State Liability: Tort Law and Beyond

State Liability: Tort Law and Beyond

Volumn , Issue , 2012, Pages 1-166

  Harlow, Carol ^a  

^a LONDON SCHOOL OF ECONOMICS   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Compensation culture; Courts; Damages; Domestic legal systems; Globalization; Group actions; Judicialization; Liability

Indexed keywords

EID: 84922016152     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199272648.001.0001     Document Type: Book

References (251)

1. The basis of ex gratia payment is explained in C. Harlow, Compensation and Government Torts (London: Sweet and Maxwell, 1982).
2. J. W. Ely Jr, 'That Due Satisfaction may be Made: the Fifth Amendment and the Origins of the Compensation Principle' 36 Am. J of Legal History 1 (1992);
3. F. Michelman, 'Property, Utility and Fairness: Comments on the Ethical Foundations of "Just Compensation" Law' 80 Harv. L Rev. 1165 (1967).
4. See, e.g., the Land Compensation Act 1973. And see the dispute over the proper ambit of planning blight relief in 'The Channel Tunnel Link and Blight:Investigation of Complaints against the Department of Transport', HC 193 (1994/5).
5. Compensation to Farmers for Slaughtered Poultry, HC 519 (1992/3)
6. C. Harlow and R. W. Rawlings, Law and Administration (2nd edn, London:Butterworths, 1997) at 608. The affair might now form the basis of an action for misfeasance in public office: see text below at note 21.
7. C. Fisher, 'The Rise of the Risk Commonwealth and the Challenge for Administrative Law' [2003] PL 455.
8. P. Cane, Atiyah's Accidents, Compensation and the Law (hereafter Cane and Atiyah) (6th edn, London: Butterworths, 1999) at 402.
9. A debate updated and usefully encapsulated by P. Cane, 'Accountability and the Public/Private Distinction' in P. Leyland and N. Bamforth (eds), Public Law in a Multi-Layered Constitution (Oxford: Hart Publishing, 2003).
10. P. S. Atiyah, Accidents, Compensation and the Law (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1970), now Cane and Atiyah, above note 6.
11. A. Ripstein, 'Some Recent Obituaries of Tort Law' (1998) 48 UTLJ 561, 574.
12. The lottery metaphor was famously introduced by T. Ison, The Forensic Lottery (London: Staples Press, 1967).
13. D. Harris et al., Compensation and Support for Illness and Injury (Oxford: Clarendon, 1984) use the metaphor of an obstacle race.
14. In defence of the right to sue see R. Mahoney, 'New Zealand's Accident Compensation Scheme: A Reassessment', 40 AJCL 159, 162 (1992)
15. L. Klar, 'New Zealand's Accident Compensation Scheme: A Tort Lawyer's Perspective' in F. Steel and S. Rodgers-Magnet (eds), Issues in Tort Law (Toronto: Carswell, 1983).
16. D. Cohen, 'Tort Law and the Crown: Administrative Compensation and the Modern State' in K. Cooper-Stephenson and E. Gibson (eds), Tort Theory (York: Captus University Publications, 1993) at 361.
17. There is a vast American empirical literature on automobile plans and, as already stated, D. Dewes, D. Duff, and M. Trebilcock, Exploring the Domain of Accident Law, Taking the facts Seriously (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996) test evidence on the efficacy of compensation plans in the field of traffic, medical mishap, products, environmental and workplace liability.
18. G. Dworkin, 'Compensation and Payments for Vaccine Damage' [1979] JSWL 330;
19. C. Harlow and R. W. Rawlings, Law and Administration (London:Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1984) at 398-406.
20. A point tested by P. Davis et al., 'Compensation for Medical Injury in New Zealand: Does "No-Fault" Increase the Level of Claims Making and Reduce Social and Clinical Selectivity?' (2002) 27 J of Health Politics, Policy and Law 833.
21. Report of the Royal Commission on Civil Liability for Personal Injuries, Cmnd 7054 (1978).
22. E.g., D. Allen, C. Bourne, and J. Holyoak (eds), Accident Compensation after Pearson (London: Sweet and Maxwell, 1979).
23. Report of the Royal Commission of Inquiry into Compensation for Personal Injury in New Zealand (The Woodhouse Report) (1967) at 3, noted by Mathieson (1968) 31 MLR 544.
24. B. Lichtenstein, 'From Principle to Parsimony: A Critical Analysis of New Zealand's No-Fault Accident Compensation Scheme' (1999) 12 Social Justice Research 99, 100 describes the ACC as a completion of the 'cultural expectations of the benefits promised in the 1930s by the Labour Party'.
25. An initial plan for insurers to run the scheme was rejected after their tenders proved uncompetitive: D. Harris, 'Accident Compensation in New Zealand: A Comprehensive Insurance System' (1974) 37 MLR 361 at note 17. In 1998, a private insurance element was introduced but quickly eliminated.
26. For the history of retrenchment see T. Ison, 'Changes to the Accident Compensation System: An International Perspective' (1993) 23 VUWLR 25.
27. Alternatives to the welfare state and to privatization are discussed by N. Barr, The Welfare State as Piggy Bank: Information, Risk, Uncertainty, and the Role of the State (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001).
28. See also J. Stapleton, Disease and the Compensation Debate (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986).
29. L. Klar, 'New Zealand's Accident Compensation Scheme: A Tort Lawyer's Perspective' in Steel and Rodgers-Magnet, above note 10, at 42.
30. A. Lewis, 'No-fault Liability-Twenty Years' Experience in New Zealand' (1996) 15 Medicine and Law 425, 427.
31. R. Baldwin, Rules and Government (Oxford: Clarendon, 1995);
32. I. Ayres and J. Braithwaite, Responsive Regulation: Transcending the Regulation Debate (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992);
33. R. Baldwin and M. Cave, Understanding Regulation, Theory, Strategy and Practice (Oxford:Oxford University Press, 1999).
34. G. Palmer, 'New Zealand's Accident Compensation Scheme' (1994) UTLJ 223, 254.
35. The author is a previous Labour Prime Minister and longtime advocate of accident compensation: see G. Palmer, Compensation for Incapacity: A Study of Law and Social Change in New Zealand and Australia (Wellington: Oxford University Press, 1979).
36. A. Clayton, 'Some Reflections on Woodhouse and the ACC Legacy' (2003) 34 VUWLR 449.
37. P. Duff, 'The Measure of Criminal Injuries Compensation: Political Pragmatism or Dog's Dinner?' (1998) 8 OJLS 105, 106.
38. And see A. Ash-worth, 'Punishment and Compensation: Victims, Offenders and the State' (1986) 6 OJLS 86.
39. Compensation for Victims of Violence, Cmnd 1406 (1961) paras 17-18.
40. Thus the Victims of Crime Trust is currently using the tragic case of murdered Holly Wells and Jessica Chapman as an argument for uprating the bereavement payment of £11,000, which they call 'a pittance' and compare unfavourably (and inaccurately) with civil legal aid: The Times, 2 February 2004.
41. National Audit Office, 'Handling Clinical Negligence Claims in England' HC 403 (2000/1).
42. See also Lord Woolf, Access to Justice, Report to the Lord Chancellor on the Civil Justice System in England and Wales (London: Lord Chancellor's Department, 1996).
43. Department of Health, 'Clinical Negligence: What Are the Issues and Options for Reform?' 29 July 2003, available on the departmental website:www.doh.gov.uk.
44. National Audit Office, 'Ministry of Defence: Compensation Claims', HC 957 (2002-3).
45. Thompson v Commissioner of Metropolitan Police [1998] QB 498.
46. For an outline of the police complaints system see Harlow and Rawlings, above note 4, at 414-21. R. Clayton and H. Tomlinson, Civil Actions against the Police (3rd edn, London, Sweet and Maxwell, 2003) provides a comprehensive account of remedies against the police.
47. Parliamentary Commissioner for Administration, Maladministration and Redress, HC 112 (1994-5).
48. Commission for Local Administration, 'Guidance on Good Practice: 6. Remedies', available on the CLA website: www.lgo.org.uk.
49. Feldman, 'Human Dignity as a Legal Value' [1999] PL 682. And see the European Charter of Fundamental Rights, Final [2000] OJ C364-1, (18 December 2000).
50. A. Ogus, 'Do We Have a General Theory of Compensation?' [1984] Current Legal Problems 29, 37.
51. Law Commission, 'Aggravated, Exemplary and Restitutionary Damages', Law Com No 247 (1997) paras 2.39-2.42.
52. R. Gregory and G. Drewry, 'Barlow Clowes and the Ombudsman' [1991] PL 192.
53. Lord Woolf, 'The Human Rights Act and Remedies' in M. Andenas and D. Fairgrieve (eds), Judicial Review in an International Perspective (London: Kluwer Law International, 2000) at 430.
54. This lecture was cited as authoritative guidance by the Law Commission, 'Damages Under The Human Rights Act 1998', Law Com No 266 (2000) at 4.31.
55. R (Bernard) v Enfield LBC [2002] EWHC 2282 (Sullivan J).
56. Anufrijeva v Southwark LBC [2003] EWCA Civ 406 (Lord Woolf CJ, Lord Phillips MR and Auld LJ).
57. P. Cane, 'Damages in Public Law' (1999) 9 Univ. of Otago L Rev. 489, 497-8. Cane calls these victims 'endogenous losers' and contrasts them with 'exogenous losers', who are those affected by 'illegitimate features' of a scheme. I have preferred to avoid this terminology.
58. See e.g., B. Gould, 'Damages as a Remedy in Administrative Law' [1972] New Zealand Univ. LR 105;
59. 14th Report of the Public and Administrative Law Reform Committee, Damages in Administrative Law (Wellington, New Zealand, 1980).
60. D. Cohen and J. Smith, 'Entitlement and the Body Politic: Rethinking Negligence in Public Law' (1986) 64 Can. Bar Rev. 1, 12.
61. P. McAuslan, 'Administrative Law, Collective Consumption and Judicial Policy' (1983) 46 MLR 1.
62. Phelps v Hillingdon LBC [2001] 2 AC 619. And see above Chap. 2 at note 139.
63. R (Bernard) v Enfield LBC [2002] EWHC Civ 2282 at para 39.
64. P. S. Atiyah, The Damages Lottery (Oxford: Hart Publishing, 1997) further discussed in Chap. 1.
65. Report of the Royal Liverpool Children's Inquiry, available at www.rlcinquiry.org.uk.
66. The Times, 27 January 2004. At the time of writing, the outcome was unknown.
67. See Leander v Sweden (1987) 9 EHRR 433 at paras 81-82.
68. For a concise account see L. Neville Brown and J. Bell, French Administrative Law (4th edn, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993).
69. On which see M. Troper, La Séparation des pouvoirs et l'histoire constitutionnelle française (Paris: LGDJ, 1980).
70. J. Allison, A Continental Distinction in the Common Law, A Historical and Comparative Perspective on English Public Law (Oxford: Clarendon, paperback edition, 2000) at 152-7.
71. Confirmed by Entick v Carrington (1765) 2 Wils. KB 275;
72. Leach v Money (1765) 19 St. Tr. 1001;
73. Wilkes v Wood (1763) 2 Wils. KB 203.
74. M. Long et al., Les Grands arr êts de la jurisprudence administrative (10th edn, Paris:Sirey, 1990) (hereafter GA) No 1.
75. In particular by J. D. M. Mitchell, 'The Causes and Effects of the Absence of a System of Public Law in the United Kingdom ' [1965].
76. P. Hogg, The Liability of the Crown (2nd edn, Toronto: Carswell, 1989) at 1-2.
77. D. Mullan, 'Book Review, The Liability of the Crown' (1990) 10 Windsor Yearbook of Access to justice 263, 264.
78. This position was argued contemporaneously in C. Harlow, ''Public' and 'Private' Law: Definition Without Distinction' (1980) 43 MLR 241.
79. C. Harlow, Compensation and Government Torts (London: Sweet and Maxwell, 1982) at 58-68.
80. D. Fairgrieve, State Liability in Tort (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002) at 260-1.
81. G. Howells and M. Mildred, 'Infected Blood: Defect and Discoverability, A First Exposition of the EC Product Liability Directive' (2002) 65 MLR 95.
82. E. Weinrib, The Idea of Private Law (Boston, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1995) at 10 (emphasis mine) and 19. Weinrib sees corrective justice as explicatory of all civil liability, though he focuses on tort law.
83. See H. Street, Street on Torts (7th edn, London: Butterworths, 1983) at 3: 'The law of torts is concerned with those situations where the conduct of one party causes or threatens harm to the interests of other parties'.Street is by instinct a functionalist, however, as he remarks that 'the function and purpose of the law of torts' are of 'greater import' than definition.
84. P. Cane, An Anatomy of Tort Law (Oxford: Hart Publishing, 1997) at 224.
85. See P. Cane (ed), Atiyah's Accidents, Compensation and the Law (6th edn, London: Butterworths, 1999).
86. R. Rabin, in a joint book review of Cane and Weinrib, 'Law for Law's Sake' 105 Yale LJ 2261, 2264.
87. Cohen, 'Tort Law and the Crown: Administrative Compensation and the Modern State' in K. Cooper-Stephenson and E. Gibson (eds), Tort Theory (York: Captus University Publications, 1993) at 361.
88. A. Morris, 'On the Normative Foundations of Indirect Discrimination Law:Understanding the Competing Models of Discrimination Law as Aristotelian Forms of Justice' (1995) 15 OJLS 199, 205.
89. J. Coleman, 'Tort Law and the Demands of Corrective Justice' (1992) 67 Indiana LJ 349.
90. S. Perry, 'Loss, Agency, and Responsibility for Outcomes: Three Conceptions of Corrective Justice', in Cooper-Stephenson and Gibson, above note 11, at 24-7.
91. State of New South Wales v Ryan [2002] HCA 54, discussed below at note 44.
92. Above note 6. See also The Damages Lottery (Oxford: Hart Publishing, 1997).
93. On which Cane feels strongly: see P. Cane, Responsibility in Law and Morality (Oxford: Hart Publishing, 2002).
94. Weinrib, 'Understanding Tort Law' (1989) 23 Valparaiso University Law Review 485, 492.
95. Fairchild v Newhaven Funeral Services Ltd [2002] UKHL 22.
96. G. Schwartz, 'The Beginning and the Possible End of the Rise of Modern American Tort Law' 26 Georgia L Rev. 601, 603 (1992).
97. R. Posner, Economic Analysis of Law (Boston, Mass.: Little Brown, 1973, now 5th edn, 1998);
98. G. Calabresi, The Cost of Accidents (New Haven, Conn.:Yale University Press, 1970).
99. P. Huber, Liability, the Legal Revolution and its Consequences (New York: Basic Books, 1988) at 4.
100. Donoghue v Stevenson [1932] AC 52.
101. J. C. Smith and P. Burns, 'Donoghue v. Stevenson-the Not So Golden Anniversary' (1983) 46 MLR 147, 150.
102. P. Cane, Tort Law and Economic Interests (Oxford: Clarendon, 1991) at 232-4.
103. And see S. Whittaker, 'Privity of Contract and the Tort of Negligence: Future Directions' (1996) 16 OJLS 191;
104. J. Adams and R. Brownsword, 'Privity and the Concept of a Network Contract' (1990) 10 Legal Studies 12.
105. A trend identified by E. McKendrick, 'Vicarious Liability and Independent Contractors-A Re-examination' (1990) 53 MLR 770.
106. J. Stapleton, 'Duty of Care: Peripheral Parties and Alternative Opportunities for Deterrence' (1995) 111 LQR 301, 312.
107. Though, Rubinstein, 'Liability in Tort of Judicial Officers' (1964) 15 UTLJ 317.
108. See further P. Cane, Tort Law and Economic Interests (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991);
109. B. Feldthusen, 'The Recovery of Pure Economic Loss in Canda: Proximity, Justice, Rationality and Chaos' (1996) 24 Manitoba LJ 1;
110. B. Feldthusen, Economic Negligence: The Recovery of Pure Economic Loss (2nd edn, Toronto: Carswell, 1989).
111. Sir Robin Cooke, 'The Condition of the Law of Tort' in P. Birks (ed), The Frontiers of Liability (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994) II at 51.
112. Graham Barclay Oysters Pty Ld v Ryan; Ryan v Great Lakes Council; State of New South Wales v Ryan [2002] HCA 54. The action succeeded at first instance and received some support on appeal but was overturned in the High Court.
113. Romeo v Conservation Commission of the Northern Territory (1998) 151 ALR 263.
114. Jolley v Sutton LBC [2000] 1 WLR 1082.
115. Lunz, 'Liability of Statutory Authority for Omissions' (1998) 6 Torts LJ 107.
116. A. Ripstein, 'Some Recent Obituaries of Tort Law' (1998) 48 UTLJ 561, 573.
117. P. S. Atiyah, The Damages Lottery (Oxford: Hart Publishing, 1997) at 139.
118. T. Weir, 'Governmental Liability' [1989] PL 40.
119. P. Hogg, Liability of the Crown (2nd edn, Toronto: Carswell, 1989) at 1-2.
120. I. W. Jennings, The Law and the Constitution (5th edn, London:University of London Press, 1959) at 54-6.
121. E. C. S. Wade, 'Introduction' in A. V. Dicey, Introduction to the Study of the Law of the Constitution (10th edn, London: Macmillan, 1959) at Ixxvi-lxxxvi.
122. P. Schuck, Suing Government: Citizen Remedies for Official Wrongs (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1983) at 16-25.
123. D. Dewes, D. Duff, and M. Trebilcock, Exploring the Domain of Accident Law, Taking the Facts Seriously (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996). The areas of study were: traffic accidents, medical negligence, products liability, environment, and workplace accidents.
124. J. Braithwaite, 'On Speaking Softly and Carrying Big Sticks: Neglected Dimensions of a Republican Separation of Powers' (1997) 47 UTLJ 305, 360.
125. Cass, 'Damages Suits Against Public Officers' 129 University of Pennsylvania L Rev. 1110 (1981).
126. R v Chief Constable of North Wales ex p AB (1998) 3 WLR 57.
127. Doe v Metropolitan Toronto Board of Commissioners of Police (1989) 58DLR (4th) 396 affirmed (1990) 74 OR (2d) 225. The case is discussed further below.
128. L. Hoyano, 'Policing Flawed Police Investigations: Unravelling the Blanket' (1999) 62 MLR 912.
129. L. Fuller, 'The Forms and Limits of Adjudication' 92 Harv. L Rev. 353 (1978).
130. See also J. Allison, 'The Procedural Reason for Judicial Restraint' [1994] PL 452.
131. Hill v Chief Constable of Yorkshire [1988] 2 All ER 238.
132. X (Minors) v Bedfordshire Country Council, M v Newham London Borough Council [1995] 2 AC 633.
133. R. O'Leary, Environmental Change: Federal Courts and the EPA (Philadelphia, Perm.: Temple Press, 1993)
134. D. Rosenbloom and R. O'Leary, Public Administration and Law (2nd edn, New York: Marcel Dekker, 1996) at 315.
135. Osman v United Kingdom (1998) 29 EHRR 245.
136. S v Gloucestershire County Council [2001] 1 Fam 313, 329.
137. D. Cohen, 'Tort Law and the Crown: Administrative Compensation and the Modern State' in K. Cooper-Stephenson and E. Gibson (eds), Tort Theory (York: Captus University Publications, 1993) at 366 (emphasis mine).
138. M. Taggart, 'The Nature and Functions of the State' in P. Cane and M. Tushnet (eds), The Oxford Handbook of Legal Studies (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003).
139. J. Freeman, 'The Private Role in Public Governance' 75 NY Univ. L Rev. 543, 552-3 (2000).
140. R. A. Buckley, 'Nuisance and the Public Interest' (2002) 118 LQR 508, 510.
141. R. A. Buckley, 'Nuisance and the Public Interest' (2002) 118 LQR 508, 510.
142. Leakey v National Trust [1980] l All ER 17.
143. Herrington v British Railways Board [1972]'AC 877.
144. T. Presser, 'Social Limits to Privatizing' 21 Brook J of International Law 213 (1995).
145. D. Cohen, Tort Law and the Crown: Administrative Compensation and the Modern State' in K. Cooper-Stephenson and E. Gibson (eds), Tort Theory (York: Captus University Publications, 1993) at 363.
146. B. Feldthusen, 'The Recovery of Pure Economic Loss in Canada:Proximity, Justice, Rationality and Chaos' (1996) 24 Manitoba LJ 1, 2.
147. C. Harlow, '"Public" and "Private" Law: Definition Without Distinction' (1980) 43 MLR 241.
148. Rudolph Wolff & Co. Ltd. and Noranda Inc. v The Crown [1990] 1 SCR 695; 69 DLR (4th) 392.
149. D. Oliver, 'The Underlying Values of Public and Private Law' in M. Taggart (ed), The Province of Administrative Law (Oxford: Hart Publishing, 1999) at 226.
150. P. Cane, Tort Law and Economic Interests (Oxford: Clarendon, 1991).
151. X v United Kingdom, Application No 7154/75 14 DR 31 (1978).
152. Z and others v United Kingdom (2001) 34 EHRR 97.
153. Osman v United Kingdom (1998) 29 EHRR 245.
154. J. J. Spigelman, 'Negligence: the Last Outpost of the Welfare State' (2002) 76 ALJ 432.
155. D. Miller, Social Justice (Oxford: Clarendon, 1976) at 18.
156. Review of the Law of Negligence (The Ipp Review) (Canberra:Commonwealth of Australia) 2002. On an earlier US initiative by the Reagan Administration see D. Harris, 'Tort Law Reform in the United States' (1991) 11 OJLS 407.
157. Home Office v. Dorset Yacht Co. Ltd. [1970] AC 1004, further discussed in Chap. 1.
158. J. Beerman, 'Administrative-Law-Like Obligations on Privat[ized]Entities' 49 UCLA L Rev. 1717, 1725 (2002).
159. See also S. Corcoran, 'Bad Faith and Bad Intentions in Corporate Law' in N. Naffine, R. Ownes, J. Williams (eds), Intention in Law and Philosophy (Ashgate: Dartmouth, 2001).
160. Kuddus v Chief Constable of Leicestershire Constabulary [2001] 2 WLR 1789 at para 66.
161. Botrill v A [2003] 1 AC 449.
162. Kuddus v Chief Constable of Leicestershire Constabulary [2001] 2 WLR 1789 at para 60.
163. The relevant report is Law Commission, 'Aggravated, Exemplary and Restitutionary Damages', Law Corn No 247 (1997).
164. F. Beveridge, et al., 'Addressing Gender in the Nation and Community:Law and Policymaking' in J. Shaw (ed), Social Law and Policy in an Evolving European Union (Oxford: Hart Publishing, 2000).
165. P. Hogg, 'Compensation for Damage Caused by Government' (1995) 6 NJCL 7, 12.
166. C. Harlow, 'State Liability: Problem Without Solution' (1995) 6 NJCL 67
167. D. Cohen, 'Responding to Government Failure' (1995) 6 NJCL 23.
168. Social Insurance and the Social Services, Cmnd 6404 (1942) (The Beveridge Report).
169. I. Englard, The Philosophy of Tort Law (London: Dartmouth, 1993) at 11. Arguably, merit is immaterial; distributive justice is often aimed specifically at the underprivileged, irrespective of merit.
170. R. Carnwarth, 'The Liability of Public Authorities in Tort-Corrective and Distributive Justice' (unpublished paper).
171. D. Cohen, 'Tort Law and the Crown: Administrative Compensation and the Modern State' in K. Cooper-Stephenson and E. Gibson (eds), Tort Theory (York: Captus University Publications, 1993) at 361. The theory is set out and discussed in Lecture 3, below.
172. B. Barry, Political Argument (London: Routledge, 1965) ch. 3.
173. See also D. Miller, Social Justice (Oxford: Clarendon, 1976) at 18-20;
174. P. McAuslan, 'Administrative Law, Collective Consumption and Judicial Policy' (1983) 46 MLR 1.
175. P. Cane, Responsibility in Law and Morality (Oxford: Hart Publishing, 2002) at 252.
176. Fletcher, 'Fairness and Utility in Tort Theory' 85 Harv. LR 534, 537-8 (1972). The issue is discussed more fully in Lecture 1.
177. The Citizen's Charter, Raising the Standard, Cm 1599 (1991).
178. J. J. Spigelman, 'Negligence: the Last Outpost of the Welfare State' (2002) 76 ALJ 432 also available at www.lawlink.nsw.gov.au/sc
179. V. Roussel, 'Changing Definitions of Risk and Responsibility in French Political Scandals' (2002) 29 JLS 461.
180. Fisher, The Rise of the Risk Commonwealth and the Challenge for Administrative Law' [2003] PL 455.
181. R. Baldwin, C. Scott, and C. Hood (eds), 'Introduction', in A Reader on Regulation (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998) at 2.
182. A. V. Dicey, Introduction to the Study of the Law of the Constitution (10th edn by ECS Wade, London: Macmillan, 1959).
183. P. Hogg, Liability of the Crown (2nd edn, Toronto: Carswell, 1989) at 1.
184. Compare E. Weinrib, The Idea of Private Law (Boston, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1995) at 3.
185. P. S. Atiyah, Accidents, Compensation and the Law (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1970).
186. Notably, J. Fleming, The American Tort Process (Oxford: Clarendon, 1987).
187. D. Held and A. McGrew, Globalization/Anti-Globalization (Cambridge:Polity Press, 2002) at 1.
188. A. Mason, 'Human Rights Law and the Law of Torts' in P. Cane and J. Stapleton (eds), The Law of Obligations, Essays in Celebration of John Fleming (Oxford: Clarendon, 1998).
189. And see the essays in C. Scott (ed), Torture as Torts (Oxford: Hart Publishing, 2000).
190. E.g., J. Bell, 'Mechanisms for Cross-fertilisation of Administrative Law in Europe' in J. Beatson and T. Tridimas (eds), New Directions in European Public Law (Oxford: Hart Publishing, 1998).
191. For an extension of this argument, see C. Harlow, 'Voices of Difference in a Plural Community' in P. Beaumont, C. Lyons, and N. Walker (eds), Convergence and Divergence in European Public Law (Oxford: Hart Publishing, 2002).
192. And see R. Cotterell, 'The Symbolism of Constitutions' in I. Loveland (ed), A Special Relationship? American Influences on Public Law in the UK (Oxford: Clarendon, 1995).
193. For a more extreme version of the argument, maintaining the virtual impossibility of harmonizing common law and civilian legal systems, see A. Legrand, 'European Legal Systems Are Not Converging' (1996) 45 ICLQ 52, who uses the term mentalité to express the ethos or deep values of a legal system.
194. An argument advanced compellingly in a defence of French administrative law by Abraham, 'Les principes généraux de la protection juridictionnelle administrative en Europe: L'influence des jurisprudences européennes' (1997) 9 European Review of Public Law 577.
195. H. Lessard, 'The Idea of "Private": A Discussion of State Action Doctrine and Separate Sphere Ideologies' (1986) 10 Dalhousie LJ 197.
196. W. Prosser, 'The Assault on the Citadel (Strict Liability to the Consumer)' 69 Yale LJ 1099 (1960)
197. 'The Fall of the Citadel (Strict Liability to the Consumer)' 50 Minnesota L Rev. 791 (1966).
198. See also E. White, Tort Law in America, An Intellectual History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1980) at 168-73;
199. G. Schwartz, 'The Beginning and the Possible End of the Rise of Modern American Tort Law' 26 Georgia L Rev. 601 (1992);
200. S. Sugarman, 'A Century of Change in Personal Injuries Law' 88 California L Rev. 2403 (2000).
201. P. Muchlinski, 'The Bhopal Case: Controlling Ultrahazardous Industrial Activities Undertaken by Foreign Investors' (1987) 50 MLR 545, 550-2.
202. S. Issacharoff, 'Governance and Legitimacy in the Law of Class Actions' [1999] Supreme Court Rev. 337.
203. See the account of the UK thalidomide case: Sunday Times Insight Team, Suffer The Children: The Story of Thalidomide (London: Futura, 1979).
204. And see generally J. C. Coffee, 'Class Action Accountability: Reconciling Exit, Voice and Loyalty in Representative Litigation' 100 Col. L Rev. 370 (2000)
205. 'Class Wars: The Dilemma of the Mass Tort Class Action' 95 Col L Rev. 1343.
206. J. Fleming, The American Tort Process (Oxford: Clarendon, 1987) at 235.
207. See also D. Rosenberg, 'The Causal Connection in Mass Exposure Cases: A Public Law Vision of the Tort System' 97 Harv. L Rev. 851 (1984).
208. S. Issacharoff, '"Shocked": Mass Torts and Aggregate Asbestos Litigation After Amchem and Ortiz' 80 Texas L Rev. 1925 (2002).
209. D. Hensler, 'As Time Goes By: Asbestos Litigation After Amchem and Ortiz' 80 Texas L Rev. 1899 (2002);
210. D. Rosenberg, 'Individual Justice and Collectivising Risk-Based Claims in Mass Exposure Cases' 71 NYUL Rev. 210 (1996);
211. D. Hensler et al., Asbestos in the Courts: The Challenge of Mass Toxic Torts (Santa Monica, Cal.: Institute for Civil Justice, 1985).
212. The Times, 22 December 2003.
213. C. Wells, Negotiating Tragedy: Law and Disasters (London: Sweet and Maxwell, 1995) at 158.
214. For the use of law in campaigning, see C. Harlow and R. W. Rawlings, Pressure Through Law (London: Routledge, 1992).
215. Socialist Lawyer, June 2003 at 22-3.
216. Final Report of the Popplewell inquiry into the Hillsborough Disaster, Cmnd 9710 (1986)
217. A. Linden, 'Tort Law as Ombudsman' (1973) 51 Can. Bar Rev. 155.
218. Margaret McTear v Imperial Tobacco; see for updates www.ashscotland.org.uk.
219. Owen, 'Tort as Blame', 26 Georgia L Rev. 703 (1992) at note 68.
220. See also P. Cane, Responsibility in Law and Morality (Oxford: Hart Publishing, 2002).
221. J. Crawford, The International Law Commission's Articles on State Responsibility (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002) at 12, discussing Art I of Chap 1 of Part I of the ILC draft of 1996.
222. S. Bunn Livingstone, Juricultural Pluralism vis-à-vis Treaty Law (Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff, 2002) at 297-300.
223. C. Harlow, 'Francovich and the Problem of the Disobedient State' (1996) 2 ELJ 199, 204-10.
224. E. Szyszczak, 'Making Europe More Relevant to its Citizens' (1996) 21 EL Rev. 35;
225. J. Steiner, 'From Direct Effects to Francovich: Shifting Means of Enforcement of Community Law' (1993) 18 EL Rev. 3.
226. W. Van Gerven, 'Bridging the Gap Between Community and National Laws: Towards a Principle of Homogeneity in the Field of Legal Remedies?' (1995) 32 CML Rev. 679, 694.
227. See also F. Schockweiler, 'La responsabilité de l'autorité nationale en cas de violation du droit communautaire' (1992) 28 RTDE 27, 42.
228. W. van Gerven, 'Non-contractual Liability of Member States, Community Institutions and Individuals for Breaches of Community Law with a View to a Common Law for Europe' (1994) 1 Maastricht J of Comp. Law 6.
229. J-P. Gilli, 'La responsibilité de la puissance publique' D 1971 chr 125;
230. G. Pelissier, Le principe d'égalité en droit public (Paris: 1996).
231. Convery, 'State Liability in the UK after Brasserie du Pêcheur' (1997) 34 CML Rev. 603;
232. M. Hoskins, 'Rebirth of the Innominate Tort?' in J. Beatson and T. Tridimas (eds), New Directions in European Public Law (Oxford: Hart Publishing, 1998).
233. P. Atiyah, The Damages Lottery (Oxford: Hart Publishing, 1997).
234. J. Pfander, 'Member State Liability and Constitutional Change in the United States and Europe' (2003) 51 AJCL 237.
235. F. Snyder, 'The Effectiveness of European Community Law: Institutions, Processes, Tools and Techniques' (1993) 56 MLR 19.
236. Compare the argument for 'responsive regulation' advanced by I. Ayres and J. Braithwaite, Responsive Regulation: Transcending the Regulation Debate (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992).
237. See, further, M. Theodossiou, 'An Analysis of the Recent Response of the Community to Non-compliance with Court of Justice Judgments: Article 228(2) EC' (2002) 27 EL Rev. 25.
238. C. Tomuschat, 'Individual Reparation Claims in Instances of Grave Human Rights Violations: the Position under General International Law' in A. Randelzhofer and C. Tomuschat (eds), State Responsibility and the Individual: Reparation in Instances of Grave Violations of Human Rights (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1999) at 9.
239. M. Dougan, 'The Francovich Right to Reparation: Reshaping the Contours of Community Remedial Competence' (2000) 6 European Public Law 103.
240. K. Reid, A Practitioner's Guide to the ECHR (London: Sweet and Maxwell, 1998) at 398.
241. Z and others v United Kingdom (2001) 34 EHRR 97.
242. C. Gearty, 'Osman Unravels' (2002) 65 MLR 87.
243. See M. Randall, 'Sex Discrimination, Accountability of Public Authorities and the Public/Private Divide in Tort Law: An Analysis of Doe v Metropolitan Toronto (Municipality) Board of Commissioners of Police' (2001) 26 Queen's LJ 45.
244. The position finds expression generally in the two monographs of T. R. S. Allan, Law, Liberty and Justice, The Legal Foundations of British Constitutionalism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993)
245. Constitutional Justice (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001).
246. See also M v Home Office [1993] 3 WLR 433 (Lord Woolf).
247. K. Cooper-Stephenson, 'Tort Theory for the Charter Damages Remedy' (1988) 52 Saskachewan LR 1;
248. D. Mullan, 'Damages for Violation of Constitutional Rights-A False Spring?' (1996) 6 NJCL 105.
249. Excellence for all Children: Meeting Special Educational Needs (Cmnd 3785 (1998)
250. P. Schuck, Suing Government: Citizen Remedies for Official Wrongs (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1983) at 150 calls the injunction 'a powerful instrument of specific deterrence', capable of achieving 'a more specific, predictable and rapid change in official behaviour than damage remedies can accomplish'.
251. A. Chayes and A. Chayes, 'On Compliance' (1993) 47 International Organizations 175.