama and the Disciplines of Shame in Early Modern England (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1993);
357. Jonathan Sawday, The Body Emblazoned: Dissection and the Human Body in Renaissance Culture (New York: Routledge, 1995);
358. and David Hillman and Carla Mazzio, eds., The Body in Parts: Fantasies of Corporeality in Early Modern Europe (New York: Routledge, 1997).
359. Paster, Body Embarrassed, 19.
360. Gail Kern Paster, "Nervous Tension," in Hillman and Mazzio, Body in Parts, 122.
361. Mario Di Gangi, "Pleasure and Danger: Measuring Female Sexuality in Measure for Measure," ELH 60 (1993): 589-609
362. also focuses on images of pregnancy and, he argues, abortion in Measure for Measure. He reads these images as offering space for an oppositional reading of the play: "To unravel maleconstructed meanings for erotic pleasure, pregnancy, and abortion is to discover a fear of the dangers thought to ensue from a woman's control over her own body" (590). I emphasize instead the extension of these metaphors to male bodies in order to suggest that no one in the play can control his or her own body.
363. See John R. Taylor, Linguistic Categorization: Prototypes in Linguistic Theory, 2nd ed. (Oxford: Clarendon, 1995), 99-141, for an account of how a polysemous category is structured as a gradient radiating out from a prototypical example.
364. See N. Katherine Hayles, "The Materiality of Informatics," Configurations 1 (1992): 147-70. Hayles's distinction between "the body" and "embodiment" (148) is useful for understanding Paster's work in relation to cognitive theory. Hayles argues that whereas the body "is always normative relative to some set of criteria" (and her example of this is "how the body is constructed within Renaissance medical discourse"), embodiment is "contextual, enwebbed within the specifics of place, time, physiology and culture that together comprise enactment." Thus, "whereas the body is an idealized form that gestures toward a Platonic reality, embodiment is the specific instantiation generated from the noise of difference" (154-55).
365. Paster, Body Embarrassed, 4.
366. Nancy Siraisi, Medieval and Early Renaissance Medicine: An Introduction to Knowledge and Practice (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990), 108.
367. Thomas Laquer, Making Sex: Body and Gender from the Greeks to Freud (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1990), 42. Laquer cites writers as diverse as Aristotle andWilliam Harvey as holding this belief. Laquer's book makes clear that many aspects of the theory of human reproduction were controversial, for example, where semen was manufactured and whether both parents contributed "seed" to conception. But all versions of humoral theory posited a basic fungibility of bodily fluids and permeability of the body.
368. See Jay L. Halio, "The Metaphor of Conception and Elizabethan Theories of the Imagination," Neophilologus 50 (1966): 454-61, who sees the metaphor as "live," though not literal, in the sixteenth century; Katherine Eisaman Maus, Inwardness and Theater in the English Renaissance (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995), 196, notes that when male writers describe their own creative processes in terms of conception and birth, it can be difficult to determine "when we are dealing with metaphor and when with a bare statement of fact." I believe, however, that in this play the literal force of the analogy is almost always relevant.
369. George Lakoff, Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things: What Categories Reveal about the Mind (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987) 272-73, identifies our sense of the body as a container with an interior, an exterior, and variously permeable boundaries as grounding one of the most basic "kinesthetic image schemas" that structure thought.
370. Siraisi, Medieval and Early Renaissance Medicine, 128-30.
371. For these theories, see Winfried Schleiner, "Infection and Cure through Women: Renaissance Constructions of Syphilis," Journal of Medieval and Renaissance Studies 24 (1994): 502-5.
372. Adelman, Suffocating Mothers, 102, notes that "the persistence of Juliet reminds us [that] maternal origin cannot simply be wished away." 24. On exotic fruits as aphrodisiacs, see Paster, Body Embarrassed, 132, who specifically comments on Mrs. Elbow's craving. Di Gangi, "Pleasure and Danger," 602-3, provocatively reads Mrs. Elbow's prunes and visit to the stew as abortifacients.
373. See Paster, Body Embarrassed, 268-69, on the conflation of pregnancy, eating, and fish in The Winter's Tale as suggesting "the oral component of male jealousy."
374. Di Gangi, "Pleasure and Danger," 594-95, reads this series of male interpretations of Juliet's pregnant body as "stressing her body's compliance with male instrumentality."
375. Hayles, "Materiality of Informatics," 156.
376. Berger, Making Trifles of Terrors, 361.
377. Graham Bradshaw, Shakespeare's Skepticism (New York: St. Martin's, 1987), 216-18, briefly notes the connection between images of "forging and pregnancy." 31. Adelman, Suffocating Mothers, 287 n. 25. Adelman relates this image to "a perfectly orthodox rendering of the Aristotelian position on generation," namely, that the mother is simply a passive vessel for the father's seed.
378. Berger, Making Trifles of Terrors, 411.
379. Berger cites Robert N. Watson, "False Immortality in Measure for Measure: Comic Means, Tragic Ends," Shakespeare Quarterly 41 (1990): 418-19, as emphasizing the misogynist implications of parthenogenetic fantasies.
380. Antonio Damasio, Descartes' Error,: Emotion, Reason, and the Human Brain (New York: Avon, 1994), xii, xiii.
381. Damasio, Descartes' Error, xiv.
382. Di Gangi, "Pleasure and Danger," 597, notes the buried image of pregnancy here, which he sees as a sign of the Duke's influence over Isabella.
383. F. David Hoeniger, Medicine and Shakespeare in the English Renaissance (Newark: University of Delaware Press, 1992), 94-97. See also Siraisi, Medieval and Early Renaissance Medicine, 108.
384. Richard Wheeler, Shakespeare's Development and the Problem Comedies (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1981), 124-39.
385. Daniel Stern, The InterpersonalWorld of the Infant: A View from Psychoanalysis and Developmental Psychology (New York: Basic Books, 1985).
386. See Gerald Edelman, Bright Air, Brilliant Fire: On the Matter of the Mind (New York: Basic Books, 1992), 129-30.
387. Meredith Anne Skura, Shakespeare the Actor and the Purposes of Playing (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993), 87.
388. Mullaney, "Apprehending Subjects," 115.
389. Knoppers, "(En)gendering Shame," 460.
390. Berger, Making Trifles of Terrors, 426.
391. Di Gangi, "Pleasure and Danger," 597.
392. Watson, "False Immortality in Measure for Measure," 419.
393. See Berger, Making Trifles of Terrors, for a recent relatively positive reading of the Duke. For a famously negative reading, seeWilliam Empson, The Structure of Complex Words (London: Chatto & Windus, 1951), 283.
394. Michel Foucault, The Archaeology of Knowledge and the Discourse on Language, trans. A. M. Sheridan Smith (New York: Pantheon, 1972), 107.
395. Brown, "This Thing of Darkness I Acknowledge Mine," 69.
396. Bruce Smith, The Acoustic World of Early Modern England: Attending to the O-Factor (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999), 22.
397. Denise Albanese, New Science, New World (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1996), 70.
398. Jean Aitchison,Words in the Mind: An Introduction to the Mental Lexicon, 2nd ed. (Oxford: Blackwell, 1994), 142, My account of sounds is based on chapter 12 of her book.
399. See David Fay and Anne Cutler, "Malapropisms and the Structure of the Mental Lexicon," Linguistic Inquiry 8 (1977): 506-8, on the difficulty of making this distinction.
400. Russ McDonald, "Reading The Tempest," in Critical Essays on Shakespeare's The Tempest, ed. Virginia Mason Vaughan and Alden T. Vaughan (London: Hall, 1998), 218, 222, 229.
401. Albert S. Bregman, Auditory Scene Analysis (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1990), 36-37.
402. Edward A. Armstrong, Shakespeare's Imagination, rev. ed. (1963; reprint, Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1982).
403. Spurgeon, Shakespeare's Imagery, 197.
404. Armstrong, Shakespeare's Imagination, 42-49.
405. Meredith Skura, Shakespeare the Actor and the Purposes of Playing (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993), 136-37, 205.
406. Breight, "Treason doth never prosper," 1.
407. Elaine Scarry, The Body in Pain: The Making and Unmaking of the World (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985), 15.
408. John Aubrey (1633), inW. J. Thoms, Three Notelets on Shakespeare (London, 1865), quoted in Katharine Briggs, The Vanishing People: Fairy Lore and Legends (New York: Pantheon, 1978)
409. Briggs notes that this story is "strongly characteristic of English fairy beliefs of that period." 22. Lewis Spence, British Fairy Origins (London: Watts, 1946), 96.
410. Keith Sturgess, Jacobean Private Theatres (London: Routledge, 1987), 85.
411. Brown, "This Thing of Darkness I Acknowledge Mine," 55, similarly notes that Stephano and Trinculo's "subsequent punishment, being hunted with dogs, draws full attention to their bestiality." 28. Lawrence Buell, The Environmental Imagination: Thoreau, Nature Writing, and the Formation of American Culture (Cambridge: Belknap, 1995), 6.
412. Albanese, New Science, New World, 70. Albanese notes that "Prospero needs operants in the phenomenal world, extensions of himself beyond his reading and signifying mind."
413. Greenblatt, "Learning to Curse," cites this passage as an example of "the independence and integrity of Caliban's constructions of reality" (31).
414. Brown, "This Thing of Darkness I Acknowledge Mine," 59, 66. Greenblatt, "Learning to Curse," argues that the play represents the "relationship between a European whose entire source of power is his library and a savage who had no speech at all before the European's arrival" (23).
415. Albanese, New Science, New World, 68.
416. Scarry, Body in Pain, 54, notes that physical pain has the "ability to destroy language, the power of verbal objectification, a major source of our self-extension, a vehicle through which pain could be lifted out into the world and eliminated."
417. Skura, "Discourse and the Individual," 64-65.
418. Douglas Bruster, "Local Tempest: Shakespeare and the Work of the Early Modern Playhouse," Journal of Medieval and Renaissance Studies 25 (1995): 33-53.
419. For the history of the second Blackfriars, see Sturgess, Jacobean Private Theatres, ch. 3. On The Tempest, see chapter 5, "The Tempest at the Blackfriars," 97.
420. Bruster, "Local Tempest," 39.
421. Sturgess, Jacobean Private Theatres, 82.
422. Smith, Acoustic World of Early Modern England, 214, 222.
423. Sturgess, Jacobean Private Theatres, 81.
424. Roger Warren, "Rough Magic and Heavenly Music: The Tempest," in Vaughan and Vaughan, Critical Essays on Shakespeare's The Tempest, 152.
425. Sturgess, Jacobean Private Theatres, 114.
426. Bruster, "Local Tempest," 39.
427. Bregman, Auditory Scene Analysis, 37.
428. Scarry, Body in Pain, 49.
429. Sturgess, Jacobean Private Theatres, 115.
430. See Terence Deacon, The Symbolic Species: The Co-evolution of Language and the Brain (New York: Norton, 1997), 225-36.
431. Breight, "Treason doth never prosper," 28.
432. Deacon, Symbolic Species, 454.
433. Greenblatt, "Learning to Curse," 31.