Racism: A Short History

Racism: A Short History

Volumn , Issue , 2009, Pages 1-207

  Fredrickson, George M ^a  

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References (281)

1. See, for example, George Reid Andrews, Blacks and Whites in São Paulo, Brazil, 1888-1988 (Madison, 1991);
2. France Winddance Twine, Racism in a Racial Democracy: The Maintenance of White Supremacy in Brazil (New Brunswick, N.J., 1998).
3. See Uli Linke, Blood and Nation: The European Aesthetics of Race (Philadelphia, 1999).
4. John Solomos and Les Back, Racism and Society (Houndsmills, Basingstoke, 1996), 18-19, 213.
5. Pierre-André Taguieff, La force du préjugé: Essai sur le racisme et ses doubles (Paris, 1987), 62-63.
6. Joel Kovel, White Racism: A Psychohistory (New York, 1970), 31-32 and passim.
7. For some nineteenth-century expressions of the exclusionary or aversive attitude toward the black presence, see George M. Fredrickson, The Black Image in the White Mind: The Debate on Afro-American Character and Destiny, 1817-1914 (Middletown, Conn., 1987; orig. pub. 1971), 130-164, 228-255, and passim.
8. See Kosaku Yoshino, "The Discourse on Blood and Racial Identity in Contemporary Japan," in The Construction of Racial Identity in China and Japan: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives, ed. Frank Dikötter (London, 1997), 199-211.
9. See Philip Mason, Patterns of Dominance (London, 1970), 13-20.
10. Ivan Hannaford, Race: The History of an Idea in the West (Baltimore, 1996), 17-57.
11. Lloyd A. Thompson, Romans and Blacks (London, 1989).
12. Frank M. Snowden, Jr., Before Color Prejudice: The Ancient View of Blacks (Cambridge, Mass., 1983), 101-107 and passim.
13. Snowden's Blacks in Antiquity: Ethiopians in the Greco-Roman Experience (Cambridge, Mass, 1970).
14. Léon Poliakov, The History of Anti-Semitism, vol. I, From the Time of Christ to the Court Jews, trans. Richard Howard (New York, 1965), 21.
15. For somewhat differing views of the transformation from anti-Judaism to antisemitism, see Gavin I. Langmuir, Toward a Definition of Antisemitism (Berkeley, 1990), 63-133;
16. Robert Chazan, Medieval Stereotypes and Modern Antisemitism (Berkeley, 1997), 129-138.
17. On the power of conversion, see Gavin I. Langmuir, History, Religion and Antisemitism (Berkeley, 1990), 292;
18. Norman Cohn, The Pursuit of the Millennium: Revolutionary Millenarians and Mystical Anarchists of the Middle Ages (New York, 1970), 70, 80.
19. Mark R. Cohen, Under Crescent and Cross: The Jews in the Middle Ages (Princeton, 1994), 77-88, for a succinct account of the changing economic role of medieval Jewry.
20. Langmuir, Toward a Definition, 209-281.
21. Miri Rubin, Gentile Tales: The Narrative Assault on Medieval Jews (New Haven, 1999).
22. Poliakov, History of Anti-Semitism, 1:137-144.
23. Quoted in Cohen, Under Crescent and Cross, 172.
24. Joshua Trachtenberg, The Devil and the Jews: The Medieval Conception of the Jew and Its Relation to Modern Antisemitism (Philadelphia, 1983; orig. pub. 1943), 18.
25. Langmuir, Toward a Definition, 100-133;
26. Chazan, Medieval Stereotypes, 90-91.
27. Robert Bartlett, The Making of Europe: Conquest, Colonization, and Cultural Change, 950-1350 (Princeton, 1993), 239-240 and passim.
28. R. I. Moore, The Formation of a Persecuting Society: Power and Deviance in Western Europe, 950-1250 (Oxford, 1987).
29. Winthrop D. Jordan, White over Black: American Attitudes toward the Negro, 1550-1812 (Chapel Hill, 1968), 4-11;
30. Jean Devisse, The Image of the Black in Western Art, vol. 2, From the Early Christian Era to the "Age of Discovery," pt. 1, From the Demonic Threat to the Incarnation of Sainthood (New York, 1979), passim.
31. Henri Baudet, Paradise on Earth: Some Thoughts on European Images of Non-European Man, trans. Elizabeth Wentholt (New Haven, 1965).
32. John Block Friedman, The Monstrous Races in Medieval Art and Thought (Cambridge, Mass., 1981), 59-60, 64-65.
33. Snowden, Before Color Prejudice, 101-107.
34. Jean Devisse and Michel Mollat, The Image of the Black in Western Art, vol. 2, pt. 2, Africans in the Christian Ordinance of the World, Fourteenth to Sixteenth Century (New York, 1979), 24-30, 90-128;
35. Jan Nederveen Pieterse, White on Black: Images of Africa and Blacks in Western Popular Culture (New Haven, 1992), 24-25.
36. Devisse, Black in Western Art, vol. 2, pt. 1, 138, 158-205;
37. William Chester Jordan, "The Medieval Background," in Struggles in the Promised Land: Toward a History of Black-Jewish Relations in the United States, ed. Jack Salzman and Cornel West (New York, 1997), 57.
38. James H. Sweet, "The Iberian Roots of American Racist Thought," William and Mary Quarterly 54 (1997): 143-166.
39. Bernard Lewis, Race and Slavery in the Middle East (New York, 1990), 44-45, 55;
40. William McKee Evans, "From the Land of Canaan to the Land of Guinea," American Historical Review 85 (1980): 15-43.
41. Bernard Lewis, Race and Color in Islam (New York, 1971), 38, 64-65;
42. Sweet, "Iberian Roots," 157-164.
43. John Thornton, Africa and Africans in the Making of the Atlantic World, 1400-1800, 2d ed. (Cambridge, Eng., 1992), 72-97.
44. Michael Adas, Machines as the Measure of Men: Science, Technology, and Ideologies of Western Dominance (Ithaca, 1989), 65-68
45. Thornton, Africa and Africans, 143-148.
46. Léon Poliakov, The History of Anti-Semitism, vol. 2, From Mohammed to the Marranos, trans. Natalie Gerardi (New York, 1973), 116-145.
47. The fullest account of these developments is B. Netanyahu, The Origins of the Inquisition in Fifteenth Century Spain (New York, 1995). I gained insight into what the sheer numbers meant from communications with Benjamin Braude.
48. A useful account of how the Inquisition dealt with those of Jewish descent after the fifteenth century can be found in Henry Kamen, The Spanish Inquisition: An Historical Revision (London, 1997).
49. Netanyahu, Origins, 314-327;
50. Kamen, Inquisition, 236-238 and passim.
51. Poliakov, History of Anti-Semitism, 2:181-182.
52. Netanyahu, Origins, 1052-1054;
53. Kamen, Inquisition, 230-254;
54. Poliakov, History of Anti-Semitism, 2:170-232, 279-301.
55. See also Yosef Hayim Yerushalmi, Assimilation and Racial Anti-Semitism: The Iberian and German Models, Leo Baeck Memorial Lecture 26 (New York, 1982).
56. Bartlett, Making of Europe, 240-242;
57. Poliakov, History of Anti-Semitism, 2:328-357.
58. See Friedman, Monstrous Races.
59. Eduardo Aznar Vallejo, "The Conquests of the Canary Islands," in Implicit Understandings: Observing, Reporting, and Reflecting on the Encounters between Europeans and Other Peoples in the Early Modern Era, ed. Stuart B. Schwartz (Cambridge, Eng., 1994), 134-156.
60. Ronald Sanders, Lost Tribes and Promised Lands: The Origins of American Racism (Boston, 1978), 92-102.
61. Quoted in Anthony Pagden, The Fall of Natural Man: The American Indian and the Origins of Comparative Ethnology (Cambridge, Eng., 1982), 116.
62. For a more detailed account of the debate between Las Casas and Sepúlveda, see Lewis Hanke, Aristotle and the American Indians (Bloomington, Ind., 1970; orig. pub. 1959). Las Casas later came to regret his endorsement of African enslavement.
63. Pagden, Fall of Natural Man, 33, 38.
64. Sanders, Lost Tribes, 114, 120-121, 343-344;
65. Robin Blackburn, The Making of New World Slavery: From the Baroque to the Modern, 1492-1800 (London, 1997), 64-76;
66. Jordan, White over Black, 15-19.
67. Magnus Mörner, Race Mixture in the History of Latin America (Boston, 1967).
68. See also Carl Degler, Neither Black nor White: Slavery and Race Relations in Brazil and the United States (New York, 1971).
69. This paragraph is indebted to an excellent piece of unpublished scholarship-Noam Leslau, "A Conflict of Nations: Limpieza de Sangre, Medieval Communities, and the Emergence of Spanish National Identity" (honors thesis in history, Stanford University, 1999).
70. Poliakov, History of Anti-Semitism, 2:230-231.
71. Quoted in Mörner, Race Mixture, 55-56.
72. See Thornton, Africa and Africans, 269-271.
73. See George M. Fredrickson, White Supremacy: A Comparative Study in American and South African History (New York, 1981), 73.
74. On the confusion surrounding the Curse of Ham in the late medieval and early modern periods, see Benjamin Braude, "The Sons of Noah and the Construction of Ethnic and Geographical Identities in the Medieval and Early Modern Periods," William and Mary Quarterly 54 (1997): 103-142.
75. On the uses of the curse to justify radical status inequality within Europe, see Paul Freedman, Images of the Medieval Peasant (Stanford, 1999), 86-104.
76. Sanders, Lost Tribes, 62.
77. Benjamin Braude, "Race and Sex: What Happened to Cross-Color Generation in the Eighteenth Century?" (paper presented to the Conference on Sexuality in Early America, Philadelphia, June 1-3, 2001), 17-18.
78. See Thomas Virgil Peterson, Ham and Japheth: The Mythic World of Whites in the Antebellum South (Metuchen, N.J., 1978).
79. I have described this transition elsewhere. See "Social Origins of American Racism," in The Arrogance of Race: Historical Per- spectives on Slavery, Racism, and Social Inequality (Middletown, Conn., 1988), 189-205;
80. David Brion Davis, The Problem of Slavery in Western Culture (Ithaca, 1966), 165-222, passim.
81. Léon Poliakov, The Aryan Myth: A History of Racist and Nationalist Ideas in Europe, trans. Edmund Howard (New York, 1996; orig. pub. 1971), 130-144.
82. See Audrey Smedley, Race in North America: Origin and Evolution of a Worldview (Boulder, 1993), 36-40
83. Uli Linke, Blood and Nation: The European Aesthetics of Race (Philadelphia, 1999).
84. Winthrop D. Jordan, White over Black: American Attitudes toward the Negro, 1550-1812 (Chapel Hill, 1968), 97.
85. John Thornton, Africa and Africans in the Making of the Atlantic World, 1400-1800, 2d ed. (Cambridge, Eng., 1992), 146-148;
86. George M. Fredrickson, White Supremacy: A Comparative Study in American and South African History (New York, 1981), 76-80.
87. T. H. Breen and Stephen Innes, "Myne Owne Ground": Race and Freedom on Virginia's Eastern Shore, 1640-1676 (New York, 1980).
88. J. Jean Hecht, Continental and Colonial Servants in Eighteenth Century England (Northampton, Mass., 1954), 56;
89. William B. Cohen, The French Encounter with Africans: White Response to Blacks, 1530-1880 (Bloomington, Ind., 1980), 112-113:
90. Sue Peabody, "There Are No Slaves in France": The Political Culture of Race and Slavery in the Ancien Régime (New York, 1996), 116-130.
91. David Sorkin, The Transformation of German Jewry, 1780-1840 (New York, 1987), 43;
92. Jacob Katz, Out of the Ghetto: The Social Background of Jewish Emancipation, 1770-1870 (Cambridge, Mass., 1973), 28-29.
93. Peter Pulzer, Jews and the German State: The Political History of a Minority (Oxford, 1992), 69.
94. Emmanuel Chukwudi Eze, ed., Race and the Enlightenment:A Reader (Cambridge, Mass., 1997), 13.
95. H. F. Augstein, ed., Race: The Origins of an Idea, 1760-1850 (Bristol, 1996). Eze focuses on Continental thought and Augstein mostly on British.
96. Eze, Race and the Enlightenment, 83-87;
97. Augstein, Race, 58-67.
98. For an extended discussion of the chain of being and its application to race in the eighteenth century, see Jordan, White over Black, 216-239.
99. Eze, Race and the Enlightenment, 15-28;
100. Augstein, Race, 1-9.
101. Quoted in Peabody, "There Are No Slaves," 66.
102. See Jordan, White over Black, 512-525 and passim.
103. Quoted in Michael Burleigh and Wolfgang Wipperman, The Racial State: Germany, 1933-1945 (Cambridge, Eng., 1991), 24.
104. Thomas Jefferson, Notes on Virginia (1784), in The Life and Selected Writings of Thomas Jefferson, ed. Adrienne Koch and William Peden (New York, 1944), 256-262.
105. Quoted in Poliakov, Aryan Myth, 158-159.
106. See H. Hoetink, The Two Variants of Caribbean Race Relations:A Contribution to the Sociology of Segmented Societies, trans. Eva M. Hooykaas (London, 1967).
107. Alden T. Vaughan, Roots of American Racism: Essays on the Colonial Experience (New York, 1995), 16-19, 33.
108. George M. Fredrickson, White Supremacy: A Comparative Study in American and South African History (New York, 1981), 39-40, 116-117.
109. Lionel B. Steiman, Paths to Genocide: Antisemitism in Western History (New York, 1998), 137.
110. Michael Adas, Machines as the Measure of Men: Science, Technology, and Ideologies of Western Dominance (Ithaca, 1989), 291 and passim.
111. See Arthur Hertzberg, The French Enlightenment and the Jews (New York, 1968), 280-313;
112. Cohen, The French Encounter, 84-85;
113. Pierre Pluchon, Nègres et juifs au XVIIIe siècle: Le racisme au siècle des lumières (Paris, 1984), 69-71.
114. On Voltaire's views on slavery, which were not entirely consistent, see David Brion Davis, The Problem of Slavery in Western Culture (Ithaca, 1966), 392n, 401-402.
115. Peter Gay, The Enlightenment: The Rise of Modern Paganism (New York, 1966)
116. Gay's essay, "Voltaire's Anti-Semitism," in The Party of Humanity: Essays in the French Enlightenment (New York, 1964), 97-108.
117. Anthony J. Barker, The African Link: British Attitudes to the Negro in the Era of the Atlantic Slave Trade, 1550-1807 (London, 1978), 46-48, 163-177;
118. Michael Banton, Racial Theories, 2d ed. (Cambridge, Eng., 1998), 27;
119. Seymour Drescher, From Slavery to Freedom: Comparative Studies in the Rise and Fall of Atlantic Slavery (Houndsmills, Basingstoke, 1999), 285.
120. On how the British evangelical movement offered effective resistance to biological racism during the first third of the nineteenth century, see Philip D. Curtin, The Image of Africa: British Ideas and Action, 1780-1850 (Madison, 1964), 229-243.
121. Katz, Out of the Ghetto, 196-197.
122. Augstein, Race, 86-88.
123. Drescher, From Slavery to Freedom, 291-300.
124. See George M. Fredrickson, The Black Image in the White Mind: The Debate on Afro-American Character and Destiny, 1817-1914 (Middletown, Conn., 1987; orig. pub. 1971), chap. 3;
125. William R. Stanton, The Leopard's Spots: Scientific Attitudes toward Race in America, 1815-1859 (Chicago, 1960).
126. Quoted in Drescher, From Slavery to Freedom, 291.
127. Poliakov, Aryan Myth, 224-230.
128. Poliakov, Aryan Myth, 182;
129. Augstein, Race, 162-180.
130. Drescher, From Slavery to Freedom, 295-299.
131. Fredrickson, Black Image, 58-64, 90-96.
132. On the distinction between civic and ethnic nationalism, see Liah Greenfeld, Nationalism: Five Roads to Modernity (Cambridge, Mass., 1992).
133. Quoted in Jacob Katz, From Prejudice to Destruction: Anti-Semitism, 1700-1933 (Cambridge, Mass., 1980), 60.
134. On Herder's ideas, see Johann Gottfried Herder, Reflections on the Philosophy of the History of Mankind, ed. Frank E. Manuel (Chicago, 1968);
135. Anthony Pagden, European Encounters with the New World: From Renaissance to Romanticism (New Haven, 1993), 172-180;
136. Dietz Bering, "Jews and the German Language," in Identity and Intolerance: Nationalism, Racism, and Xenophobia in Germany and the United States, ed. Norbert Finzsch and Dietmar Schirmer (Cambridge, Eng., 1998), 256-260.
137. Johann Gottlieb Fichte, Beitrag zur Berichtigung der Urteile des Publikums ueber die Franzoesische Revolution (1793)
138. Paul Mendes-Flohr and Jehuda Reinharz, The Jew in the Modern World: A Documentary History (New York, 1995), 309 (trans. by M. Gelber).
139. Pulzer, Jews and the German State, 43.
140. On Treitschke, see Ute Gerhard, "The Discursive Construction of National Stereotypes," in Finzsch and Schirmer, Identity and Intolerance, 85-88;
141. George L. Mosse, Toward the Final Solution: A History of European Racism (Madison, 1985; orig. pub. 1978), 148.
142. See Frederick E. Hoxie, A Final Promise: The Campaign to Assimilate the Indians, 1880-1920 (Lincoln, Neb., 1984).
143. On antebellum Anglo-Saxonism, see especially Reginald Horsman, Race and Manifest Destiny: The Origins of American Racial Anglo-Saxonism (Cambridge, Mass., 1981).
144. See John Higham, Strangers in the Land: Patterns of American Nativism, 1860-1925 (New Brunswick, N.J., 1955);
145. Matthew Frye Jacobson, Whiteness of a Different Color: European Immigrants and the Alchemy of Race (Cambridge, Mass., 1998).
146. Michael Omi and Howard Winant, Racial Formation in the United States: From the 1960s to the 1990s (New York, 1994), 71.
147. See Peter Pulzer, The Rise of Political Anti-Semitism in Germany and Austria, rev. ed. (Cambridge, Mass., 1988; orig. pub. 1964).
148. James F. Harris, The People Speak! Anti-Semitism and Emancipation in Nineteenth-Century Bavaria (Ann Arbor, 1994).
149. Sorkin, Transformation of German Jewry, 109, 173 (quotation), and passim.
150. On the impact of Marr's book, see John Weiss, Ideology of Death: Why the Holocaust Happened in Germany (Chicago, 1996), 97-98;
151. Katz, From Prejudice to Destruction, 260-261.
152. Mosse, Final Solution, 164-166; Katz, From Prejudice to Destruction, 265-269.
153. Fredrickson, Black Image, chap. 2.
154. Thomas Virgil Peterson, Ham and Japheth: The Mythic World of Whites in the Antebellum South (Metuchen, N.J., 1978).
155. See George M. Fredrickson, The Arrogance of Race: Historical Perspectives on Slavery, Racism, and Social Inequality (Middletown, Conn., 1988), 15-27, for a discussion of efforts to reconcile race and class in antebellum South Carolina.
156. See Leon F. Litwack, North of Slavery: The Negro in the Free States, 1790-1860 (Chicago, 1961)
157. Joanne Pope Melish, Disowning Slavery: Gradual Emancipation and "Race" in New England, 1780-1860 (Ithaca, 1998).
158. Rayford W. Logan, The Betrayal of the Negro: From Rutherford B. Hayes to Woodrow Wilson (New York, 1965).
159. The fullest account of the changing image of blacks can be found in Joel Williamson, The Crucible of Race: Black-White Relations in the American South since Emancipation (New York, 1984).
160. See also Fredrickson, Black Image, chap. 9.
161. See Pierre L. van den Berghe, Race and Racism: A Comparative Perspective (New York, 1967)
162. Gordon A. Craig, Germany, 1866-1945 (New York, 1978), 144-157;
163. Pulzer, Rise of Political Anti-Semitism, 91-92.
164. My view of southern political history during this period continues to be influenced by the classic works of C. Vann Woodward, Origins of the New South, 1877-1913 (Baton Rouge, 1951)
165. The Strange Career of Jim Crow, 3d rev. ed. (New York, 1974).
166. But a new book by Michael Perman brings the playing of the race card by the Democrats into sharper focus. See his Struggle for Mastery:Disfranchisement in the South, 1888-1908 (Chapel Hill, 2001).
167. Pulzer, Rise of Political Anti-Semitism, 83-119.
168. Craig, Germany, 83-85.
169. Mark Summers, Railroads, Reconstruction, and the Gospel of Prosperity: Aid under the Radical Republicans, 1865-1877 (Princeton, 1984), 268-298;
170. Eric Foner, Reconstruction: America's Unfinished Revolution, 1863-1877 (New York, 1988), 512-553.
171. Foner, Reconstruction, 517-519.
172. Fredrickson, Black Image, chap. 8;
173. George W. Stocking, Jr., Race, Culture, and Evolution: Essays in the History of Anthropology (New York, 1968), 112-132.
174. Nancy Stepan, The Idea of Race in Science: Great Britain, 1800-1960 (Hamden, Conn., 1982).
175. On American eugenics, an older standard account is Mark H. Haller, Eugenics: Hereditarian Attitudes in American Thought (New Brunswick, N.J., 1963).
176. More recently Daniel J. Kevles has produced a lively and updated narrative: In the Name of Eugenics: Genetics and the Uses of Human Heredity (Berkeley, 1986).
177. David Montgomery, The Fall of the House of Labor: The Workplace, the State, and American Labor Activism, 1865-1925 (New York, 1987), 25, 46, 81-87, and passim.
178. David R. Roediger, The Wages of Whiteness: Race and the Making of the American Working Class (New York, 1991).
179. W.E.B. Du Bois, Black Reconstruction in America, 1860-1880 (New York, 1970; orig. pub. 1935), 701.
180. See Max Weber's powerful and perceptive discussion of "ethnic status" among southern poor whites in Economy and Society, ed. Guenther Roth and Claus Wittich, trans. Ephram Fischoff et al. (Berkeley, 1978), 385-387.
181. Weiss, Ideology of Death, 106.
182. Fritz Richard Stern, The Politics of Cultural Despair: A Study in the Rise of the German Ideology (Berkeley, 1961);
183. George Mosse, The Crisis of German Ideology: Intellectual Origins of the Third Reich (New York, 1964).
184. Houston Stewart Chamberlain, Foundations of the Nineteenth Century, 2 vols. (London, 1911).
185. This was the theme, most obviously, of Wilhelm Marr's Der Sieg des Judentums über das Germanentum (1873).
186. See Fredrickson, Black Image, chaps. 8 and 9;
187. Williamson, Crucible of Race, 111-124.
188. See Jacobson, Whiteness of a Different Color.
189. See Rogers M. Smith, Civic Ideals: Conflicting Visions of Citizenship in U.S. History (New Haven, 1997), 346-469;
190. Desmond King, Making Americans: Immigration, Race, and the Origins of the Diverse Democracy (Cambridge, Mass., 2000).
191. John Rex, Race Relations in Sociological Theory (London, 1970).
192. See the essays in Daniel Chirot and Anthony Reid, Essential Outsiders: Chinese and Jews in the Modern Transformation of Southeast Asia and Central Europe (Seattle, 1997).
193. For a theoretical understanding of this process, see Herbert Blumer's seminal essay "Race Prejudice as a Sense of Group Position," Pacific Sociological Review 1 (1958): 3-7.
194. See John W. Cell, The Highest Stage of White Supremacy: The Origins of Segregation in South Africa and the American South (Cambridge, Eng., 1982).
195. Heribert Adam, Modernizing Racial Domination: South Africa's Political Dynamics (Berkeley, 1971).
196. Zygmunt Bauman, Modernity and the Holocaust (Ithaca, 1989).
197. On the ideology of the civilizing mission and how it worked against extreme or consistent racism, see Michael Adas, Machines as the Measure of Men: Science, Technology, and Ideologies of Western Dominance (Ithaca, 1989), especially 199-270.
198. Anthony W. Marx, Making Race and Nation: A Comparison of South Africa, the United States, and Brazil (Cambridge, Eng., 1998);
199. George Reid Andrews, Blacks and Whites in S{{atilde}}o Paulo, Brazil, 1888-1988 (Madison, 1991);
200. Antonio Sérgio Alfredo Guimar{{atilde}}es, Racismo e anti-racismo no Brasil (S{{atilde}}o Paulo, 1999).
201. Andrews, Blacks and Whites, 4.
202. See Bruce F. Pauley, From Prejudice to Persecution: A History of Austrian Anti-Semitism (Chapel Hill, 1992), 27-60.
203. Léon Poliakov, The History of Anti-Semitism, vol. 4, Suicidal Europe, 1870-1933, trans. George Klim (New York, 1985), 127 and 67-134, passim.
204. This is a point effectively made by Cell in Highest Stage of White Supremacy.
205. See Peter Warwick, Black People and the South African War, 1899-1902 (Cambridge, Eng., 1983).
206. Paul Gordon Lauren, Power and Prejudice: The Politics and Diplomacy of Racial Discrimination (Boulder, 1988), 63.
207. Adas, Machines as the Measure of Men, 272-275.
208. On Knox, see Michael Banton, Racial Theories, 2d ed. (Cambridge, Eng., 1998), 73-74.
209. George L. Mosse, Toward the Final Solution: A History of European Racism (Madison, 1985; org. pub. 1978), 51-57.
210. On anti-imperialism among radical racists in the United States, see George M. Fredrickson, The Black Image in the White Mind: The Debate on Afro-American Character and Destiny, 1817-1914 (Middletown, Conn., 1987, orig. pub. 1971), 305-308.
211. Adolf Hitler, Mein Kampf, trans. Ralph Manheim (Boston, 1999; orig. pub. 1943), 139.
212. See Cell, Highest Stage of White Supremacy;
213. Saul DuBow, Racial Segregation and the Origins of Apartheid in South Africa, 1919-1936 (London, 1989);
214. George M. Fredrickson, White Supremacy:A Comparative Study in American and South African History (New York, 1981), chaps. 4-6.
215. C. Vann Woodward, The Strange Career of Jim Crow, 3d rev. ed. (New York, 1974), 72-74.
216. See Maurice S. Evans, Black and White in the Southern States: A Study of the Race Problem in the United States from a South African Point of View (London, 1915). A new edition of this work with an introduction by George M. Fredrickson was published by the University of South Carolina Press in 2001.
217. See Joel Williamson, The Crucible of Race: Black-White Relations in the American South since Emancipation (New York, 1984), 111-223;
218. Leon F. Litwack, Trouble in Mind: Black Southerners in the Age of Jim Crow (New York, 1998), 217-325.
219. Williamson, Crucible of Race, 455-458;
220. Fredrickson, Black Image, 309-311.
221. Helmut Bley, South-West Africa under German Rule, 1894-1914, trans. Hugh Ridley (Evanston, Ill., 1971), 212-213, 150, 163-164, 207, and passim (quotations on 164 and 207).
222. Hannah Arendt, The Origins of Totalitarianism (New York, 1951), 185-207.
223. Bley, South-West Africa, 167-168.
224. Shulamit Volkov, "Antisemitism as a Cultural Code: Reflections on the History and Historiography of Antisemitism in Imperial Germany," Publications of the Leo Baeck Institute: Year Book XXIII (London, 1978), 25-46.
225. Peter Pulzer, The Rise of Political Antisemitism in Germany and Austria, rev. ed. (Cambridge, Mass., 1988, orig. pub. 1964), 185-284.
226. W.E.B. Du Bois, "The African Roots of War," Atlantic Monthly 115 (May 1915): 707-714.
227. See Fredrickson, White Supremacy chaps. 4-6, and Black Liberation: A Comparative History of Black ideologies in the United States and South Africa (New York, 1995), passim.
228. DuBow, Racial Segregation and the Origins of Apartheid, 33-38.
229. Gordon A. Craig, Germany 1866-1945 (New York, 1978), 434-468.
230. Hitler, Mein Kampf, 264-329 and passim.
231. Jeffrey Herf, Reactionary Modernism: Technology, Culture, and Politics in Weimar and the Third Reich (Cambridge, Eng., 1984).
232. Sander Gilman, The Jew's Body (New York, 1991), 76, 188-189, and passim.
233. See Eric Rentschler, The Ministry of Illusion: Nazi Cinema and Its Afterlife (Cambridge, Mass., 1996), 149-169.
234. Hitler, Mein Kampf, 383.
235. Quoted in Benno Müller-Hill, Murderous Science: Elimination by Scientific Selection of Jews, Gypsies, and Others, Germany, 1933-1945, trans. George R. Fraser (Oxford, 1988), 86. Müller-Hill uses this statement to raise doubts about Hitler's belief in a biological basis for racism.
236. Alfred Rosenberg, Race and Race History, and Other Essays, ed. Robert Pois (New York, 1970), 34, 84.
237. For a recent and controversial presentation of the latter view, see Daniel Jonah Goldhagen, Hitler's Willing Executioners: Ordinary Germans and the Holocaust (New York, 1996).
238. Saul Friedlander, Nazi Germany and the Jews, vol. 1, The Years of Persecution, 1933-1939 (New York, 1997), 116.
239. See John Weiss, Ideology of Death: Why the Holocaust Happened in Germany (Chicago, 1996).
240. See Stefan Kühl, The Nazi Connection: Eugenics, American Racism, and German National Socialism (New York, 1994).
241. Friedlander, Nazi Germany and the Jews, 1:142, 149-150.
242. Paul Mendes-Flohr and Jehuda Reinharz, eds., The Jew in the Modern World: A Documentary History, 2d ed. (New York, 1995), 714.
243. Friedlander, Nazi Germany and the Jews, 1:280-304.
244. See Guenter Lewy, The Nazi Persecution of the Gypsies (New York, 2000), 135-148 and passim. Lewy's finding are likely to be controversial, but his study is based on a fuller examination of the sources than previous studies of the Gypsies' experience under Hitler.
245. Friedlander, Nazi Germany and the Jews, 1:207-208;
246. Reiner Pommerin, Sterilisierung der Rheinlandbastarde (Düsseldorf, 1979).
247. Quoted in John Torpey, "'Making Whole What Has Been Smashed': Reflections on Reparations," Journal of Modern History 73 (2001): 344.
248. Carl N. Degler, In Search of Human Nature: The Decline and Revival of Darwinism in American Social Thought (New York, 1991), 203-205.
249. See also Daniel J. Kevles, In the Name of Eugenics: Genetics and the Use of Human Heredity (Berkeley, 1986), 251;
250. Richard A. Soloway, Demography and Degeneration: Eugenics and the Declining Birthrate in Twentieth-Century Britain (Chapel Hill, 1990), 353.
251. Quoted in Lauren, Power and Prejudice, 136.
252. Gunnar Myrdal, An American Dilemma (New York, 1944), 997, lxi.
253. On the effect of the Cold War on American racial thought and policy, see especially Mary L. Dudziak, Cold War Civil Rights:Race and the Image of American Democracy (Princeton, 2000).
254. Renee Romano, "No Diplomatic Immunity: African Diplomats, the State Department, and Civil Rights," Journal of American History 87 (September 2000): 546-579.
255. See Manning Marable, Race, Reform, and Rebellion: The Second Reconstruction in Black America, 1945-1990, 2d ed. ( Jackson, Miss., 1991), 13-60.
256. Philip A. Klinkner with Rogers M. Smith, The Unsteady March: The Rise and Decline of Racial Equality in America (Chicago, 1999).
257. Lauren, Power and Prejudice, 180-186 and passim.
258. See Newel M. Stultz, Afrikaner Politics in South Africa, 1934-1948 (Berkeley, 1974).
259. See Thomas Borstelmann, Apartheid's Reluctant Uncle: The United States and Southern Africa in the Early Cold War (New York, 1993).
260. Quoted in William Henry Vatcher, White Laager: The Rise of Afrikaner Nationalism (New York, 1965), 160.
261. Saul DuBow, Scientific Racism in Modern South Africa (Cambridge, Eng., 1995), 261-267.
262. T. Dunbar Moodie, The Rise of Afrikanerdom:Power, Apartheid, and Afrikaner Civil Religion (Berkeley, 1975), 259-281.
263. DuBow, Scientific Racism, 258.
264. Moodie, Afrikanerdom, 249.
265. On the history and changing status of the Coloreds of South Africa, see Gavin Lewis, Between the Wire and the Wall: A History of South African "Coloured" Politics (New York, 1987)
266. Fredrickson, White Supremacy, chap. 6 and passim.
267. Donald L. Horowitz, Ethnic Groups in Conflict (Berkeley, 1985), 52.
268. George M. Fredrickson, "Understanding Racism" in The Comparative Imagination: On the History of Racism, Nationalism, and Social Movements (Berkeley, 1997), 77-97.
269. Horowitz, Ethnic Groups, 50.
270. David Theo Goldberg, Racist Culture: Philosophy and the Politics of Meaning (Cambridge, Mass., 1993), 70-89;
271. Paul Gilroy, "One Nation under a Groove: The Politics of 'Race' and Racism in Britain," in Anatomy of Racism, ed. David Theo Goldberg (Minneapolis, 1990), 263-282.
272. French "culturalism" is analyzed in Tzvetan Todorov, On Human Diversity: Nationalism, Racism, and Exoticism in French Thought, trans. Catherine Porter (Cambridge, Mass., 1993), 156-157.
273. See George M. Fredrickson, "America's Diversity in Comparative Perspective," Journal of American History 85 (1998): 859-875.
274. On "rational discrimination," see Dinesh D'Souza, The End of Racism:Principles for a Multiracial Society (New York, 1995).
275. See Bernard Lewis, Semites and Anti-Semites: An Inquiry into Conflict and Prejudice (New York: 1999, orig. pub. 1986), 193-272. But Lewis is careful to point out that popular, as opposed to official, antisemitism is not highly developed in the Arab world.
276. On Britain, see Robert Miles, Racism after "Race Relations" (London, 1993);
277. Paul Gilroy, "There Ain't No Black in the Union Jack": The Cultural Politics of Race and Nation (Chicago, 1991; orig. pub. 1987).
278. Michel Wieviorka, La France raciste (Paris, 1992).
279. Hamish Dickie-Clark, "The Study of Conflict in South Africa and Northern Ireland," Social Dynamics 2 (1976): 53-59.
280. Fredrickson, "America's Diversity."
281. See Benjamin R. Barber, Jihad vs. McWorld: How Globalism and Tribalism Are Reshaping the World (New York, 1996).