A window of opportunity: Maximizing the effectiveness of new HCV regimens in the United States with the expansion of the affordable care act

American Journal of Public Health

Volumn 105, Issue 3, 2015, Pages 457-463

  Haley, Sean J ^a   Kreek, Mary Jeanne ^b  

^a CITY UNIVERSITY OF NEW YORK   (United States)

^b ROCKEFELLER UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ANTIVIRUS AGENT; FUSED HETEROCYCLIC RINGS; SIMEPREVIR; SOFOSBUVIR; SULFONAMIDE; URIDINE PHOSPHATE;

ADULT; ANALOGS AND DERIVATIVES; COMORBIDITY; DRUG APPROVAL; DRUG COMBINATION; ECONOMICS; GENETICS; GENOTYPE; HEALTH CARE DELIVERY; HEALTH CARE POLICY; HEALTH SURVEY; HEPATITIS B; HEPATITIS C, CHRONIC; HIV INFECTIONS; HUMAN; INSURANCE; LEGISLATION AND JURISPRUDENCE; MENTAL DISORDERS; POVERTY; PREVALENCE; RISK FACTOR; STANDARDS; SUBSTANCE ABUSE; TRENDS; UNITED STATES;

ADULT; ANTIVIRAL AGENTS; COMORBIDITY; DRUG APPROVAL; DRUG THERAPY, COMBINATION; GENOTYPE; HEALTH SERVICES ACCESSIBILITY; HEPATITIS B; HEPATITIS C, CHRONIC; HETEROCYCLIC COMPOUNDS, 3-RING; HIV INFECTIONS; HUMANS; INSURANCE COVERAGE; MENTAL DISORDERS; PATIENT PROTECTION AND AFFORDABLE CARE ACT; POPULATION SURVEILLANCE; POVERTY; PREVALENCE; RISK FACTORS; SUBSTANCE ABUSE, INTRAVENOUS; SULFONAMIDES; UNITED STATES; URIDINE MONOPHOSPHATE;

EID: 84922745747     PISSN: 00900036     EISSN: 15410048     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2105/AJPH.2014.302327     Document Type: Article

References (118)

1. Armstrong GL, Wasley A, Simard EP, McQuillan GM, Kuhnert WL, Alter MJ. The prevalence of hepatitis C virus infection in the United States, 1999 through 2002. Ann Intern Med. 2006;144(10):705-714.
2. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Hepatitis C information for health professionals. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/hepatitis/HCV/HCVfaq. htm. Accessed August 12, 2014.
3. Seeff LB. Natural history of chronic hepatitis C. Hepatology. 2002;36(5): S35-S46.
4. Brown RS. Hepatitis C and liver transplantation. Nature. 2005;436 (7053):973-978.
5. Wong JB. Hepatitis C: cost of illness and considerations for the economic evaluation of antiviral therapies. Pharmacoeco-nomics. 2006;24(7):661-672.
6. Gordon SC, Pockros PJ, Terrault NA, et al. Impact of disease severity on healthcare costs in patients with chronic hepatitis C (CHC) virus infection. Hepa-tology. 2012;56(5):1651-1660.
7. C. Everett Koop Institute. Associated health costs-United States. Available at: http://www.epidemic.org/theFacts/theEpidemic/USHealthCareCosts. Accessed March 19, 2013.
8. Backus LI, Boothroyd DB, Phillips BR, Belperio P, Halloran J, Mole LA. A sustained virologic response reduces risk of all-cause mortality in patients with hepatitis C. Clin Gastroenterol H. 2011;9(6):509-516.
9. Imai Y, Kawata S, Tamura S, et al. Relation of interferon therapy and hepa-tocellular carcinoma in patients with chronic hepatitis C. Osaka Hepatocellular Carcinoma Prevention Study Group. Ann Intern Med. 1998;129(2):94-99.
10. Lawitz E, Poordad FF, Pang PS, et al. Sofosbuvir and ledipasvir fixed-dose combination with and without ribavirin in treatment-naive and previously treated patients with genotype 1 hepatitis C virus infection (LONESTAR): an open-label, randomised, phase 2 trial. Lancet. 2014;383(9916):515-523.
11. Koff RS. Review article: the efficacy and safety of sofosbuvir, a novel, oral nucleotide NS5B polymerase inhibitor, in the treatment of chronic hepatitis C virus infection. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2014;39(5):478-487.
12. McHutchison JG, Everson GT, Gordon SC, et al. Telaprevir with pegin-terferon and ribavirin for chronic HCV genotype 1 infection. N Engl J Med. 2009;360(18):1827-1838.
13. Rumi MG, Aghemo A, Prati GM, et al. Randomized study of peginterferon-alpha2a plus ribavirin vs peginterferon-alpha2b plus ribavirin in chronic hepatitis C. Gas-troenterology. 2010;138(1):108-115.
14. Ascione A, De Luca M, Tartaglione MT, et al. Peginterferon alfa-2a plus riba-virin is more effective than peginterferon alfa-2b plus ribavirin for treating chronic hepatitis C virus infection. Gastroenterol-ogy. 2010;138(1):116-122.
15. US Food and Drug Administration. Drugs@FDA. Available at: http://www. accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cder/drugsatfda/index.cfm?fuseaction=Search.DrugDetails. Accessed December 31, 2013.
16. US Food and Drug Administration. Olysio (simeprevir) for the treatment of chronic hepatitis C in combination antiviral treatment. Available at: http://www. fda.gov/forconsumers/byaudience/forpatientadvocates/ucm377234.htm. Accessed December 30, 2013.
17. US Food and Drug Administration. Approval of Sovaldi (sofosbuvir) tablets for the treatment of chronic hepatitis C. Available at: http://www.fda.gov/forconsumers/byaudience/forpatientadvocates/ucm377920.htm. Accessed December 30, 2013.
18. Gane EJ, Hyland R, Ding X, et al. 100% Suppression of Viral Load through 4 Weeks' Post-treatment for Sofosbuvir + Ledipasvir (GS-5885) + Ribavirin for 12 Weeks in Treatment-naïve and-experienced Hepatitis C Virus GT 1 Patients. Paper presented at: Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections; March 3-6, 2013; Atlanta, GA.
19. Ong JP, Collantes R, Pitts A, Martin L, Sheridan M, Younossi ZM. High Rates of Uninsured Among HCV-Positive Individuals. J Clin Gastroenterol. 2005;39(9):826-830.
20. Alter MJ, Hadler SC, Judson FN, et al. Risk factors for acute non-A, non-B hepatitis in the United States and association with hepatitis C virus infection. JAMA. 1990;264(17):2231-2235.
21. Zarkin GA, Bray JW, Aldridge A, et al. Cost and cost-effectiveness of the COMBINE study in alcohol-dependent patients. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2008; 65(10):1214-1221.
22. North CS, Hong BA, Adewuyi SA, et al. Hepatitis C treatment and SVR: the gap between clinical trials and real-world treatment aspirations. Gen Hosp Psychiatry. 2013;35(2):122-128.
23. El-Serag HB. Translational research: the study of community effectiveness in digestive and liver disorders. Gastroen-terology. 2007;132(1):8-10.
24. Davis GL, Alter MJ, El-Serag H, Poynard T, Jennings LW. Aging of hepatitis C virus (HCV) infected persons in the United States: a multiple cohort model of HCV prevalence and disease progression. Gas-troenterology. 2010;138(2):513-521.
25. Kreek MJ, Talal AH, Piccolo P. Treating chronic hepatitis C in recovering opiate addicts: Yes, we can. Dig Liver Dis. 2009;41(4):308-310.
26. Novick DM, Kreek MJ. Critical issues in the treatment of hepatitis C virus infection in methadone maintenance patients. Addiction. 2008;103(6):905-918.
27. Buck JA. The looming expansion and transformation of public substance abuse treatment under the Affordable Care Act. Health Aff. 2011;30(8):1402-1410.
28. Alter MJ. Epidemiology of hepatitis C. Hepatology. 1997;26(S1):62S-65S.
29. Rosenberg SD, Goodman LA, Osher FC, et al. Prevalence of HIV, hepatitis B, and hepatitis C in people with severe mental illness. Am J Public Health. 2001;91(1):31-37.
30. Rockstroh JK. Management of hepatitis B and C in HIV co-infected patients. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2003;34:S59-S65.
31. Piccolo P, Borg L, Lin A, et al. Virus and human immunodeficiency virus-1 co-infection in former heroin addicts in methadone maintenance treatment. J Addict Dis. 2002;21(4):55-66.
32. Ockenga J, Tillmann HL, Trautwein C, Stoll M, Manns MP, Schmidt RE. Hepatitis B and C in HIV-infected patients: Prevalence and prognostic value. J Hep-atol. 1997;27(1):18-24.
33. Martinez A, Talal AH. Noninjection drug use: An under-appreciated risk factor for hepatitis C virus transmission. Liver Int. 2008;28(6):757-760.
34. Butt AA, Khan UA, McGinnis KA, Skanderson M, Kent Kwoh C. Co-morbid medical and psychiatric illness and substance abuse in HCV-infected and uninfected veterans. J Viral Hepat. 2007;14(12):890-896.
35. Ghany MG, Strader DB, Thomas DL, Seeff LB. Diagnosis, management, and treatment of hepatitis C: an update. Hepa-tology. 2009;49(4):1335-1374.
36. Grebely J, Raffa JD, Lai C, et al. Low uptake of treatment for hepatitis C virus infection in a large community-based study of inner city residents. J Viral Hepat. 2009;16(5):352-358.
37. Mehta SH, Genberg BL, Astemborski J, et al. Limited uptake of hepatitis C treatment among injection drug users. J Community Health. 2008;33(3):126-133.
38. Sylvestre DL. Treating hepatitis C in methadone maintenance patients: an interim analysis. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2002;67(2):117-123.
39. Litwin AH, Harris KA, Nahvi S, et al. Successful treatment of chronic hepatitis C with pegylated interferon in combination with ribavirin in a methadone maintenance treatment program. J Subst Abuse Treat. 2009;37(1):32-40.
40. Westergaard RP, Ambrose BK, Mehta SH, Kirk GD. Provider and clinic-level correlates of deferring antire-troviral therapy for people who inject drugs: a survey of North American HIV providers. J Int AIDS Soc. 2012;15(1):10.
41. Malta M, Strathdee SA, Magnanini MM, Bastos FI. Adherence to antiretroviral therapy for human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immune deficiency syndrome among drug users: a systematic review. Addiction. 2008;103(8):1242-1257.
42. Chander G, Himelhoch S, Fleishman JA, et al. HAART receipt and viral suppression among HIV-infected patients with co-occurring mental illness and illicit drug use. AIDS Care. 2009;21(5):655-663.
43. Wells R, Morrissey JP, Lee I-H, Radford A. Trends in behavioral health care service provision by community health centers, 1998-2007. Psychiatr Serv. 2010;61(8):759-764.
44. Felt-Lisk S, McHugh M, Howell E. Monitoring local safety-net providers: Do they have adequate capacity? Health Aff (Millwood). 2002;21(5):277-283.
45. Gusmano MK, Fairbrother G, Park H. Exploring the limits of the safety net: Community health centers and care for the uninsured. Health Aff (Millwood). 2002;21(6):188-194.
46. Doty MM, Abrams MK, Hernandez SE, Stremikis K, Beal AC. Enhancing the Capacity of Community Health Centers to Achieve High Performance: Findings From the 2009 Commonwealth Fund National Survey of Federally Qualified Health Centers.New York, NY: The Commonwealth Fund; 2010.
47. Fiscella K. Health care reform and equity: promise, pitfalls, and prescriptions. Ann Fam Med 2011;9(1):78-84.
48. McLellan TA Dr. Tom McLellan: addiction and segregation. Available at: http://www.drugfree.org/join-together/addiction/dr-tom-mclellan-addiction-and-segregation. Accessed August 28, 2012.
49. Wee CC, McCarthy EP, Davis RB, Phillips RS. Physician counseling about exercise. JAMA 1999;282(16):1583-1588.
50. Galuska DA Will JC, Serdula MK, Ford ES. Are health care professionals advising obese patients to lose weight? JAMA. 1999;282(16):1576-1578.
51. Thorndike AN, Rigotti NA, Stafford RS, Singer DE. National patterns in the treatment of smokers by physicians. JAMA. 1998;279(8):604-608.
52. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association; 1994.
53. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association; 2013.
54. McGlynn EA Asch SM, Adams J, et al. The quality of health care delivered to adults in the United States. N Engl J Med. 2003;348(26):2635-2645.
55. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. National Survey of Substance Abuse Treatment Services (N-SSATS): 2010 Data on Substance Abuse Treatment Facilities. Rockville, MD: US Department of Health and Human Services; 2011.
56. Ryan O, Murphy D, Krom L. Vital Signs: Taking the Pulse of the Addiction Treatment Profession, a National Report, Version 1. Kansas City, MO: Addiction Technology Transfer Center National Office; 2012.
57. Humphreys K, McLellan AT. Brief intervention, treatment, and recovery support services for Americans who have substance use disorders: An overview of policy in the Obama administration. Psychol Serv. 2010;7(4):275-284.
58. Freudenberg N, Fahs M, Galea S, Greenberg A The impact of New York City's 1975 fiscal crisis on the tuberculosis, HIV, and homicide syndemic Am J Public Health. 2006;96(3):424-434.
59. Butler M, Kane RL, McAlpine D, et al. Integration of Mental Health/Substance Abuse and Primary Care. Rockville, MD: Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality; 2008.
60. Kresina TF, Bruce RD, Cargill VA, Cheever LW. Integrating care for Hepatitis C virus (HCV) and primary care for HIV for injection drug users coinfected with HIV and HCV. Clin Infect Dis. 2005;41(Supp 1):S83-S88.
61. Mattick RP, Kimber J, Breen C, Davoli M. Buprenorphine maintenance versus placebo or methadone maintenance for opioid dependence. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2008;16(2):CD002207.
62. Drug Addiction Treatment Act of 2000. Public Law No. 106-310, Title XXXV. Waiver authority for physicians who dispense or prescribe certain narcotic drugs for maintenance treatment or detoxification treatment. Available at: http://www.buprenorphine.samhsa.gov/fulllaw.html. Accessed August 19, 2014.
63. Federal Drug Administration. Narcotic drugs in maintenance and detoxification treatment of narcotic dependence; repeal of current regulations and proposal to adopt new regulations; proposed rule. Available at: http://www.fda.gov/ohrms/dockets/98fr/072299b.txt. Accessed August 19, 2014.
64. Lardiere MR, Jones E, Perez M. NACHC 2010 Assessment of Behavioral health services in federally qualified health centers. Washington, DC: National Organization of Community Health Centers; 2011:1-35.
65. Schackman BR, Merrill JO, McCarty D, Levi J, Lubinski C. Overcoming policy and financing barriers to integrated buprenorphine and HIV primary care. Clin Infect Dis. 2006;43 (Supp 4):S247-S253.
66. Madras BK, Compton WM, Avula D, Stegbauer T, Stein JB, Clark HW. Screening, brief interventions, referral to treatment (SBIRT) for illicit drug and alcohol use at multiple healthcare sites: comparison at intake and 6 months later. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2009;99(1-3):280-295.
67. Saitz R. Screening and brief intervention for drug use in primary care: the ASPIRE randomized trial. In: Addiction Health Services Research Conference. Portland: Oregon Health and Sciences University; 2013.
68. Basu S, Rohrberg DS, Bruce RD, Altice FL. Models for integrating buprenorphine therapy into the primary HIV care setting. Clin Infect Dis. 2006;42(5):716-721.
69. Samet JH, Friedmann P, Saitz R. Benefits of linking primary medical care and substance abuse services: Patient, provider, and societal perspectives. Arch Intern Med. 2001;161(1):85-91.
70. Birkhead GS, Klein SJ, Candelas AR, et al. Integrating multiple programme and policy approaches to hepatitis C prevention and care for injection drug users: a comprehensive approach. Int J Drug Policy. 2007;18(5):417-425.
71. National Consensus Development Panel on Effective Medical Treatment of Opiate Addiction. Effective medical treatment of opiate addiction. JAMA. 1998;280(22):1936-1943.
72. Harrison Narcotics Tax Act. Pub L. No. 223. (1914).
73. Frimpong JA. Missed opportunities for hepatitis C testing in opioid treatment programs. Am J Public Health. 2013;103 (6):1028-1030.
74. Ho SB, Groessl E, Dollarhide A, Robinson S, Kravetz D, Dieperink E. Management of chronic hepatitis C in veterans: the potential of integrated care models. Am J Gastroenterol. 2008;103(7):1810-1823.
75. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Viral hepatitis surveillance-United States, 2010. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/hepatitis/statistics/2010surveillance/Commentary.htm. Accessed December 12, 2013.
76. Ackelsberg J, Laraque F, Bornschlegel K, Rude E, Varma JK. Hepatitis C in New York City: State of the Epidemic and Action Plan. New York, NY: Department of Health and Mental Hygiene; 2013.
77. National Research Council. Hepatitis and Liver Cancer: A National Strategy for Prevention and Control of Hepatitis B and C. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press; 2010.
78. Colwill JM, Cultice JM, Kruse RL. Will generalist physician supply meet demands of an increasing and aging population? Health Aff (Millwood). 2008;27(3):w232-w241.
79. Ku L, Jones K, Shin P, Bruen B, Hayes K. The states' next challenge: securing primary care for expanded Medicaid populations. N Engl J Med. 2011;364(6):493-495.
80. Arora S, Thornton K, Murata G, et al. Outcomes of treatment for hepatitis C virus infection by primary care providers. N Engl J Med. 2011;364(23):2199-2207.
81. Kanwal F, Hoang T, Spiegel BM, et al. Predictors of treatment in patients with chronic hepatitis C infection-role of patient versus nonpatient factors. Hepa-tology. 2007;46:1741-1749.
82. Rousseau CM, Ioannou GN, Todd-Stenberg JA, et al. Racial differences in the evaluation and treatment of hepatitis C among veterans: a retrospective cohort study. Am J Public Health. 2008;98:846-852.
83. Rein DB, Smith BD, Wittenborn JS, et al. The cost-effectiveness of birth-cohort screening for hepatitis C antibody in US primary care settings. Ann Intern Med. 2012;156(4):263-270.
84. Martin NK, Vickerman P, Miners A, et al. Cost-effectiveness of hepatitis C virus antiviral treatment for injection drug user populations. Hepatology. 2012;55(1):49-57.
85. Sroczynski G, Esteban E, Conrads-Frank A, et al. Long-term effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of antiviral treatment in hepatitis C. J Viral Hepat. 2010;17(1):34-50.
86. Centers for Medicare and Medicaid. State Medicaid and CHIP Income Eligibility Standards Effective January 1, 2014. Baltimore, MD: Center for Medicaid and CHIP Services; 2013.
87. Dilonardo J. Substance Abuse Treatment Integration Into Primary Care and Other Medical Settings and Financing Integrated Care: Barriers and Solutions. Rockville, MD: Health Resources and Services Administration Center for Integrated Health Solutions, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration; 2011.
88. Pollack A. New hope in hepatitis C as F.D.A. allows pill. The New York Times. Available at: http://www.nytimes.com/2013/12/07/business/fda-approves-pill-to-treat-hepatitis-c.html?-r=1&. Accessed December 20, 2013.
89. Johnson and Johnson. The New York Times. Available at: http://topics.nytimes. com/top/news/business/companies/johnson-and-johnson/index.html. Accessed December 20, 2013.
90. The Patient Protection and Afford-ability Care Act. Pub L. No. 111-148, HR 3590 (2010).
91. The Paul Wellstone and Pete Domenici Mental Health Parity and Addiction Equity Act of 2008. Pub L. 110-343 (2008).
92. Davis K, Abrams M, Stremikis K.How the affordable care act will strengthen the nation's primary care foundation. J Gen Intern Med. 2011;26(10):1201-1203.
93. Estimates for the Insurance Coverage Provisions of the Affordable Care Act Updated for the Recent Supreme Court Decision. Washington, DC: Congressional Budget Office; 2012.
94. US Preventive Services Task Force. Screening for hepatitis C virus infection in adults. Available at: http://www. uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org/Page/Topic/recommendation-summary/hepatitis-c-screening. Accessed July 8, 2013.
95. Volk ML, Tocco R, Saini S, Lok ASF. Public health impact of antiviral therapy for hepatitis C in the United States. Hep-atology. 2009;50(6):1750-1755.
96. National Association of Community Health Centers. A sketch of community health centers: Chartbook. Available at: https://www.nachc.com/client//Chartbook2013. pdf. Accessed December 12, 2013.
97. Health Resources and Services Administration. 2012 Health center data: National full report, rollup report-data as of 5/9/13. Available at: http://bphc.hrsa. gov/uds/datacenter.aspx?year=2012. Accessed December 12, 2013.
98. Adashi EY, Geiger HJ, Fine MD. Health care reform and primary care-the growing importance of the community health center. N Engl J Med. 2010;362(22):2047-2050.
99. Health Resources and Services Administration. Primary care: The health center program. Available at: http://www.bphc.hrsa.gov/about/index.html. Accessed November 24, 2012.
100. American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009. Pub L. No. 111-5 (2009).
101. Health Resources and Services Administration. The Affordable Care Act and health centers. Available at: http://bphc hrsa.gov/about/healthcenterfactsheetpdf. Accessed December 28, 2013.
102. Shi L, Stevens GD. The role of community health centers in delivering primary care to the underserved: experiences of the uninsured and Medicaid insured. J Ambul Care Manage. 2007;30(2):159-170.
103. Morrill JA, Shrestha M, Grant RW. Barriers to the treatment of hepatitis C. J Gen Intern Med. 2005;20(8):754-758.
104. Cook NL, Hicks LS, O'Malley AJ, Keegan T, Guadagnoli E, Landon BE. Access to specialty care and medical services in community health centers. Health Aff (Millwood). 2007;26(5):1459-1468.
105. Unützer J, Katon W, Callahan CM, et al. Collaborative care management of late-life depression in the primary care setting. JAMA. 2002;288(22):2836-2845.
106. Gilbody S, Bower P, Fletcher J, Richards D, Sutton AJ. Collaborative care for depression: a cumulative meta-analysis and review of longer-term outcomes. Arch Intern Med. 2006; 166(21):2314-2321.
107. Wagner EH, Austin BT, Davis C, Hindmarsh M, Schaefer J, Bonomi A. Improving chronic illness care: translating evidence into action. Health Aff (Millwood). 2001;20(6):64-78.
108. Bodenheimer T, Wagner EH, Grumbach K. Improving primary care for patients with chronic illness: The chronic care model, part 2. JAMA. 2002;288 (15):1909-1914.
109. Tsai AC, Morton SC, Mangione CM, Keeler EB. A meta-analysis of interventions to improve care for chronic illnesses. Am J Manag Care. 2005;11(8):478-488.
110. Vogeli C, Shields A, Lee T, et al. Multiple chronic conditions: prevalence, health consequences, and implications for quality, care management, and costs. J Gen Intern Med. 2007;22(S3):391-395.
111. Takach M. About half of the states are implementing patient-centered medical homes for their Medicaid populations. Health Aff (Millwood). 2012;31(11): 2432-2440.
112. National Committee for Quality Assurance. NCQA's Patient-Centered Medical Home 2011. Available at: http://www.ncqa.org/Portals/0/Programs/Recognition/PCMH-2011-Overview-5. 2.pdf. Accessed August 12, 2014.
113. Alter MJ, Kruszon-Moran D, Nainan OV, et al. The prevalence of hepatitis C virus infection in the United States, 1988 through 1994. N Engl J Med. 1999;341(8):556-562.
114. Bodenheimer T, Wagner EH, Grumbach K. Improving primary care for patients with chronic illness. JAMA. 2002;288(14):1775-1779.
115. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Medication assisted treatment for substance use disorders. Available at: http://www.dpt.samhsa.gov/regulations/certification.aspx. Accessed January 2, 2014.
116. Centers for Substance Abuse Treatment. Federal guidelines for opioid treatment. Available at: http://www.dpt. samhsa.gov/pdf/FederalGuidelinesfor OpioidTreatment5-6-2013revision draft-508.pdf. Accessed January 2, 2014.
117. Salomon JA, Weinstein MC, Hammitt JK, Goldie SJ. Cost-effectiveness of treatment for chronic hepatitis C infection in an evolving patient population. JAMA. 2003;290(2):228-237.
118. Pollack A. Gilead revenues soar on hepatitis C drug. The New York Times. Available at: http://www.nytimes.com/2014/04/23/your-money/gilead-revenue-soars-on-hepatitis-c-drug.html?-r=0. Accessed August 12, 2014.