Kingdom of children: Culture and controversy in the homeschooling movement

Kingdom of Children: Culture and Controversy in the Homeschooling Movement

Volumn , Issue , 2009, Pages 1-228

  Stevens, Mitchell L ^a  

^a NONE

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References (190)

1. Howard S. Becker, Outsiders: Studies in the Sociology of Deviance (New York: Free Press, 1963).
2. Rebecca E. Klatch, A Generation Divided: The New Left, the New Right, and the 1960s (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999); Maurice Isserman and Michael Kazin, America Divided: The Civil War of the 1960s (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000).
3. Elisabeth S. Clemens, "Organizational Form as Frame: Collective Identity and Political Strategy in the American Labor Movement, 1880-1920," in Comparative Perspectives on Social Movements, ed. Doug McAdam, John D. McCarthy, and Mayer N. Zald (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 205-226.
4. For a broad summary of the institutional position of education in modern life, see John W. Meyer, "The Effects of Education as an Institution," American Journal of Sociology 83 (July 1977): 55-77.
5. Patricia M. Lines, Homeschoolers: Estimating Numbers and Growth (Washington, D.C.: National Institute on Student Achievement, Curriculum, and Assessment, Office of Education Research and Improvement, U.S. Department of Education, spring 1998).
6. But see Maralee Mayberry, "Characteristics and Attitudes of Families Who Home School," Education and Urban Society 21 (1988): 32-34;
7. Brian D. Ray, "Home Schools: A Synthesis of Research on Characteristics and Learner Outcomes," Education and Urban Society 21 (1988): 16-31;
8. Maralee Mayberry and J. Gary Knowles, "Family Unity Objectives of Parents Who Teach Their Children: Ideological and Pedagogical Orientations to Home Schooling," Urban Review 21 (1989): 209-225;
9. J. Gary Knowles, "Parents' Rationales for Operating Home Schools," Journal of Contemporary Ethnography 20 (1991): 203-230;
10. J. Gary Knowles, Stacey E. Marlow, and James A. Muchmore, "From Pedagogy to Ideology: Origins and Phases of Home Education in the United States, 1970-1990," American Journal of Education 100 (1992): 195-235.
11. See also Jane Van Galen and Mary Anne Pitman, eds., Home Schooling: Political, Historical, and Pedagogical Perspectives (Norwood, N.J.: Ablex, 1991).
12. Maralee Mayberry, J. Gary Knowles, Brian Ray, and Stacey Marlow, Home Schooling: Parents as Educators (Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Corwin Press/Sage, 1995).
13. Mayberry et al. did not provide complete breakdowns for respondents' denominational affiliations. They did note, however, that "approximately one third" of respondents "belong to Evangelical, Pentecostal, or other 'nondenominational' religious organizations" (35-36). Twenty-five percent of respondents were Mormon, a finding the authors interpret as an artifact of their sampling site (which included the state of Utah). In her broad survey of the national movement in the late 1980s, Patricia Lines found that most religious home educators were Protestants. See Patricia Lines, "Home Instruction: The Size and Growth of the Movement," in Home Schooling, ed. Van Galen and Pitman, 9-41.
14. Mayberry et al., Home Schooling: Parents as Educators, 36; emphasis in original.
15. David Sikkink, "Public Schooling and Its Discontents: Religious Identities, Schooling Choices, and Civic Participation" (Ph.D. diss., University of North Car-olina at Chapel Hill, 1998), 94-118. Sikkink cautions that his findings on home schoolers should not be regarded as definitive because only 135 families in the data set were home schoolers.
16. Brian D. Ray, Marching to the Beat of Their Own Drum (Paeonian Springs, Va.: Home School Legal Defense Association), 7-9. Sampling procedures for the HSLDA SAT study were not reported in the study.
17. Lawrence M. Rudner, "Scholastic Achievement and Demographic Characteristics of Home School Students in 1998," Educational Policy Analysis Archives 7 (March 1999 [http://epaa.asu/epaa/v7/n8.html]).
18. For critiques see Larry Kaseman and Susan Kaseman, "HSLDA Study: Embarrassing and Dangerous," Home Education Magazine, July-August 1999, 12-20;
19. Kariane Mari Welner and Kevin G. Welner, "Contextualizing Homeschooling Data: A Response to Rudner," Education Policy Analysis Archives 7 (April 1999 [http://epaa.asu.edu/epaa/v7n13.html]).
20. Mary Pride, The New Big Book of Home Learning (Westchester, Ill.: Crossway Books, 1988).
21. "1999 Directory of Families and Organizations," Growing Without Schooling 126 (January/February 1999): 49-53.
22. See, e.g., "Home-School Organizations," The Teaching Home, May/June 1999, 33-35. The Teaching Home provides organizational contact information in every issue.
23. Alma C. Henderson, "The Home Schooling Movement: Parents Take Control of Educating Their Children," Annual Survey of American Law 1991 (1993): 985-1009;
24. Jon S. Lerner, "Protecting Home Schooling through the Casey Undue Burden Standard," University of Chicago Law Review 62 (1995): 363-392.
25. Christian Smith and David Sikkink, "Is Private Schooling Privatizing?" First Things 92 (April 1999): 16-20;
26. David Sikkink, "The Public Lives of Private Schoolers: Schooling Organizations and Parents' Civic Participation" (paper presented at the Calvin Conference on "Religion, Social Capital, and Democratic Life," October 1998);
27. Sikkink, "Public Schooling and Its Discontents," 119-136.
28. For a succinct statement on the nature and purpose of ethnographic research, see Clifford Geertz, "From the Native's Point of View: On the Nature of Anthropological Understanding," in his Local Knowledge: Further Essays in Interpretive Anthropology (New York: Basic Books, 1983), 55-70.
29. Kathy Charmaz, "The Grounded Theory Method: An Explication and Interpretation," in Contemporary Field Research, ed. Robert M. Emerson (Prospect Heights, Ill.: Waveland Press, 1983), 109-126.
30. See Nancy Tatom Ammerman, Bible Believers: Fundamentalists in the Modern World (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1987).
31. For methodological statements on this practice, see Michael J. Bloor, "Notes on Member Validation," in Contemporary Field Research, ed. Emerson, 156-72; Anselm L. Strauss, Qualitative Analysis for Social Scientists (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), 17-20.
32. The strategy is not without precedent. See, e.g., Kristin Luker, Abortion and the Politics of Motherhood (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984);
33. Lynn Davidman, Tradition in a Rootless World: Women Turn to Orthodox Judaism (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991).
34. see also William A. Corsaro, The Sociology of Childhood (Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Pine Forge Press, 1997).
35. See, e.g., Susan Richman, Writing from Home: A Portfolio of Homeschooled Student Writing (Kittanning, Pa.: PA Homeschoolers, 1990); Susannah Sheffer, Writing Because We Love To: Homeschoolers at Work (Portsmouth, N.H.: Boynton/Cook/Heinemann, 1992); Grace Llewellyn, ed., Real Lives: Eleven Teenagers Who Don't Go to School (Eugene, Ore.: Lowry House, 1993).
36. For overviews of this movement, see Allen Graubard, "The Free School Movement," Harvard Educational Review 42 (August 1972): 351-373;
37. Allen Graubard, "From Free Schools to 'Educational Alternatives,' " in Co-ops, Communes, and Collectives: Experiments in Social Change in the 1960s and 70s, ed. John Case and Rosemary C. R. Taylor (New York: Pantheon, 1979), 49-65.
38. For a critical account of the organizational structure and interactive dynamics of these schools, see Ann Swidler, Organization without Authority: Dilemmas of Social Control in Free Schools (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1979).
39. Radically democratic organizational forms were common, though contested, features of the 1960s and 1970s women's movement. See, e.g., Jo Freeman, "The Tyranny of Structurelessness," Berkeley Journal of Sociology 17 (1972-73): 151-164;
40. Myra Marx Ferree and Beth B. Hess, Controversy and Coalition: The New Feminist Movement (Boston: Twayne, 1985);
41. Gretchen Arnold, "Dilemmas of Feminist Coalitions: Collective Identity and Strategic Effectiveness in the Battered Women's Movement," and Carol Mueller, "The Organizational Basis of Conflict in Contemporary Feminism," both in Feminist Organizations: Harvest of the New Women's Movement, ed. Myra Marx Ferree and Patricia Yancy Martin (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1995), 276-290 and 263-275, respectively.
42. John Holt, How Children Fail (New York: Pitman, 1964).
43. For an overview of the movement, see Susan D. Rose, "Christian Fundamentalism and Education in the United States," in Fundamentalisms and Society, ed. Martin E. Marty and R. Scott Appleby (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993), 452-89. For relevant case studies, see Susan D. Rose, Keeping Them Out of the Hands of Satan: Evangelical Schooling in America (New York: Routledge, 1988); Melinda Bollar Wagner, God's Schools: Choice and Compromise in American Society (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1990).
44. Gary Wisby, "Home Schoolers Split on Protest Tactics," Chicago Sun-Times, February 27, 1994, 12. Claims for larger numbers were made to me by some Christian leaders during follow-up research in July 1999.
45. For more general theoretical elaborations of this idea, see Marvin B. Scott and Stanford Lyman, "Accounts," American Sociological Review 33 (1968): 46-62;
46. also C. Wright Mills, "Situated Actions and Vocabularies of Motive," American Sociological Review 5 (1940): 904-913.
47. This work is what what social movement scholars often refer to as the "framing" of problems. See, e.g., David E. Snow, Burke Rochford, Steven Worden, and Robert Benford, "Frame Alignment Processes, Mobilization, and Movement Participation," American Sociological Review 51 (1986): 464-481;
48. David E. Snow and Robert Benford, "Ideology, Frame Resonance, and Participant Mobilization," International Social Movement Research 1 (1988): 197-217;
49. David E. Snow and Robert Benford, "Master Frames and Cycles of Protest," in Frontiers in Social Movement Theory, ed. Aldon Morris and Carol McClurg Mueller (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1992), 133-55. The emotional nuance and rhetorical complexity of such work are assessed in James Jasper, The Art of Moral Protest: Culture, Biography, and Creativity in Social Movements (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997).
50. For more detailed discussions of the general claim I am making here, see Michèle Lamont, "How to Become a Dominant French Philosopher: The Case of Jacques Derrida," American Journal of Sociology 93 (1987): 584-622;
51. and Wendy Griswold, Bearing Witness: Readers, Writers, and the Novel in Nigeria (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2000). For French philosophers and Nigerian novelists as for social movement activists, the character of the intellectual product is not by itself a sufficient condition for its successful reception. But-and this is the hard part for sociologists-the character of the product certainly matters.
52. See Allen Graubard, Free the Children (New York: Pantheon, 1972);
53. Jonathan Kozol, Free Schools (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1972). Quotation is from Graubard, Free the Children, viii. For surveys of the movement see Chapter 1, note 39.
54. Herbert Kohl, The Open Classroom (New York: New York Review of Books/Random House, 1969), 12.
55. Invoking personal experience to voice dissatisfaction with given power structures, and using that experience to frame alternative politics, was fervently exploited by the civil rights, and the women's movements. See Aldon D. Morris, The Origins of the Civil Rights Movement (New York: Free Press, 1984);
56. Jo Freeman, The Politics of Women's Liberation (New York: Longman, 1975);
57. Verta Taylor, "Watching for Vibes: Bringing Emotion into the Study of Feminist Organizations," in Feminist Organizations, ed. Ferree and Martin, 223-233.
58. Herbert Kohl, Growing Minds: On Becoming a Teacher (New York: Harper and Row, 1984), 64.
59. Herbert Kohl, Reading, How To (New York: Dutton, 1973), 202.
60. John Holt, Instead of Education (New York: Dutton, 1976), 4.
61. Holt, How Children Fail, 167; emphasis in original.
62. John Holt, Teach Your Own (New York: Delacorte Press/Seymour Lawrence, 1981), 1-2.
63. See Susannah Sheffer's introduction to John Holt, A Life Worth Living: Selected Letters of John Holt, ed. Susannah Sheffer (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1990), 1-11.
64. John Holt, How Children Learn (New York: Pitman, 1967). Sales and translation information are from the obituary for John Holt in the New York Times, September 9, 1985.
65. Edgar Z. Friedenberg, "How the Schools Fail," New York Review of Books, January 14, 1965, 12-14. Among the many glowing reviews of Holt's work were Eliot Fremont-Smith, "Scare-Eyed in the Classroom," New York Times, July 26, 1965, 21; and Joseph Featherstone, "A New Kind of Schooling," New Republic, March 2, 1968, 27-31.
66. Raymond S. Moore and Dorothy M. Moore, Better Late Than Early (New York: Reader's Digest Press, 1975).
67. Raymond S. Moore and Dennis R. Moore, "The Dangers of Early School- ing," Harper's, July 1972, 58-62;
68. Raymond S. Moore, T. Joseph Willey, Dennis R. Moore, and D. Kathleen Kordenbock, School Can Wait (Provo, Utah: Brigham Young University Press, 1979);
69. Raymond Moore and Dorothy Moore, Home Grown Kids (Waco, Tex.: Word Books, 1981);
70. Raymond Moore and Dorothy Moore, Home-Spun Schools (Waco, Tex.: Word Books, 1982).
71. Moore and Moore, Home Grown Kids, 14.
72. For historical studies of Western childhood, see Philippe Ariès, Centuries of Childhood, trans. Robert Baldick (New York: Vintage Books, 1962);
73. Lawrence Stone, The Family, Sex, and Marriage in England, 1500-1800 (New York: Harper and Row, 1977);
74. Arlene Skolnick, "The Limits of Childhood: Conceptions of Child Development in Social Context," Law and Contemporary Problems 39 (1975): 38-77;
75. John Boli-Bennett and John W. Meyer, "The Ideology of Childhood and the State: Rules Distinguishing Children in National Constitutions, 1870-1970," American Sociological Review 43 (1978): 797-812;
76. Viviana A. Zelizer, Pricing the Priceless Child: The Changing Social Value of Children (New York: Basic Books, 1985);
77. Linda A. Pollock, Forgotten Children: Parent-Child Relations from 1500 to 1900 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983). Pollock is notably critical of Ariès and other scholars who take a strong constructionist approach to childhood. Read from a different perspective, however, her work suggests that preciousness has long been afforded to children. For legal-historical analyses of the parentchild relationship, see Michael Grossberg, Governing the Hearth: Law and Family in Nineteenth-Century America (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1985); Mary Ann Mason, From Father's Property to Children's Rights: The History of Child Custody in the United States (New York: Columbia University Press, 1994).
78. Llewellyn B. Davis, Why So Many Christians Are Going Home to School (Knoxville, Tenn.: Elijah Company, 1990), 60.
79. Donna Nichols-White, "Placing Our Trust in Our Children's Desire and Need to Learn," The Drinking Gourd, January/February 1993, 4.
80. Pat George and Lindy George, "60 Things Your Homeschoolers Might Be Doing If They Were in School Instead of 'Wasting Time' at Home," Mentor, December 1992, 6.
81. David Guterson, Family Matters: Why Homeschooling Makes Sense (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1992), 23.
82. http://www.csranet.com/vlmckie/green.htm, accessed 7/2/99 and 6/28/00.
83. Pride, The New Big Book of Home Learning, 11-12.
84. Information on the high school program from "A High School Education You Can Own," Clonlara School, n.d., received April 1994, author's collection.
85. Albert E. Greene Jr., "Protected Yet Exposed," The Christian Educator, fall 1989, 5.
86. "Home-School Questions and Answers," The Teaching Home, April/May 1991, 8.
87. Moore and Moore, Home Grown Kids, 39.
88. Davis, Why So Many Christians Are Going Home to School, 53.
89. Alida Gookin, "Advantages of Home Schooling," The Christian Educator, fall 1989, 2.
90. Kenneth D. Wald, Dennis E. Owen, and Samuel S. Hill, "Habits of the Mind? The Problem of Authority in the New Christian Right," in Religion and Political Behavior in the United States, ed. Ted G. Jelen (New York: Praeger, 1989), 93-108.
91. See, e.g., Ammerman, Bible Believers; Rose, Keeping Them Out of the Hands of Satan;
92. Brenda E. Brasher, Godly Women: Fundamentalism and Female Power (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1998).
93. Christopher G. Ellison and Darren E. Sherkat, "Conservative Protestantism and Support for Capital Punishment," American Sociological Review 58 (February 1993): 131-144;
94. Christopher G. Ellison, John P. Bartkowski, and Michelle Segal, "Conservative Protestantism and the Parental Use of Corporal Punishment," Social Forces 74 (March 1996): 1003-1028;
95. Christopher G. Ellison, John P. Bartkowski, and Michelle L. Segal, "Do Conservative Protestant Parents Spank More Often? Further Evidence from the National Survey of Families and Households," Social Science Quarterly 77 (September 1996): 663-673.
96. John P. Bartkowski and Christopher G. Ellison, "Divergent Models of Childrearing in Popular Manuals: Conservative Protestants vs. the Mainstream Experts," Sociology of Religion 56 (1995): 21-34.
97. W. Bradford Wilcox, "Conservative Protestant Childrearing: Authoritarian or Authoritative?" American Sociological Review 63 (December 1998): 796-809; quotation on 798-99. Such a dualism also shows up in studies by the Ellison team. When Ellison and Darren Sherkat asked respondents what they thought was "the most important [trait] for a child to learn to prepare him or her for life," conservative Protestants were more likely than others to choose obedience, but they were no less likely to value children's intellectual autonomy. The survey evidence suggests that conservative Protestant parents simultaneously want their children to honor authority and to think for themselves. See Christopher G. Ellison and Darren E. Sherkat, "Obedience and Autonomy: Religion and Parental Values Reconsidered," Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 32 (1993): 313-29.
98. Debbie Strayer, "Fanning the Sparks," Homeschooling Today, May/June 1993, 8-9.
99. See Beth Anne Shelton and Daphne John, "The Division of Household Labor," Annual Review of Sociology 22 (1996): 299-322;
100. Arlie Hochschild and Anne Machung, The Second Shift (New York: Avon, 1997 [1989]).
101. See SusanWalzer, Thinking about the Baby: Gender and Transitions into Parenthood (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1998);
102. see also Carol A. Heimer and Lisa R. Staffen, For the Sake of the Children: The Social Organization of Responsibility in the Hospital and the Home (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998).
103. See Hays, The Cultural Contradictions of Motherhood.
104. Carol Heimer argues convincingly that this distribution of parenting responsibility is the normative one. Carol A. Heimer, "Gender Inequalities in the Distribution of Responsibility," in Social Differentiation and Social Inequality: Essays in Honor of John Pock, ed. James Baron, David Grusky, and Donald Treiman (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1996), 241-273.
105. "Letters to the Editor," Practical Homeschooling, July/August 1998, 6; emphasis in original.
106. For a careful analysis of this choice-making process for women generally, see Kathleen Gerson, Hard Choices: How Women Decide about Work, Career, and Motherhood (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985). Gerson gives little attention to some of home schoolers' primary anxieties, such as their suspicion of the bureaucratic organization of education and child care. Still, Lissa could easily be one of Gerson's subjects, faced as she is with limited day care options and the ill fit between the organization of academic careers and the obligations of parenting.
107. Holt, Teach Your Own, 1. emphasis added; Holt, Learning All the Time, 160.
108. Holt, Learning All the Time, 146; emphasis in original.
109. Erving Goffman, "Where the Action Is," in his Interaction Ritual: Essays in Face-to-Face Behavior (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1967), 149-270.
110. "La Leche League Philosophy," http://www.lalecheleague.org/philosophy.html, accessed 6/28/00. For scholarly treatments of La Leche League
111. see Linda M. Blum, "Mothers, Babies, and Breastfeeding in Late Capitalist America: The Shifting Contexts of Feminist Theory," Feminist Studies 19 (1993): 291-311;
112. Linda M. Blum and Elizabeth W. Vandewater, "'Mother to Mother': A Maternalist Organization in Late Capitalist America," Social Problems 40 (1993): 285-300.
113. This is also why rhetoric about children is such a fruitful site for investigating the relationship between cultural innovation and social change. See, e.g., Nicola Beisel, Imperiled Innocents: Anthony Comstock and Family Reproduction in Victorian America (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1997); Theda Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers: The Political Origins of Social Policy in the United States (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press/Harvard University Press, 1992).
114. Carol Ingram, "Schooling or Educating: Which Are You Doing?" tape recording,ICHE state conference, 6/5/93.
115. Appeared in Home School Digest, summer 1993, 16.
116. http://www.chfweb.com/forum/Forum.asp?Section=2; accessed 7/2/99.
117. Mary Pride, The Way Home (Westchester, Ill.: Crossway Books/Good News Publishers, 1985).
118. Michael P. Farris, The Homeschooling Father (Hamilton, Va.: Michael P. Farris, 1992), 1.
119. Homeschool fatherhood is not the only site in which conservative Protestants have begun to reimagine traditionalist masculinity. See, e.g., Brian Donovan, "Political Consequences of Private Authority: Promise Keepers and the Transformation of Hegemonic Masculinity," Theory and Society 27 (December 1998): 817-843.
120. Phil Lancaster, "It's Your Home School," Home School Digest, summer 1993, 14-15; all emphases in original.
121. "Cover Family: Gary and Beverly Somogie," The Teaching Home, March/ April 1994, 13.
122. "Information and Application Booklet," Advanced Training Institute International, n.d. (received 11/8/94), author's collection.
123. See, e.g., Sally K. Gallagher and Christian Smith, "Symbolic Traditionalism and Pragmatic Egalitarianism: Contemporary Evangelicals, Families, and Gender," Gender and Society 13 (April 1999): 211-233;
124. Brasher, Godly Women; Susan D. Rose, "Woman Warriors: Negotiating Gender in a Charismatic Community," Sociological Analysis 48 (1987): 245-258; Ammerman, Bible Believers, especially chap. 8.
125. Hays, Cultural Contradictions of Motherhood, 4.
126. See, e.g., John P. Bartkowski, "Changing of the Gods: The Gender and Family Discourse of American Evangelicalism in Historical Perspective," History of the Family 3 (1998): 95-115;
127. Margaret Lamberts Bendroth, Fundamentalism and Gender, 1875 to the Present (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1993);
128. Judith Stacey and Susan Elizabeth Gerard, " 'We Are Not Doormats': The Influence of Feminism on Contemporary Evangelicals in the United States," in Uncertain Terms: Negotiating Gender in American Culture, ed. Faye Ginsburg and Anna Lowenhaupt Tsing (Boston: Beacon Press, 1990), 98-117.
129. Paul DiMaggio, "Culture and Cognition," Annual Review of Sociology 23 (1997): 263-287; quotation on 269. See also William H. Sewell Jr., "A Theory of Structure: Duality, Agency, and Transformation," American Journal of Sociology 98 (July 1992): 1-29. The argument that follows regarding the relationship between schemata and social structure is consonant with the basic insights of Sewell's work.
130. See Penny Edgell Becker, Congregations in Conflict: Cultural Models of Local Religious Life (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), for a harmonious analysis of variation in organizational sensibility in and between local religious groups; and Paul Lichterman, The Search for Political Community: American Activists Reinventing Commitment (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), for a study of similar conflicts in environmentalist groups.
131. "Work Flow Chart," Christian Life Workshops, n.d., author's collection.
132. Aldon D. Morris, The Origins of the Civil Rights Movement (New York: Free Press, 1984);
133. Christian Smith, "Correcting a Curious Neglect, or Bringing Religion Back In," in Disruptive Religion: The Force of Faith in Social Movement Activism, ed. Christian Smith (New York: Routledge, 1996), 1-15.
134. The Teaching Home, March/April 1994, 3, also "10 Year Anniversary," photocopy material, dated August/September 1990 (received 8/94), author's collection.
135. "Illinois Update," March/April 1994, 1-2 (insert to The Teaching Home, March/April 1994).
136. See, e.g., Rosabeth Moss Kanter, Men and Women of the Corporation (New York: Basic Books, 1977).
137. Marking the Milestones: 1983-1993 (Paeonian Springs, Va.: Home School Legal Defense Association, 1993), 4.
138. "Home Schoolers Gather for CAP Kickoff," Capitol Chronicles, February 1993, 1 [published by the National Center for Home Education].
139. "N.H.A. 1992 Year-to-Date Report," Circle of Correspondence, winter 1992, 26.
140. Sydney Mathis, "1992 National Conference Reports," Circle of Correspondence, winter 1992, 11.
141. "1993 Annual Conference," The FORUM [formerly Circle of Correspondence], vol. 3, no. 4 (n.d.): 4.
142. "Bylaws of the National Homeschool Association," n.d., author's collection. Testament to the NHA's commitment to inclusiveness, the council admitted me to all its formal proceedings in 1992 and 1993.
143. Quotation from "1993 Annual Conference, NHA Conference Reports," The FORUM, vol. 3, no. 4 (n.d.): 9-10. My analysis here is broadly in keeping with Emirbayer and Goodwin's call for an integration of culture and network approaches to sociological puzzles. See Mustafa Emirbayer and Jeff Goodwin, "Network Analysis, Culture, and the Problem of Agency," American Journal of Sociology 99 (May 1994): 1411-1454.
144. "House Interim bylaws approved by the Council 3/9/93," photocopy material, author's collection.
145. www.geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/7804/r01.htm, accessed 7/8/99 and 6/10/00.
146. "Unclassifieds," Home Education Magazine, May-June 1993, 60-61.
147. Larry Kaseman and Susan Kaseman, "A Manageable Approach to Political Action for Homeschoolers," Home Education Magazine, January-February 1993, 19-23.
148. "Support Groups and Organizations," Home Education Magazine, January- February 1993, 60-61.
149. In addition to firsthand field study during the course of events surrounding the H.R. 6 controversy and post hoc interviews with several involved activists, the account provided here is based on the following sources: Phil Kuntz, "Home- Schooling Movement Gives House a Lesson," Congressional Quarterly Weekly Report, February 26, 1994, 479-80 (I rely heavily here Kuntz's succinct narrative and illuminating quotations); "Blitzing Congress," CQ Researcher, September 9, 1994, 783-84; "Lawmakers Renew and Revamp 1965 Education Act," Congressional Quarterly Almanac, 103rd Cong., 2d sess., Vol. L (Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly, 1994), 383-96; Congressional Record, February 24, 1994; "The Anatomy of a Victory," Home School Court Report, March/April 1994, 4-7+; and numerous other printed materials distributed during the course of events by HSLDA/NCHE, the National Homeschool Association, Illinois HOUSE, the Christian Home Educators Coalition (CHEC), Clonlara School, Holt Associates/ Growing Without Schooling, and the Wisconsin Parents Association (WPA).
150. As reported in Kuntz, "Home-Schooling Movement Gives House a Lesson," 479-480.
151. "Home Schooling Wins Emphatic Assurance from the House." One Chicago newspaper did carry coverage of the inclusive-believer split; as it read, the article was based on information supplied by activists on both sides of the movement in Illinois. See Wisby, "Home Schoolers Split on Protest Tactics." The following September, the CQ Researcher included a dissenting perspective from Larry Kaseman in its retrospective coverage of the H.R. 6 scenario. See "Blitzing Congress," 784.
152. Robert D. Woodberry and Christian S. Smith, "Fundamentalism et al.: Conservative Protestants in America," Annual Review of Sociology 24 (1998): 25-56. The authors summarize a wide range of studies that employ different measures of religiosity (denominational affiliation, beliefs, and personal identification with a religious movement) to derive this estimate.
153. Christian S. Smith, Michael Emerson, Sally Gallagher, Paul Kennedy, and David Sikkink, American Evangelicalism: Embattled and Thriving (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998).
154. Smith et al., American Evangelicalism, 86. Not surprisingly, race divides conservative Protestants as much as it does the rest of the society; some of this division is organizational. Largely as a consequence of systematic white exclusion, African- American believers have long maintained their own organizational universe. See, e.g., C. Eric Lincoln and Lawrence H. Mamiya, The Black Church in the African- American Experience (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1990). My analysis here is essentially of a white conservative Protestantism; many interesting questions about the organizational configuration of African-American Protestantism, and the relationship between black and white religious organizational universes, await their scholars.
155. Robert Wuthnow, "Mobilizing Civic Engagement: The Changing Impact of Religious Involvement," in Civic Engagement and American Democracy, ed. Theda Skocpol and Morris P. Fiorina (Washington, D.C., and New York: Brookings Institution Press and the Russell Sage Foundation, 1999), 331-363.
156. Raymond Moore, "White Paper-History on Homeschooling," unpublished manuscript, February 1991, photocopy, author's collection.
157. Cheryl Marcus, telephone conversation, summer 1994.
158. In fall 2000, Patrick Henry College welcomed its first entering class. Information about the college was drawn from http://phc.hslda.org/overview.asp, accessed 8/9/99 and 6/29/00; promotional material received 6/2/00; and Amy Argetsinger, "College Faces Test of Its Own," Washington Post, October 2, 2000, 131+.
159. "Social Studies: Home Schoolers Learn How to Gain Clout inside the Beltway," Wall Street Journal, April 24, 2000, 1+.
160. Robert N. Bellah, Richard Madsen, William M. Sullivan, Ann Swidler, and Steven M. Tipton, Habits of the Heart: Individualism and Commitment in American Life (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996 [1985]); quotations from xlii and 284, respectively.
161. See, e.g., Daniel Bell, The Cultural Contradictions of Capitalism (New York: Basic Books, 1976);
162. Christopher Lasch, The Culture of Narcissism (New York: Norton, 1979); Phillip Rieff, The Triumph of the Therapeutic: The Uses of Faith after Freud (London: Chatto and Windus, 1966); Daniel Yankelovich, New Rules: Searching for Self-Fulfillment in a World Turned Upside Down (New York: Random House, 1981).
163. Peter Clecak, America's Quest for the Ideal Self (New York: Oxford University Press, 1983), 9; subsequent quotation is from page 8.
164. Joseph Veroff, Elizabeth Douvan, and Richard A. Kulka, The Inner American: A Self-Portrait from 1957 to 1976 (New York: Basic Books, 1981), 138.
165. Joseph Veroff, Richard A. Kulka, and Elizabeth Douvan, Mental Health in America: Patterns of Help-Seeking from 1957-1976 (New York: Basic Books, 1981), 78-80.
166. See Charles Taylor, Sources of the Self: The Making of the Modern Identity (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1989), esp. part 2, "Inwardness"
167. also John W. Meyer, "Self and the Life Course: Institutionalization and Its Effects," in Institutional Structure: Constituting State, Society, and the Individual, ed. George M. Thomas, John W. Meyer, Francisco O. Ramirez, and John Boli (Newbury Park, Calif.: Sage, 1987), 242-260.
168. See, e.g., Boli-Bennett and Meyer, "The Ideology of Childhood and the State," 797-812. For a lucid picture of cultural variation in the importance of individualism, see Joseph J. Tobin, David Y. H. Wu, and Dana H. Davidson, Preschool in Three Cultures: Japan, China, and the United States (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1989).
169. For a contrary view to that of the Habits team, see, e.g., John W. Meyer, "Myths of Socialization and Personality," Reconstructing Individualism: Autonomy, Individuality, and the Self inWestern Thought, ed. Thomas C. Heller et al. (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1986), 208-21. For a recent historical study that locates the cultural innovations of the 1960s in the broad sweep of American history, see Dominick Cavallo, A Fiction of the Past: The Sixties in American History (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1999).
170. Maria Montessori, The Absorbent Mind, trans. Claude A. Claremont (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1967), 4.
171. Paula Polk Lillard, Montessori Today (New York: Schocken Books, 1996), 22.
172. See also Loeffler, Montessori in Contemporary American Culture.
173. Louise Boyd Cadwell, Bringing Reggio Emilia Home (New York: Teachers College Press, 1997), 5.
174. See also Lella Gandini, "Fundamentals of the Reggio Approach to Early Childhood Education," Young Children 49 (1993): 4-8;
175. Deborah L. Cohen, "Preschools in Italian Town Inspiration to U.S. Educators," Education Week, November 25, 1992, 1+.
176. David Ruenzel, "A School with Balance," EducationWeek, October 18, 1995, 24-29.
177. Information on Waldorf education was derived from the Association of Waldorf Schools of North America (AWSNA), http://www.awsna.org, accessed 7/19/99; Freda Easton, "Educating the Whole Child, 'Head, Heart, and Hands': Learning from theWaldorf Experience," Theory into Practice 36 (spring 1997): 87-84; Ruenzel, "A School with Balance"; David Ruenzel, "The Waldorf Way," Teacher Magazine, October 1995, 22-27.
178. David C. Paris, Ideology and Educational Reform: Themes and Theories in Public Education (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1995), 149.
179. Marsha G. Witten, All Is Forgiven: The Secular Message in American Protestantism (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1993), 127-128.
180. See, e.g., Nancy Chodorow, The Reproduction of Mothering (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980);
181. also Hochschild and Machung, The Second Shift, especially chaps. 16 and 17.
182. Judith Stacey, Brave New Families: Stories of Domestic Upheaval in Late Twentieth Century America (New York: Basic Books, 1990);
183. Margaret Talbot, "A Mighty Fortress," New York Times Magazine, February 27, 2000, 34-41+; "Home Works," Wall Street Journal, June 6, 2000, A26.
184. For an excellent summary of this ongoing conversation, see Paul Lichterman, "Beyond the Seesaw Model: Public Commitment in a Culture of Self-Fulfillment," Sociological Theory 13 (1995): 275-300.
185. James Allan Davis and Tom W. Smith, General Social Surveys, 1972-1993: Cumulative Codebook (Chicago: National Opinion Research Center, 1993), 927-945.
186. See Walzer, Thinking about the Baby.
187. The argument here is very similar to the one offered by Marxist feminists regarding the contemporary organization of housework and child rearing; I extend this thinking just a bit to encompass the work of self-making. See, e.g., Heidi I. Hartmann, "The Family as the Locus of Gender, Class, and Political Struggle: The Example of Housework," Signs 6 (1981): 366-394;
188. Meg Luxton, More Than a Labor of Love (Toronto: Women's Press, 1980).
189. Zelizer, Pricing the Priceless Child.
190. Émile Durkheim, The Elementary Forms of Religious Life, trans. Karen E. Fields. (New York: Free Press, 1995).