Cooperate without looking: Why we care what people think and not just what they do

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

Volumn 112, Issue 6, 2015, Pages 1727-1732

  Hoffman, Moshe ^a   Yoeli, Erez ^a   Nowak, Martin A ^a,b  

^a HARVARD UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b HARVARD UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Cooperation; Emotion; Evolution; Game theory; Motive

Indexed keywords

ALTRUISM; ARTICLE; COOPERATION; EMOTION; EVOLUTION; FRIEND; FRIENDSHIP; GAME; HUMAN; HUMAN RELATION; LEARNING; MORALITY; MOTIVATION; POLICY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROBABILITY; PUBLIC OPINION; PUNISHMENT; SOCIAL INTERACTION; TABOO; THEORETICAL MODEL; THINKING; TORTURE; COST BENEFIT ANALYSIS; PSYCHOLOGICAL MODEL; PSYCHOLOGY; TRUST;

ALTRUISM; BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION; COOPERATIVE BEHAVIOR; COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS; GAME THEORY; HUMANS; MODELS, PSYCHOLOGICAL; MOTIVATION; TRUST;

EID: 84922628400     PISSN: 00278424     EISSN: 10916490     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1417904112     Document Type: Article

References (56)

1. Trivers RL (1971) The evolution of reciprocal altruism. Q Rev Biol 46(1):35-57.
2. Friedman JW (1971) A non-cooperative equilibrium for supergames. Rev Econ Stud 38(1):1-12.
3. Axelrod RM (1984) The Evolution of Cooperation (Basic Books, New York).
4. Fudenberg D, Maskin E (1986) The folk theorem in repeated games with discounting or with incomplete information. Econometrica 54(3):533-554.
5. Fudenberg D, Maskin E (1990) Evolution and cooperation in noisy repeated games. Am Econ Rev 80(2):274-279.
6. Binmore KG, Samuelson L (1992) Evolutionary stability in repeated games played by finite automata. J Econ Theory 57:278-305.
7. Nowak MA, Sigmund K (1992) Tit for tat in heterogeneous populations. Nature 355: 250-253.
8. Nowak M, Sigmund K (1993) A strategy of win-stay, lose-shift that outperforms tit-for- tat in the Prisoner's Dilemma game. Nature 364(6432):56-58.
9. Aumann RJ, Shapley LS (1994) Long-Term Competition in Game-Theoretic Analysis (Springer, Berlin).
10. Nowak MA, Sigmund K (1998) Evolution of indirect reciprocity by image scoring. Nature 393(6685):573-577.
11. Nowak MA, Sigmund K (2005) Evolution of indirect reciprocity. Nature 437(7063): 1291-1298.
12. Nowak MA (2006) Five rules for the evolution of cooperation. Science 314(5805): 1560-1563.
13. Ohtsuki H, Iwasa Y (2006) The leading eight: Social norms that can maintain cooperation by indirect reciprocity. J Theor Biol 239(4):435-444.
14. Sigmund K (2010) The Calculus of Selfishness (Princeton Univ Press, Princeton).
15. Osborne MJ (2003) An Introduction to Game Theory (Oxford Univ Press, New York).
16. Hofbauer J, Sigmund K (1998) Evolutionary Games and Population Dynamics (Cambridge Univ Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom).
17. Weibull JW (1997) Evolutionary Game Theory (MIT Press, Cambridge, MA).
18. Nowak MA (2006) Evolutionary Dynamics: Exploring the Equations of Life (Harvard Univ Press, Cambridge, MA).
19. Fudenberg DA (1998) The Theory of Learning in Games (MIT Press, Cambridge, MA), Vol 2.
20. Batson CD (2014) The Altruism Question: Toward a Social-Psychological Answer (Psychology Press, New York).
21. Andreoni J (1990) Impure altruism and donations to public goods: A theory of warmglow giving. Econ J (London) 100(401):464-477.
22. Dana J, Cain DM, Dawes RM (2006) What you don't know won't hurt me: Costly (but quiet) exit in dictator games. Organ Behav Hum Decis Process 100:193-201.
23. DellaVigna S, List JA, Malmendier U (2012) Testing for altruism and social pressure in charitable giving. Q J Econ 127(1):1-56.
24. Cain DM, Dana J, Newman GE (2014) Giving versus giving in. Acad Manag Ann 8(1): 505-533.
25. Rand DG, Greene JD, Nowak MA (2012) Spontaneous giving and calculated greed. Nature 489(7416):427-430.
26. Nielsen UH, Tyran JR, Wengström E (2014) Second thoughts on free riding. Econ Lett 122(2):136-139.
27. Rubinstein A (2014) A typology of players: Between instinctive and contemplative. Available at www.arielrubinstein.tau.ac.il/papers/Typology.pdf. Accessed January 15, 2015.
28. Rand DG, Epstein ZG (2014) Risking your life without a second thought: Intuitive decision-making and extreme altruism. Available at ssrn.com/abstract=2424036.Accessed January 15, 2015.
29. Simon HA (1955) A behavioral model of rational choice. Q J Econ 69(1):99-118.
30. Tversky A, Kahneman D (1974) Judgment under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases. Science 185(4157):1124-1131.
31. Kahneman D, Slovic P, Tversky A (1982) Judgment Under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases (Cambridge Univ Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom).
32. Rand D, et al. (2013) Intuitive cooperation and the social heuristics hypothesis: Evidence from 15 time constraint studies. Available at ssrn.com/abstract=2222683. Accessed January 15, 2015.
33. Rand DG, et al. (2014) Social heuristics shape intuitive cooperation. Nat Commun 5(2014):3677.
34. Tursky B, Shapiro D, Crider A, Kahneman D (1969) Pupillary, heart rate, and skin resistance changes during a mental task. J Exp Psychol 79(1):164-167.
35. Pinker S (1997) How the Mind Works (Norton, New York).
36. Critcher CR, Inbar Y, Pizarro DA (2013) How quick decisions illuminate moral character. Soc Psychol Personal Sci 4(3):308-315.
37. Fehr E, Fischbacher U (2003) The nature of human altruism. Nature 425(6960):785-791.
38. Delton AW, Krasnow MM, Cosmides L, Tooby J (2011) Evolution of direct reciprocity under uncertainty can explain human generosity in one-shot encounters. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 108(32):13335-13340.
39. Lin H, Ong D (2011) Deserving Altruism: Type Preferences in the Laboratory. Available at ices.gmu.edu/wp-content/uploads/2012/01/Deserving-Altruism-Type-Preferences-in-the- Laboratory-by-Ong-and-Lin.pdf. Accessed January 12, 2015.
40. Boster FJ, Rodriguez JI, Cruz MG, Marshall L (1995) The relative effectiveness of a direct request message and a pregiving message on friends and strangers. Communic Res 22(4):475-484.
41. Mills J, Clark MS (1994) Communal and exchange relationships: Controversies and research. Theoretical Frameworks for Personal Relationships, eds Erber R, Gilmour R (Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., Hillsdale, NJ).
42. Shackelford TK, Buss DM (1996) Betrayal in mateships, friendships, and coalitions. Pers Soc Psychol Bull 22(11):1151-1164.
43. Silk JB (2003) Cooperation without counting: The puzzle of friendship. Genetic and Cultural Evolution of Cooperation, ed Hammerstein P (MIT Press, Cambridge, MA), pp 37-54.
44. Pinker S, Nowak MA, Lee JJ (2008) The logic of indirect speech. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 105(3):833-838.
45. Fiske AP (1992) The four elementary forms of sociality: Framework for a unified theory of social relations. Psychol Rev 99(4):689-723.
46. Kant I (2002) Groundwork for the Metaphysics of Morals, ed WoodAW (Yale Univ Press, New Haven, CT).
47. Tetlock PE (2003) Thinking the unthinkable: Sacred values and taboo cognitions. Trends Cogn Sci 7(7):320-324.
48. Fershtman C, Gneezy U, Hoffman M (2011) Taboos and identity: Considering the unthinkable. Am Econ J Microecon 3(2):139-164.
49. Frank RH (1988) Passions Within Reason: The Strategic Role of the Emotions (WW Norton & Co., New York).
50. Schelling TC (1980) The Strategy of Conflict (Harvard Univ Press, Cambridge, MA).
51. Hirshleifer J (1987) On the Emotions as Guarantors of Threats and Promises (MIT Press, Cambridge, MA).
52. Winters E (2014) Feeling Smart: Why Our Emotions Are More Rational Than We Think (Public Affairs, New York).
53. Ekman P, Sorenson ER, Friesen WV (1969) Pan-cultural elements in facial displays of emotion. Science 164(3875):86-88.
54. Ekman P, Davidson RJ, Friesen WV (1990) The Duchenne smile: Emotional expression and brain physiology. II. J Pers Soc Psychol 58(2):342-353.
55. Reed LI, Zeglen KN, Schmidt KL (2012) Facial expressions as honest signals of cooperative intent in a one-shot anonymous prisoner's dilemma game. Evol Hum Behav 33(3):200-209.
56. Reed LI, DeScioli P, Pinker SA (2014) The commitment function of angry facial expressions. Psychol Sci 25(8):1511-1517.