Some insights on grassland health assessment based on remote sensing

Sensors (Switzerland)

Volumn 15, Issue 2, 2015, Pages 3070-3089

  Xu, Dandan ^a   Guo, Xulin ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF SASKATCHEWAN   (Canada)

Author keywords

Ecosystem; Grassland health assessment; Grassland monitoring; Remote sensing

Indexed keywords

AGRICULTURE; CLIMATE CHANGE; DISASTERS; HEALTH; MONITORING; REMOTE SENSING; VEGETATION;

ECOLOGICAL AND ECONOMIC; GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEMS; HEALTH ASSESSMENTS; HEALTH MONITORING METHOD; HEALTH MONITORING SYSTEM; PRODUCTIVITY EVALUATION; REMOTE SENSING TECHNIQUES; TEMPORAL INFORMATION;

ECOSYSTEMS;

EID: 84922206291     PISSN: 14248220     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3390/s150203070     Document Type: Review

References (128)

1. White, R.P.; Murray, S.; Rohweder, M. Grassland Ecosystems; World Resources Institute: Washington, DC, USA, 2000; p. 81.
2. Atjay, G.L.; Ketner, P.; Duvigneaud, P. Terrestrial Primary Production and Phytomass. In The Global Carbon Cycle; Bolin, B., Degens, E., Kempe, S., Ketner, P., Eds.; John Wiley & Sons: Chichester, UK, 1979; pp. 129–181.
3. Rapport, D.J. Ecosystem health as an ecotone. Ecosyst. Health1998, 4, 1–2.
4. Wicklum, D.; Davies, R.W. Ecosystem health and integrity? Can. J. Bot.1995, 73, 997–1000.
5. Begon, M.; Townsend, C.R.; Harper, J.L. Ecology: From Individuals to Ecosystems; Blackwell Publisher: Malden, MA, USA 2009.
6. Costanza, R.; Norton, B.G.; Haskell, B.D. Ecosystem Health: New Goals for Environmental Management; Island Press: Washignton, DC, USA, 1992.
7. Costanza, R.; Mageau, M. What is a healthy ecosystem? Aquat. Ecol.1999, 33, 105–115.
8. Boesch, D.F. Measuring the health of the chesapeake bay: Toward integration and prediction. Environ. Res. 2000, 82, 134–142.
9. Rapport, D.J.; Costanza, R.; McMichael, A.J. Assessing ecosystem health. Trends Ecol. Evol.1998, 13, 397–402.
10. Holling, C.S.; Gunderson, L.H. Resilience and Adaptive Cycles. In Panarchy: Understanding Transformations in Human and Natural Systems; Island Press: Washington, DC, USA, 2002; pp. 25–62.
11. Patil, G.P.; Brooks, R.P.; Myers, W.L.; Rapport, D.J.; Taillie, C. Ecosystem health and its measurement at landscape scale: Toward the next generation of quantitative assessments. Ecosyst. Health 2001, 7, 307–316.
12. Milton, S.J.; Dean, W.R.J.; Ellis, R.P. Rangeland health assessment: A practical guide for ranchers in arid karoo shrublands. J. Arid Environ.1998, 39, 253–265.
13. Clements, C.D.; Young, J.A. A viewpoint: Rangeland health and mule deer habitat. J. Range Manag.1997, 50, 129–138.
14. Krogh, S.N.; Zeisset, M.S.; Jackson, E.; Whitford, W.G. Presence/absence of a keystone species as an indicator of rangeland health. J. Arid Environ.2002, 50, 513–519.
15. Rosentreter, R.; Eldridge, D.J. Monitoring rangeland health: Using a biological soil crust stability index. In Seed and Soil Dynamics in Shrubland Ecosystems; Hild, A.L., Shaw, N.L., Meyer, S.E., Booth, D.T., McArthur, E.D., Eds.; Rocky Mountain Research Station: Fort Collins, CO, USA, 2004; Volume 31, pp. 74–76.
16. 16. Meurisse, R.T. Soil Quality and Health-Some Applications to Ecosystem Health and Sustainability; General Technical Report Pacific Northwest Research Station, (PNW-GTR-461); USDA Forest Service: Portland, OR, USA, 1999; pp. 21–32.
17. De Soyza, A.G.; van Zee, J.W.; Whitford, W.G.; Neale, A.; Tallent-Hallsel, N.; Herrick, J.E.; Havstad, K.M. Indicators of great basin rangeland health. J. Arid Environ.2000, 45, 289–304.
18. Breckenridge, R.P.; Kepner, W.G.; Mouat, D.A. A process for selecting indicators for monitoring conditions of rangeland health. Environ. Monit. Assess.1995, 36, 45–60.
19. Whitford, W.G.; de Soyza, A.G.; van Zee, J.W.; Herrick, J.E.; Havstad, K.M. Vegetation, soil, and animal indicators of rangeland health. Environ. Monit. Assess.1998, 51, 179–200.
20. Ludwig, J.A.; Bastin, G.N.; Chewings, V.H.; Eager, R.W.; Liedloff, A.C. Leakiness: A new index for monitoring the health of arid and semiarid landscapes using remotely sensed vegetation cover and elevation data. Ecol. Indic.2007, 7, 442–454.
21. Adams, B.W.; Ehlert, G.; Stone, C.; Lawrence, D.; Alexander, M.; Willoughby, M.; Hincz, C.; Moisey, D.; Burkinshaw, A.; Carlson, J. et al. Rangeland Health Assessment for Grassland, Forest and Tame Pasture; Alberta Sustainable Resource Development: Edmonton, AB, Canada, 2005; p. 128.
22. Forouzeh, M.R.; Sharafatmandrad, M. The effect of water spreading system on the functionality of rangeland ecosystems. J. Arid Land2012, 4, 292–299.
23. Gibson, D. Grasses and Grassland Ecology; University of Oxford: Oxford, UK, 2009; p. 320.
24. Duniway, M.C.; Herrick, J.E.; Pyke, D.A.; Toledo, D.P. Assessing transportation infrastructure impacts on rangelands: Test of a standard rangeland assessment protocol. Rangel. Ecol. Manag.2010, 63, 524–536.
25. Pyke, D.A.; Herrick, J.E.; Shaver, P.; Pellant, M. Rangeland health attributes and indicators for qualitative assessment. J. Range Manag.2002, 55, 584–597.
26. Miller, M.E. Broad-scale assessment of rangeland health, grand staircase-escalante national monument, USA. Rangel. Ecol. Manag. 2008, 61, 249–262.
27. Pellant, M.L.; Shaver, P.; Pyke, D.A.; Herrick, J.E. Interpreting Indicators of Rangeland Health; United States Department of the Interior: Denver, CO, USA, 2000.
28. Kwok, A.B.C.; Eldridge, D.J.; Oliver, I. Do landscape health indices reflect arthropod biodiversity status in the eucalypt woodlands of eastern australia? Aust. Ecol.2011, 36, 800–813.
29. Ludwig, J.A.; Bastin, G.N.; Eager, R.W.; Karfs, R.; Ketner, P.; Pearce, G. Monitoring australian rangeland sites using landscape function indicators and ground- and remote-based techniques. Environ. Monit. Assess.2000, 64, 167–178.
30. Tongway, D.J.; Hindley, N.L. Landscape Function Analysis Manual: Procedures for monitoring and Assessing Landscapes with Special Reference to Minesites and Rangelands; CSIRO Sustainable Ecosystems: Canberra, Australia, 2004; p. 82.
31. Rai, H.; Upreti, D.K.; Gupta, R.K. Diversity and distribution of terricolous lichens as indicator of habitat heterogeneity and grazing induced trampling in a temperate-alpine shrub and meadow. Biodivers. Conserv.2012, 21, 97–113.
32. Machange, R.W.; Jenkins, A.R.; Navarro, R.A. Eagles as indicators of ecosystem health: Is the distribution of martial eagle nests in the karoo, south africa, influenced by variations in land-use and rangeland quality? J. Arid Environ.2005, 63, 223–243.
33. Belaoussoff, S.; Kevan, P.G. Toward an ecological approach for the assessment of ecosystem health. Ecosyst. Health1998, 4, 4–8.
34. Whitford, W.G.; Rapport, D.J.; deSoyza, A.G. Using resistance and resilience measurements for ‘fitness’ tests in ecosystem health. J. Environ. Manag.1999, 57, 21–29.
35. Zhang, J.J.; Gurkan, Z.; Jorgensen, S.E. Application of eco-exergy for assessment of ecosystem health and development of structurally dynamic models. Ecol. Model.2010, 221, 693–702.
36. Jensen, M.E.; Redmond, R.L.; Dibenedetto, J.P.; Bourgeron, P.S.; Goodman, I.A. Application of ecological classification and predictive vegetation modeling to broad-level assessments of ecosystem health. Environ. Monit. Assess.2000, 64, 197–212.
37. Eve, M.D.; Whitford, W.G.; Havstadt, K.M. Applying satellite imagery to triage assessment of ecosystem health. Environ. Monit. Assess.1999, 54, 205–227.
38. Costanza, R.; Norton, B.G.; Haskell, B.D. Toward an Operational Definition of Ecosystem Health; Island Press: Washington, DC, USA, 1992.
39. Lu, F.; Li, Z.Z. A model of ecosystem health and its application. Ecol. Model.2003, 170, 55–59.
40. Patil, G.P.; Myers, W.L. Environmental and ecological health assessment of landscapes and watersheds with remote sensing data. Ecosyst. Health1999, 5, 221–224.
41. Rapport, D.J. Gaining respectability: Development of quantitative methods in ecosystem health. Ecosyst. Health 1999, 5, 1–2.
42. Paruelo, J.M.; Epstein, H.E.; Lauenroth, W.K.; Burke, I.C. Anpp estimates from ndvi for the central grassland region of the united states. Ecology1997, 78, 953–958.
43. Cramer, W.; Kicklighter, D.; Bondeau, A.; Iii, B.M.; Churkina, G.; Nemry, B.; Ruimy, A.; Schloss, A. Comparing global models of terrestrial net primary productivity (npp): Overview and key results. Glob. Chang. Biol.1999, 5, 1–15.
44. Running, S.W. Estimating Terrestrial Primary Productivity by Combining Remote Sensing and Ecosystem Simulation. In Remote Sensing of Biosphere Functioning; Hobbs, R.J.; Mooney, H.A., Eds.; Springer: New York, NY, USA, 1990; pp. 65–86.
45. Chen, Z.H.; Wang, J. Establishing a ecosystem health model in arid and semi-arid area by using remote sensing data. In Proceedings of 2005 IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium, Seoul, Korea, 25–29 July 2005; pp. 2953–2956.
46. Suo, A.N.; Xiong, Y.C.; Wang, T.M.; Yue, D.X.; Ge, J.P. Ecosystem health assessment of the jinghe river watershed on the huangtu plateau. Ecohealth2008, 5, 127–136.
47. Chen, Z.H.; Yin, Q.; Li, L.; Xu, H. Ecosystem health assessment by using remote aensing derived data: A case study of terrestrial region along the coast in Zhejiang province. In Proceedings of the 2010 IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium, Honolulu, HI, USA, 25–30 July 2010; pp. 4526–4529.
48. Li, Y.Y.; Dong, S.K.; Wen, L.; Wang, X.X.; Wu, Y. Three-dimensional framework of vigor, organization, and resilience (vor) for assessing rangeland health: A case study from the alpine meadow of the qinghai-tibetan plateau, China. Ecohealth 2013, 10, 423–433.
49. Ludwig, J.A.; Coughenour, M.B.; Liedloff, A.C.; Dyer, R. Modelling the resilience of australian savanna systems to grazing impacts. Environ. Int.2001, 27, 167–172.
50. Jensen, J.R. Remote Sensing of the Environment: An Earth Resource Perspective; Prentice Hall: Upper Saddle River, NJ, USA, 2009.
51. Cohen, W.B.; Goward, S.N. Landsat’s role in ecological applications of remote sensing. Bioscience2004, 54, 535–545.
52. Prince, S.; Tucker, C. Satellite remote sensing of rangelands in botswana ii. Noaa avhrr and herbaceous vegetation. Int. J. Remote Sens.1986, 7, 1555–1570.
53. Tucker, C.; Vanpraet, C.L.; Sharman, M.; van Ittersum, G. Satellite remote sensing of total herbaceous biomass production in the senegalese sahel: 1980–1984. Remote Sens. Environ.1985, 17, 233–249.
54. Laycock, W.A. Lessons from the past: Have we learned from our mistakes? Arid Land Res. Manag. 2003, 17, 359–367.
55. Carlier, L.; Rotar, I.; Vlahova, M.; Vidican, R. Importance and functions of grasslands. Not. Bot. Horti Agrobot.2009, 37, 25–30.
56. Brinkmann, K.; Dickhoefer, U.; Schlecht, E.; Buerkert, A. Quantification of aboveground rangeland productivity and anthropogenic degradation on the arabian peninsula using landsat imagery and field inventory data. Remote Sens. Environ.2011, 115, 465–474.
57. Wu, C.Y. Use of a vegetation index model to estimate gross primary production in open grassland. J. Appl. Remote Sens. 2012, 6, 063532.
58. Gu, Y.; Wylie, B.K.; Bliss, N.B. Mapping grassland productivity with 250-m emodis ndvi and ssurgo database over the greater platte river basin, USA. Ecol. Indic. 2013, 24, 31–36.
59. Prince, S. Satellite remote sensing of primary production: Comparison of results for sahelian grasslands 1981–1988. Int. J. Remote Sens. 1991, 12, 1301–1311.
60. Seaquist, J.; Olsson, L.; Ardö, J. A remote sensing-based primary production model for grassland biomes. Ecol. Model.2003, 169, 131–155.
61. Sternberg, T.; Tsolmon, R.; Middleton, N.; Thomas, D. Tracking desertification on the mongolian steppe through ndvi and field-survey data. Int. J. Digit. Earth2011, 4, 50–64.
62. Wang, G.J.; Fu, M.C.; Xiao, Q.P.; Wang, Z. Monitoring desertification around huolinguole using multi-temporal remotely sensed imagery. In Proceedings of the Sixth International Symposium on Digital Earth: Data Processing and Applications, Beijing, China, 9–12 September 2010; pp. 401–410.
63. Bastin, G.; Pickup, G.; Pearce, G. Utility of avhrr data for land degradation assessment: A case study. Int. J. Remote Sens.1995, 16, 651–672.
64. Pickup, G.; Chewings, V. A grazing gradient approach to land degradation assessment in arid areas from remotely-sensed data. Int. J. Remote Sens.1994, 15, 597–617.
65. Wen, Q.K.; Zhang, Z.X.; Liu, S.; Wang, X.; Wang, C. Classification of grassland types by modis time-series images in tibet, China. IEEE J.-STARS2010, 3, 404–409.
66. Cui, X.; Guo, Z.G.; Liang, T.G.; Shen, Y.Y.; Liu, X.Y.; Liu, Y. Classification management for grassland using modis data: A case study in the gannan region, China. Int. J. Remote Sens.2012, 33, 3156–3175.
67. Qin, Z.H.; Xu, B.; Xin, X.P.; Zhou, Q.B.; Zhang, H.O.; Li, J. Integration of remote sensing and gis technology to evaluate grassland ecosystem health in north China. In Proceedings of the IEEE 2004 International Geosciences and Remote Sensing Symposium, VI:4034-4037, Anchorage, AK, USA, 20–24 September 2004.
68. Huang, F.; Wang, P.; Zhang, J.J. Grasslands changes in the northern songnen plain, China during 1954–2000. Environ. Monit. Assess.2012, 184, 2161–2175.
69. Piwowar, J.M.; Peddle, D.R.; Sauchyn, D.J. Identifying ecological variability in vegetation dynamics through temporal mixture analysis. In Proceedings of the 2006 IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium, Denver, CO, USA, 31 July–4 August 2006; pp. 3766–3769.
70. Ouyang, W.; Hao, F.H.; Skidmore, A.K.; Groen, T.A.; Toxopeus, A.G.; Wang, T.J. Integration of multi-sensor data to assess grassland dynamics in a yellow river sub-watershed. Ecol. Indic.2012, 18, 163–170.
71. Li, Z.; Huffman, T.; McConkey, B.; Townley-Smith, L. Monitoring and modeling spatial and temporal patterns of grassland dynamics using time-series modis ndvi with climate and stocking data. Remote Sens. Environ.2013, 138, 232–244.
72. Hobbs, R.J. Remote sensing of spatial and temporal dynamics of vegetation. In Remote Sensing of Biosphere Functioning; Hobbs, R.J., Mooney, H.A., Eds.; Springer: New York, NY, USA, 1990; pp. 203–219.
73. Mirik, M.; Ansley, R.J. Comparison of ground-measured and image-classified mesquite (prosopis glandulosa) canopy cover. Rangel. Ecol. Manag.2012, 65, 85–95.
74. Dymond, J.; Stephens, P.; Newsome, P.; Wilde, R. Percentage vegetation cover of a degrading rangeland from spot. Int. J. Remote Sens.1992, 13, 1999–2007.
75. Paruelo, J.M.; Pineiro, G.; Baldi, G.; Baeza, S.; Lezama, F.; Altesor, A.; Oesterheld, M. Carbon stocks and fluxes in rangelands of the rio de la plata basin. Rangel. Ecol. Manag.2010, 63, 94–108.
76. Guo, X.L.; Black, S.C.; He, Y.H. Estimation of leaf CO2 exchange rates using a spot image. Int. J. Remote Sens.2011, 32, 353–366.
77. Propastin, P.A.; Kappas, M.W.; Herrmann, S.M.; Tucker, C.J. Modified light use efficiency model for assessment of carbon sequestration in grasslands of kazakhstan: Combining ground biomass data and remote-sensing. Int. J. Remote Sens.2012, 33, 1465–1487.
78. Gu, Y.X.; Howard, D.M.; Wylie, B.K.; Zhang, L. Mapping carbon flux uncertainty and selecting optimal locations for future flux towers in the great plains. Landsc. Ecol.2012, 27, 319–326.
79. Naito, A.T.; Cairns, D.M. Patterns and processes of global shrub expansion. Prog. Phys. Geogr.2011, 35, 423–442.
80. Mohamed, A.H.; Holechek, J.L.; Bailey, D.W.; Campbell, C.L.; DeMers, M.N. Mesquite encroachment impact on southern new mexico rangelands: Remote sensing and geographic information systems approach. J. Appl. Remote Sens. 2011, 5, 053514.
81. Ishii, J.; Washitani, I. Early detection of the invasive alien plant solidago altissima in moist tall grassland using hyperspectral imagery. Int. J. Remote Sens.2013, 34, 5926–5936.
82. Guan, L.L.; Liu, L.Y.; Peng, D.L.; Hu, Y.; Jiao, Q.J.; Liu, L.L. Monitoring the distribution of C3 and C4 grasses in a temperate grassland in northern China using moderate resolution imaging spectroradiometer normalized difference vegetation index trajectories. J. Appl. Remote Sens. 2012, 6, 063532.
83. Davidson, A.; Csillag, F. A comparison of three approaches for predicting C4 species cover of northern mixed grass prairie. Remote Sens. Environ.2003, 86, 70–82.
84. Tieszen, L.L.; Reed, B.C.; Bliss, N.B.; Wylie, B.K.; DeJong, D.D. Ndvi, C3 and C4 production, and distributions in great plains grassland land cover classes. Ecol. Appl.1997, 7, 59–78.
85. Foody, G.M.; Dash, J. Discriminating and mapping the C3 and C4 composition of grasslands in the northern great plains, USA. Ecol. Inform.2007, 2, 89–93.
86. Leisher, C.; Hess, S.; Boucher, T.M.; van Beukering, P.; Sanjayan, M. Measuring the impacts of community-based grasslands management in mongolia’s gobi. PLoS One2012, 7, e30991.
87. Xu, H.M.; Gao, Q.Z.; Wan, Y.F.; Li, Y.; Qin, X.B.; Jiangcun, W. Spatial and temporal pattern of alpine grassland condition and its response to human activities in northern tibet, China. Rangel. J.2010, 32, 165–173.
88. Yang, X.H.; Guo, X.L.; Fitzsimmons, M. Assessing light to moderate grazing effects on grassland production using satellite imagery. Int. J. Remote Sens.2012, 33, 5087–5104.
89. Wessman, C.A.; Bateson, C.A.; Benning, T.L. Detecting fire and grazing patterns in tallgrass prairie using spectral mixture analysis. Ecol. Appl.1997, 7, 493–511.
90. Xu, H.M.; Gao, Q.Z.; Wan, Y.F.; Li, Y.; Jiangcun, W.Z.; Borjigidai, A. Alpine grassland degradation index and its response to recent climate variability in northern tibet, China. Quat. Int. 2010, 226, 143–150.
91. Cabello, J.; Alcaraz-Segura, D.; Ferrero, R.; Castro, A.J.; Liras, E. The role of vegetation and lithology in the spatial and inter-annual response of evi to climate in drylands of southeastern Spain. J. Arid Environ.2012, 79, 76–83.
92. Yu, L.; Zhou, L.; Liu, W.; Zhou, H.K. Using remote sensing and gis technologies to estimate grass yield and livestock carrying capacity of alpine grasslands in golog prefecture, China. Pedosphere2010, 20, 342–351.
93. Wang, R.J.; Yang, L.W. The research of livestock carrying capacity of rangeland ecosystem in hulunbuir. Adv. Mater. Res.-Switz.2012, 365, 110–114.
94. Feng, X.M.; Zhao, Y.S. Grazing intensity monitoring in northern China steppe: Integrating century model and modis data. Ecol. Indic.2011, 11, 175–182.
95. Erasmi, S.; Riembauer, G.; Westphal, C. Mapping habitat diversity from multi-temporal rapideye and radarsat-2 data in brandenburg, Germany, from the Basics to the Service. In Proceedings of the 5th RESA Workshop, Neustrelitz, Germany, 20–21 March 2013; pp. 73–90.
96. Avila-Flores, R.; Ceballos, G.; de Villa-Meza, A.; List, R.; Marce, E.; Pacheco, J.; Sanchez-Azofeifa, G.A.; Boutin, S. Factors associated with long-term changes in distribution of black-tailed prairie dogs in northwestern mexico. Biol. Conserv.2012, 145, 54–61.
97. Wang, R.J.; Yang, L.W. Valuate of soil conservation of grassland ecosystem with gis and remote sensing technology. Adv. Mater. Res.-Switz.2012, 365, 115–118.
98. Ballabio, C.; Fava, F.; Rosenmund, A. A plant ecology approach to digital soil mapping, improving the prediction of soil organic carbon content in alpine grasslands. Geoderma2012, 187, 102–116.
99. Rebel, K.T.; de Jeu, R.A.M.; Ciais, P.; Viovy, N.; Piao, S.L.; Kiely, G.; Dolman, A.J. A global analysis of soil moisture derived from satellite observations and a land surface model. Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci.2012, 16, 833–847.
100. Santos, W.J.R.; Silva, B.M.; Oliveira, G.C.; Volpato, M.M.L.; Lima, J.M.; Curi, N.; Marques, J.J. Soil moisture in the root zone and its relation to plant vigor assessed by remote sensing at management scale. Geoderma2014, 221–222, 91–95.
101. O’neill, A. Reflectance spectra of microphytic soil crusts in semi-arid australia. Int. J. Remote Sens.1994, 15, 675–681.
102. Ryu, Y.; Baldocchi, D.D.; Black, T.A.; Detto, M.; Law, B.E.; Leuning, R.; Miyata, A.; Reichstein, M.; Vargas, R.; Ammann, C. et al. On the temporal upscaling of evapotranspiration from instantaneous remote sensing measurements to 8-day mean daily-sums. Agric. For. Meteorol.2012, 152, 212–222.
103. Chen, X.; Li, B.L.; Li, Q.; Li, J.L.; Abdulla, S. Spatio-temporal pattern and changes of evapotranspiration in arid central asia and xinjiang of China. J. Arid Land2012, 4, 105–112.
104. Kaiser, T.; Wehrhan, M.; Werner, A.; Sommer, M. Regionalizing ecological moisture levels and groundwater levels in grassland areas using thermal remote sensing. Grassl. Sci.2012, 58, 42–52.
105. Bradley, A.V.; Millington, A.C. Spatial and temporal scale issues in determining biomass burning regimes in bolivia and peru. Int. J. Remote Sens.2006, 27, 2221–2253.
106. He, Y.; Guo, X.; Cheng Si, B. Detecting grassland spatial variation by a wavelet approach. Int. J. Remote Sens.2007, 28, 1527–1545.
107. He, Y.; Guo, X.; Wilmshurst, J.; Si, B.C. Studying mixed grassland ecosystems ii: Optimum pixel size. Can. J. Remote Sens.2006, 32, 108–115.
108. Marceau, D.J.; Hay, G.J. Remote sensing contributions to the scale issue. Can. J. Remote Sens.1999, 25, 357–366.
109. Amthor, J.S.; Baldocchi, D.D. Terrestrial higher plant respiration and net primary production. In Terrestrial Global Productivity; Roy, J., Saugier, B., Mooney, H.A., Eds.; Academic Press: San Diego, CA, USA, 2001; pp. 33–59.
110. Seastedt, T. Maximization of primary and secondary productivity by grazers. Am. Nat.1985, 126, 559–564.
111. De Castro, E.A.; Kauffman, J.B. Ecosystem structure in the brazilian cerrado: A vegetation gradient of aboveground biomass, root mass and consumption by fire. J. Trop. Ecol.1998, 14, 263–283.
112. Tisdale, S.L.; Nelson, W.L.; Beaton, J.D.; Havlin, J.L. Soil Fertility and Fertilizers; Macmillan: London, UK, 1993; p. 634.
113. Harmon, M.E.; Ferrell, W.K.; Franklin, J.F. Effects on carbon storage of conversion of old-growth forests to young forests. Science1990, 247, 699–702.
114. Meng, E.; Smale, M.; Bellon, M.; Grimanelli, D. Definition and Measurement of Crop Diversity for Economic Analysis; Kluwer Academic Publishers: Norwell, MA, USA, 2000.
115. Dexter, A. Soil physical quality: Part I. Theory, effects of soil texture, density, and organic matter, and effects on root growth. Geoderma 2004, 120, 201–214.
116. Olsen, E.R.; Ramsey, R.; Winn, D.S. A modified fractal dimension as a measure of landscape diversity. Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens.1993, 59, 1517–1520.
117. Nagendra, H. Using remote sensing to assess biodiversity. Int. J. Remote Sens.2001, 22, 2377–2400.
118. Baldocchi, D.; Falge, E.; Gu, L.; Olson, R.; Hollinger, D.; Running, S.; Anthoni, P.; Bernhofer, C.; Davis, K.; Evans, R. Fluxnet: A new tool to study the temporal and spatial variability of ecosystem-scale carbon dioxide, water vapor, and energy flux densities. Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc.2001, 82, 2415–2434.
119. Gianelle, D.; Vescovo, L.; Marcolla, B.; Manca, G.; Cescatti, A. Ecosystem carbon fluxes and canopy spectral reflectance of a mountain meadow. Int. J. Remote Sens.2009, 30, 435–449.
120. Kimball, J.S.; Jones, L.A.; Zhang, K.; Heinsch, F.A.; McDonald, K.C.; Oechel, W.C. A satellite approach to estimate land-atmosphere CO(2) exchange for boreal and arctic biomes using modis and AMSR-E. IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens.2009, 47, 569–587.
121. Song, T.; Wang, S.Q.; Gao, J.X.; Han, Y.W. A study on the scaling-up of CO2 fluxes at haibei station based on gis and rs technologies. In Proceedings of the 2009 International Conference on Environmental Science and Information Application Technology, Wuhan, China, 4–5 July 2009; pp. 455–461.
122. Lin, H.F.; Lee, H.S.; Wang, D.W. Evaluation of factors influencing knowledge sharing based on a fuzzy ahp approach. J. Inf. Sci.2009, 35, 25–44.
123. Liu, X.P.; Zhang, J.Q.; Tong, Z.J.; Bao, Y.L.; Zhang, D.H. Grid-based multi-attribute risk assessment of snow disasters in the grasslands of xilingol, inner mongolia. Hum. Ecol. Risk Assess.2011, 17, 712–731.
124. Bierman, P.; Lewis, M.; Ostendorf, B.; Tanner, J. A review of methods for analysing spatial and temporal patterns in coastal water quality. Ecol. Indic.2011, 11, 103–114.
125. Balijepally, V.; Mangalaraj, G.; Iyengar, K. Are we wielding this hammer correctly? A reflective review of the application of cluster analysis in information systems research. J. Assoc. Inf. Syst.2011, 12, 375–413.
126. Coomes, D.A.; Rees, M.; Turnbull, L. Identifying aggregation and association in fully mapped spatial data. Ecology1999, 80, 554–565.
127. Richards, J.W.; Hardin, J.; Grosfils, E.B. Weighted model-based clustering for remote sensing image analysis. Comput. Geosci.2010, 14, 125–136.
128. Hoffman, F.M.; Larson, J.W.; Mills, R.T.; Brooks, B.G.J.; Ganguly, A.R.; Hargrove, W.W.; Huang, J.; Kumar, J.; Vatsavai, R.R. Data mining in earth system science (dmess 2011). Procedia Comput. Sci. 2011, 4, 1450–1455.