Enforcing CITES: The rise and fall of trade sanctions

Review of European, Comparative and International Environmental Law

Volumn 22, Issue 3, 2013, Pages 251-263

  Sand, Peter H ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MUNICH   (Germany)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CITES; CONSERVATION MANAGEMENT; INTERNATIONAL LAW; POLICY IMPLEMENTATION; TRADE FLOW; TRADE PERFORMANCE; TRADE POLICY; WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT;

EID: 84922722483     PISSN: 20500386     EISSN: 20500394     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/reel.12037     Document Type: Article

References (142)

1. P.H. Sand, 'Whither CITES? The Evolution of a Treaty Regime in the Borderland of Trade and Environment', 8:1 European Journal of International Law (1997), 29.
2. W. Wijnstekers, The Evolution of CITES: A Reference to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, 9th edn (International Council for Game and Wildlife Conservation, 2011
3. R. Reeve, Policing International Trade in Endangered Species: The CITES Treaty and Compliance (Earthscan, 2002), at 49-50.
4. D. Kaniaru and E. Mrema (eds.), Enforcement of and Compliance with MEAs: The Experience of CITES, Montreal Protocol and Basel Convention, Vol. 1 (United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), 1999), 1, at 93-149
5. The proceedings of the International Network for Environmental Compliance and Enforcement (1990-2011), found at: .
6. P.H. Sand, 'Endangered Species, International Protection', in: R. Wolfrum (ed.), Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law, Vol. 3 (Oxford University Press, 2012), 423, at 427.
7. M.E. Zimmermann, 'The Black Market for Wildlife: Combating Transnational Organized Crime in the Illegal Wildlife Trade', 36:5 Vanderbilt Journal of Transnational Law (2003), 1657, at 1686
8. M. Yeater, 'Corruption and Illegal Wildlife Trafficking', in: Corruption, Environment and the United Nations Convention Against Corruption (UNODC, 2012), 17
9. R. Torpy, 'If Criminal Offenses Were Added to CITES, Would Nations Be Better Able to Restrict International Trade in Endangered Species and Protect Biodiversity?', 9:3 Revista de Direito Internacional/Brazilian Journal of International Law (2012), 57.
10. J.E. Scanlon, 'CITES at Its Best: CoP16 as a "Watershed Moment" for the World's Wildlife', 22:3 Review of European, Comparative and International Environmental Law (2013), 222.
11. UN Office on Drugs and Crime, Transnational Organized Crime in East Asia and the Pacific: A Threat Assessment (UNODC, 2013), at 75-86
12. C. Nellemann et al. (eds.), Elephants in the Dust: The African Elephant Crisis (UNEP/CITES/IUCN/TRAFFIC, 2013
13. M. Engler, 'The Value of International Wildlife Trade', 22:1 TRAFFIC Bulletin (2008), 4.
14. B.A. Garner (ed.), Black's Law Dictionary, 9th edn (Thomson/West, 2009), at 608.
15. T. Treves et al. (eds.), Non-Compliance Procedures and Mechanisms and the Effectiveness of International Environmental Agreements (T.M.C. Asser Press, 2009
16. J. Brunnée, 'Enforcement Mechanisms in International Law and International Environmental Law', in: U. Beyerlin et al. (eds.), Ensuring Compliance with Multilateral Environmental Agreements: A Dialogue between Practitioners and Academia (Martinus Nijhoff, 2006), 1, at 3.
17. A. D'Amato, 'The Coerciveness of International Law', 52 German Yearbook of International Law (2009), 437, at 437.
18. M.E. O'Connell, 'Enforcement and the Success of International Environmental Law', 3:1 Indiana Journal of Global Legal Studies (1995), 47, at 53.
19. J. Combacau, 'Sanctions', in: R. Bernhardt (ed.), Encyclopedia of Public International Law, Vol. 4 (Elsevier, 2000), at 311
20. A. Pellet and A. Miron, 'Sanctions', in: R. Wolfrum, n. 6 above, Vol. 9, 1, at 1
21. G. Abi-Saab, 'The Concept of Sanction in International Law', in: V. Gowlland-Debbas (ed.), United Nations Sanctions and International Law (Kluwer Law International, 2001), 29
22. N. White and A. Abbas, 'Countermeasures and Sanctions', in: M.D. Evans (ed.), International Law, 3rd edn (Oxford University Press, 2010), 531
23. D. Alland, 'The Definition of Countermeasures', in: J. Crawford et al. (eds.), The Law of International Responsibility (Oxford University Press, 2010), 1127.
24. A. Chayes and A.H. Chayes, The New Sovereignty: Compliance with International Regulatory Agreements (Harvard University Press, 1998), at 32-33.
25. D. Brack, 'Environmental Treaties and Trade: Multilateral Environmental Agreements and the Multilateral Trading System', in: G.P. Sampson and W.B. Chambers (eds.), Trade, Environment and the Millennium, 2nd edn (United Nations University Press, 2002), 321, at 334.
26. R. Reeve, 'Wildlife Trade, Sanctions and Compliance', 82:5 International Affairs (2006), 881, at 892-895.
27. V. Koester, Compliance Committees within MEAs and the Desirability and Feasibility of Establishing Special Compliance Bodies under CITES (SC54 Doc.Inf.3, 2004
28. H.G. Kausch, 'Embargo', in: R. Bernhardt, n. 15 above, Vol. 2, 38
29. H.K. Ress, Das Handelsembargo: Völker-, europa-und aussenwirtschaftsrechtliche Rahmenbedingungen, Praxis und Entschädigung (Springer, 2000), at 7.
30. J. Hutton, 'CITES: The Issue of Endangered Species', in: P. Könz (ed.), Trade, Environment and Sustainable Development: Views from Sub-Saharan Africa and Latin America (International Centre for Trade and Sustainable Development, 2000), 143, at 145.
31. R.S. Anderson, 'The Lacey Act: America's Premier Weapon in the Fight against Unlawful Wildlife Trafficking', 16:1 Public Land Law Review (1995), 27.
32. S. Charnovitz, 'Encouraging Environmental Cooperation through the Pelly Amendment', 3:1 Journal of Environment and Development (1994), 3-28.
33. E. Zoller, Enforcing International Law Through US Legislation (Transnational, 1985), at 84
34. A.F. Upton, 'The Big Green Stick: Reducing International Environmental Degradation through US Trade Sanctions', 22:3 Boston College Environmental Affairs Law Review (1995), 671
35. S.D. Murphy, 'US Sanctions against Japan for Whaling', 95:1 American Journal of International Law (2001), 149, at 150.
36. C.D. Stone, The Gnat is Older than Man: Global Environment and Human Agenda (Princeton University Press, 1993), at 45
37. S. Murase, 'National Report: Japan', 5 Yearbook of International Environmental Law (1994), 425, at 426
38. P. Mofson, 'Protecting Wildlife from Trade: Japan's Involvement in the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species', 3:1 Journal of Environment and Development (1994), 91, at 100
39. M. Dupree, 'Passing through Enemy Waters: Marine Turtles in Japan', 14:1 University of California at Los Angeles Pacific Basin Law Journal (1995), 75.
40. S. Charnovitz, 'Environmental Trade Sanctions and the GATT: An Analysis of the Pelly Amendment on Foreign Environmental Practices', 9:3 American University Journal of International Law and Policy (1994), 751.
41. S. Patel, 'The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species: Enforcement and the Last Unicorn', 18:2 Houston Journal of International Law (1995), 157, at 197-199
42. E. De Sombre, Domestic Sources of International Environmental Policy: Industry, Environmentalists, and US Power (MIT Press, 2000), at 175-178.
43. L. Krämer, 'Environmental Protection and Trade: The Contribution of the European Union', in: R. Wolfrum (ed.), Enforcing Environmental Standards: Economic Measures as Viable Means? (Springer, 1996), 413, at 437.
44. Japan Whaling Association v. American Cetacean Society (30 June 1986), 478 US 221.
45. J.K. Setear, 'Can Legalization Last? Whaling and the Durability of National (Executive) Discretion', 44:3 Virginia Journal of International Law (2004), 711, at 753.
46. P.H. Sand, 'Japan's "Research Whaling" in the Antarctic Southern Ocean and the North Pacific Ocean in the Face of the Endangered Species Convention (CITES)', 17:1 Review of European Community and International Environmental Law (2008), 56, at 68.
47. U. Beyerlin and T. Marauhn, Rechtsetzung und Rechtsdurchsetzung im Umweltvölkerrecht nach der Rio-Konferenz 1992 (Erich Schmidt Verlag, 1997), at 79
48. L. Boisson de Chazournes, 'The Use of Unilateral Trade Measures to Protect the Environment', in: A. Kiss et al. (eds.), Economic Globalization and Compliance with International Law (Kluwer Law International, 2003), 181.
49. C. Payne, 'Introductory Note', 46 International Legal Materials (2007), 1174.
50. R. Reeve, 'Enhancing the International Regime for Protecting Endangered Species: The Example of CITES', 63:2 Heidelberg Journal of International Law (2003), 333.
51. M. Fitzmaurice, 'Environmental Compliance Control', in: R. Wolfrum, n. 6 above, Vol. 3, 541, at 554-555.
52. P.H. Sand, 'Sanctions in Case of Non-compliance and State Responsibility: Pacta Sunt Servanda-Or Else?', in: D. Zaelke et al. (eds.), Making Law Work: Environmental Compliance and Sustainable Development, Vol. 1 (Cameroon, May 2005), 259
53. A. Goyal, The WTO and International Environmental Law: Towards Conciliation (Oxford University Press, 2006), at 84-85
54. P.H. Sand, 'Commodity or Taboo? International Regulation of Trade in Endangered Species', 6 Green Globe Yearbook of International Cooperation on Environment and Development (1997), 19, at 22.
55. R. Wolfrum, 'Means of Ensuring Compliance with and Enforcement of International Environmental Law', 272 Hague Academy of International Law: Collected Courses (1998), 9, at 50
56. S. Suresh, 'CITES: Rhetoric and Tiptoeing around Elephant Poaching', Environmental Investigation Agency Blog (15 March 2013), found at: .
57. J. Brunnée, 'Reweaving the Fabric of International Law? Patterns of Consent in Environmental Framework Agreements', in: R. Wolfrum and V. Röben (eds.), Developments of International Law in Treatymaking (Springer, 2005), 101, at 115.
58. J. Sommer, 'Environmental Law-making by International Organizations', 56:3 Heidelberg Journal of International Law (1996), 628, at 632
59. R.R. Churchill and G. Ulfstein, 'Autonomous Institutional Arrangements in Multilateral Environmental Agreements: A Littlenoticed Phenomenon in International Law', 94:4 American Journal of International Law (2000), 623, at 658
60. G. Ulfstein, 'Treaty Bodies', in: D. Bodansky et al. (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of International Environmental Law (Oxford University Press, 2007), 877, at 886.
61. M. Chemillier-Gendreau, 'La Création de "Normes" par les Institutions des Conventions', in: J.M. Lavieille (ed.), Conventions de Protection de l'Environnement: Secrétariats, Conférences des Parties, Comités d'Experts (Presses Universitaires de Limoges, 1999), 361
62. J. Brunnée, 'COPing with Consent: Law-making Under Multilateral Environmental Agreements', 15:1 Leiden Journal of International Law (2002), 1
63. E. Hey, 'Sustainable Development, Normative Development and the Legitimacy of Decision-making', 34 Netherlands Yearbook of International Law (2003), 3
64. T. Gehring, 'Treaty-making and Treaty Evolution', in: D. Bodansky et al., n. 50 above, 467, at 491
65. L.K. Camenzuli, The Development of International Law at the Multilateral Environmental Agreements' Conference of the Parties and Its Validity (IUCN World Commission on Environmental Law, 2007
66. A. Wiersema, 'The New International Lawmakers? Conferences of the Parties to Multilateral Environmental Agreements', 31:1 Michigan Journal of International Law (2009), 231
67. O. Kraft, La Réception des Conférences des Parties dans l'Ordre Juridique International (Master thesis, University of Paris I, 2010
68. P.H. Sand, 'Le Role des "Conférences des Parties" aux Conventions Environnementales', in: Y. Kerbrat et al. (eds.), Le Droit International face aux Enjeux Environnementaux (Pedone, 2010), 101.
69. P.M. Dupuy, Droit International Public, 9th edn (Dalloz, 2008), at 387
70. V. Röben, 'The Enforcement Authority of International Institutions', in: A. von Bogdandy et al. (eds.), The Exercise of Public Authority by International Institutions: Advancing International Institutional Law (Springer, 2010), 819, at 829.
71. Current CITES trade suspensions can be found at: (updated 17 May 2013
72. G. Bastid-Burdeau, 'Quelques Remarques sur la Notion de Droit Dérivé en Droit International', in: N. Angelet et al. (eds.), Droit du Pouvoir, Pouvoir du Droit: Mélanges Offerts à Jean Salmon (Bruylant, 2007), 161.
73. R. Parry-Jones and A. Knapp (eds.), Enforcement of Wildlife Trade Controls in EU Member States: Country Profiles (UK Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, 2006
74. T. Garstecki, Implementation of Article 16, Council Regulation (EC) No. 338/97, in the 25 Member States of the European Union (TRAFFIC Europe, 2006), at 7
75. J.H. Jans and H.H.B. Vedder, European Environmental Law, 4th edn (Europa, 2012), at 518.
76. Judge-Rapporteur P.J.G. Kapteyn, European Commission v. French Republic, n. 64 above, Report for the Hearing, at 4344 and 4346.
77. European Commission v. French Republic, n. 64 above, at 4356. See the comments by L. Krämer, European Environmental Law Casebook (Sweet & Maxwell, 1993), at 207-215.
78. C. Fuchs, 'Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species: Conservation Efforts Undermine the Legality Principle', in: A. von Bogdandy et al., n. 52 above, 475.
79. A. Nollkaemper, 'Compliance Control in International Environmental Law: Traversing the Limits of the National Legal Order', 13 Yearbook of International Environmental Law (2002), 165, at 170.
80. G.G. Steward, 'Enforcement Problems in the Endangered Species Convention: Reservations Regarding the Reservations Clause', 14:3 Cornell International Law Journal (1981), 424.
81. J. Cameron and J. Robinson, 'The Uses of Trade Provisions in International Environmental Agreements and Their Compatibility with the GATT', 2 Yearbook of International Environmental Law (1991), 3, at 8-12
82. T.M. Swanson, 'The Evolving Trade Mechanism in CITES', 1:1 Review of European Community and International Environmental Law (1992), 57
83. C. Crawford, 'Conflicts between the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species and the GATT in Light of Actions to Halt the Rhinoceros and Tiger Trade', 7:2 Georgetown International Environmental Law Review (1995), 555
84. E.U. Petersmann, International and European Trade and Environmental Law after the Uruguay Round (Kluwer Academic, 1995
85. G. Marceau, 'Conflicts of Norms and Conflicts of Jurisdiction: The Relationship between the WTO Agreement and MEAs and Other Treaties', 35:6 Journal of World Trade (2001), 1081
86. D. Brack and K. Gray, Multilateral Environmental Agreements and the WTO (Royal Institute of International Affairs, 2003
87. C. Wold, 'The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora', in: R. Housman et al. (eds.), The Use of Trade Measures in Select Multilateral Environmental Agreements (UNEP, 1995), at 165
88. R. Tarasofsky, 'Ensuring Compatibility between Multilateral Environmental Agreements and GATT/WTO', 7 Yearbook of International Environmental Law (1996), 52, at 52.
89. U. Beyerlin and T. Marauhn, International Environmental Law (Hart, 2011), at 434
90. R. Reeve, 'The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES)', in: G. Ulfstein et al. (eds.), Making Treaties Work: Human Rights, Environment and Arms Control (Cambridge University Press, 2007), 134, at 160.
91. M. Yeater and J. Vasquez, 'Demystifying the Relationship between CITES and the WTO', 10:3 Review of European Community and International Environmental Law (2001), 271
92. C. Wold et al. (eds.), Trade and the Environment: Law and Policy, 2nd edn (Carolina Academic Press, 2011), at 646-647
93. CITES Press Release, 'CITES Addresses WTO Committee on Trade and Environment' (6 June 2013), found at: .
94. G. Nolte, 'Subsequent Agreements and Subsequent Practice of States Outside of Judicial or Quasi-judicial Proceedings: Third Report for the ILC Study Group on Treaties Over Time', in: Treaties and Subsequent Practice (Oxford University Press, 2013), 307, at 378.
95. I.M. Sinclair, The Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, 2nd edn (Manchester University Press, 1984), at 188-190.
96. J. Klabbers, 'Compliance Procedures', in: D. Bodansky et al., n. 50 above, 995, at 1002
97. S. Rosenne, Breach of Treaty (Grotius, 1985), at 35-44 (doubting the adequacy of the article to enforce environmental treaties
98. B. Simma, 'Reflections on Article 60 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties and Its Background in General International Law', 20:1 Österreichische Zeitschrift für öffentliches Recht und Völkerrecht (1970), 5
99. J. Crawford, The International Law Commission's Articles on State Responsibility: Introduction, Text and Commentaries (Cambridge University Press, 2002
100. O. Schachter, 'International Law in Theory and Practice' (Martinus Nijhoff, 1985), at 185-186
101. L. Damrosch, 'Enforcing International Law through Non-forcible Measures', 269 Hague Academy of International Law: Collected Courses (1997), 9, at 54
102. T. Giegerich, 'Retorsion', in: R. Wolfrum, n. 6 above, Vol. 8, 976, at 976.
103. K. Sachariew, 'State Responsibility for Multilateral Treaty Violations: Identifying the "Injured State" and Its Legal Status', 35:3 Netherlands International Law Review (1988), 273, at 282-285
104. A.E. Boyle, 'State Responsibility for Breach of Obligations to Protect the Global Environment', in: W.E. Butler (ed.), Control Over Compliance with International Law (Nijhoff, 1991), 69, at 73.
105. J. Klabbers, International Law (Cambridge University Press, 2013), at 170.
106. E. Zoller, Peacetime Unilateral Remedies: An Analysis of Countermeasures (Transnational, 1984), at 5.
107. E. Klein, 'Gegenmassnahmen' in: W. Fiedler et al. (eds.), Gegenmassnahmen/Counter Measures (C.F. Müller, 1998), 39, at 44 and 69.
108. M. Koskenniemi, 'Solidarity Measures: State Responsibility as a New International Order?', 72 British Yearbook of International Law (2001), 337, at 339.
109. D.N. Hutchinson, 'Solidarity and Breaches of Multilateral Treaties', 59 British Yearbook of International Law (1988), 151, at 164
110. A. Nissel, 'The ILC Articles on State Responsibility: Between Self-help and Solidarity', 38:1-2 New York University Journal of International Law and Politics (2006), 355.
111. T. Oppermann, 'Discussion', in: W. Fiedler et al., n. 97 above, at 120
112. E. Cannizaro, 'The Role of Proportionality in the Law of International Countermeasures', 12:5 European Journal of International Law (2001), 890.
113. Y. Iwasawa and N. Iwatsuki, 'Procedural Conditions', in: J. Crawford et al., n. 15 above, 1149, at 1151-1152.
114. L. Boisson de Chazournes, 'Other Non-derogable Obligations', in: J. Crawford et al., n. 15 above, 1205.
115. L. Boisson de Chazournes, 'Gouvernance et Régulation au 21ème Siècle: Quelques Propos Iconoclastes', in: L. Boisson de Chazournes and R. Mehdi (eds.), Une Société Internationale en Mutation: Quels Acteurs pour une Nouvelle Gouvernance? (Bruylant, 2005), 19, at 40;
116. G. Handl, 'International "Lawmaking" by Conferences of the Parties and Other Politically Mandated Bodies', in: R. Wolfrum and V. Röben, n. 49 above, 127, at 140.
117. T.M. Franck, The Power of Legitimacy Among Nations (Oxford University Press, 1990), who relates legitimacy to concepts of fairness.
118. T.M. Franck, Fairness in International Law and Institutions (Clarendon, 1999), at 7 and 22-26.
119. D. Bodansky, 'Legitimacy', in: D. Bodansky et al., n. 50 above, 704, at 721.
120. D. Bodansky, 'The Legitimacy of International Governance: A Coming Challenge for International Environmental Law', 93:3 American Journal of International Law (1999), 596, at 600-603.
121. P.H. Sand, 'Institution-building to Assist Compliance with International Environmental Law: Perspectives', 56:3 Heidelberg Journal of International Law (1996), 774, at 775
122. J. Brunnée, 'Enforcement Mechanisms in International Law and International Environmental Law', 5:1 Environmental Law Network International Review (2005), 3, at 11
123. P.H. Sand, Transnational Environmental Law: Lessons in Global Change (Kluwer Law International, 1999), at 239
124. L. Gündling and D. Navid, 'Compliance Assistance in International Environmental Law: Capacity-building through Financial and Technology Transfer', 56:3 Heidelberg Journal of International Law (1996), 796.
125. E. Fouéré, 'Emerging Trends in International Environmental Agreements', in: J.E. Carroll (ed.), International Environmental Diplomacy: The Management and Resolution of Transfrontier Environmental Problems (Cambridge University Press, 1988), 29, at 38.
126. P. Birnie, 'The Case of the Convention on Trade in Endangered Species', in: R. Wolfrum, n. 29 above, 233, at 258-259.
127. K. Ishibashi, 'The Effectiveness of Mechanisms for the Monitoring or Compliance Control of Multilateral Environmental Agreements: A Critical Analysis of CITES Implementation' [in Japanese], 15:2 Kagawa Hōgaku (1995), 53
128. M. Taguchi, International Regimes and Cooperation: An Analysis of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora and Japan (Masters thesis, University of Oregon, 1996
129. J.V. Feinerman and K. Fujikura, 'Japan: Consensus-based Compliance', in: E. Brown Weiss and H.K. Jacobson (eds.), Engaging Countries: Strengthening Compliance with International Environmental Accords (MIT Press, 2000), 253, at 269-273
130. P.H. Sand, ' "Scientific Whaling": Whither Sanctions for Noncompliance with International Law?', 19 Finnish Yearbook of International Law (2008), 93, at 112-113.
131. International Whaling Commission's statistics of 'special permit catches since 1985' (2013), found at: .
132. ICR Media Release, '2013 IWC/Japan Joint Cetacean Sighting Survey Cruise in the North Pacific' (12 July 2013), found at:
133. ICR Media Release, '2013 JARPN-II Offshore Cruise Research Vessels Depart' (25 July 2013), found at: .
134. M. Koyano, 'Whaling Issues: International Law and Japan', 63:5 Hokkaido Law Review (2013) 201, at 239.
135. T. Kasuya, 'Japanese Whaling and Other Cetacean Fisheries', 14:1 Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2007), 39, at 46
136. A. Ishihara and J. Yoshi, A Survey of the Commercial Trade in Whale Meat Products in Japan (TRAFFIC Japan, 2000), at 9.
137. C.S. Baker et al., 'Genetic Evidence of Illegal Trade in Protected Whales Links Japan with the US and South Korea', 6:5 Royal Society: Biology Letters (2010), 647.
138. NOAA v. Typhoon Restaurant, Yamamoto and Ueda, Press Release No. 13-018, US Attorney's Office, Central District of California (1 February 2013
139. K. Cook et al. (eds.), The Taking of Sei and Humpback Whales by Japan: Legal Issues Arising Under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (International Fund for Animal Welfare, 2007
140. D. Goodman, 'Japan's Research Whaling Is Not Unlawful and Does Not Violate CITES Trade Rules', 13:2 Journal of International Wildlife Law and Policy (2010), 176, at 181-182.
141. V. Papastavrou and P. Ramage, 'Commercial Whaling by Another Name? The Illegality of Japan's Scientific Whaling: Response to Dan Goodman', 13:2 Journal of International Wildlife Law and Policy (2010), 183, at 185
142. 'La legge si applica ai nemici-ma si interpreta per gli amici'; aphorism attributed to Giovanni Giolitti (1842-1928), former Italian Prime Minister.