Photoperiodism and Reproduction in Birds

Photoperiodism: The Biological Calendar

Volumn , Issue , 2010, Pages

  Bentley, George E ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

Avian photoperiodism; Birds; Gonadotropins; Photoperiodic response

Indexed keywords

EID: 84920751044     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195335903.003.0017     Document Type: Chapter

References (194)

1. Balasubramanian KS and Saxena RN. (1973). Effect of pinealectomy and photoperiodism in the reproduction of Indian weaver birds, Ploceus phillipinus. J Exp Zool 185: 333-340.
2. Bartholomew GA Jr. (1949). The effect of light intensity and day length on reproduction in the English sparrow. Bull Mus Comp Zool 101: 433-476.
3. Beck SD. (1968). Insect Photoperiodism. New York: Academic Press.
4. Beebe K, Bentley GE, and Hau M. (2005). A tropical rainforest bird lacks photorefractoriness in the wild, despite high photosensitivity. Funct Ecol 19:505-512.
5. Benoit J. (1935a). Le rôle des yeux dans l'action stimulante de la lumière sur le développement testiculaire chez le canard. CR Soc Biol (Paris) 118: 669-671.
6. Benoit J. (1935b). Stimulation par la lumière artificielle du développement testiculaire chez les canards aveuglés par section du nerf optique. CR Soc Biol (Paris) 120: 133-136.
7. Benoit J and Ott L. (1944). External and internal factors in sexual activity. Effect of irradiation with different wavelengths on the mechanisms of photostimulation of the hypophysis and on testicular growth in the immature duck. Yale J Biol Med 17: 27-46.
8. Bentley GE. (2001). Unraveling the enigma: The role of melatonin in seasonal processes in birds. Micros Res Tech 53: 63-71.
9. Bentley GE and Ball GF. (2000). Photoperiod-dependent and -independent regulation of melatonin receptors in the forebrain of songbirds. J Neuroendocrinol 12: 745-752.
10. Bentley GE, Demas GE, Nelson RJ, and Ball GF. (1998b). Melatonin, immunity and cost of reproductive state in male European starlings. Proc R Soc Biol Sci 265: 1191-1195.
11. Bentley GE, Goldsmith AR, Dawson A, Briggs C, and Pemberton M. (1998a). Decreased light intensity alters the perception of day length by male European starlings (Sturnus vulgaris). J Biol Rhythms 13: 148-158.
12. Bentley GE, Goldsmith AR, Dawson A, Glennie L, Talbot RT, and Sharp PJ. (1997a). Photorefractori-ness in European starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) is not dependent upon the long-day-induced rise in plasma thyroxine. Gen Comp Endocrinol 107: 428-438.
13. Bentley GE, Goldsmith AR, Juss TS, and Dawson A. (1997b). The effects of nerve growth factor and anti-nerve growth factor antibody on the neuroendocrine reproductive system in the European starling Sturnus vulgaris. J Comp Physiol A 181: 133-141.
14. Bentley GE, Jensen JP, Kaur GJ, Wacker DW, Tsutsui K, and Wingfield JC. (2006b). Rapid inhibition of female sexual behavior by gonadotropininhibitory hormone (GnIH). Horm Behav 49: 550-555.
15. Bentley GE, Kriegsfeld LJ, Osugi T, Ukena K, O'Brien S, Perfito N, Moore IT, Wingfield JC, and Tsutsui K. (2006a). Interactions of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) and gonadotropin- inhibitory hormone (GnIH) and in birds and mammals. J Exp Zool 305A: 807-814.
16. Bentley GE, Perfito N, Ukena K, Tsutsui K, and Wingfield JC. (2003). Gonadotropin-inhibitory peptide in song sparrows (Melospiza melodia) in different reproductive conditions, and in house sparrows (Passer domesticus) relative to chicken-gonadotropin-releasing hormone. J Neuroendocrinol 15:794-802.
17. Bentley GE, Spar BD, MacDougall-Shackleton SA, Hahn TP, and Ball GF. (2000). Photoperiodic regulation of the reproductive axis in male zebra finches, Taeniopygia guttata. Gen Comp Endocrinol 117: 449-455.
18. Bentley GE, Ubuka T, McGuire NL, Chowdhury VS, Morita Y, Yano T, Hasunuma I, Binns M, Wingfield JC, and Tsutsui K. (2008). Gonadotropininhibitory hormone and its receptor in the avian reproductive system. Gen Comp Endocrinol 156: 34-43.
19. Bentley GE, Van't Hof TJ, and Ball GF. (1999). Seasonal neuroplasticity in the songbird telencephalon: A role for melatonin. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 13:4674-4679.
20. Bissonnette TH. (1931). Studies on the sexual cycle in birds. V. Effects of light of different intensities upon the testis activity of the European starling (Sturnus vulgaris). Physiol Zool 4: 542-574.
21. Bissonnette TH and Wadlund APR. (1933). Testis activity in Sturnus vulgaris in relation to artificial sunlight and to electric lights of equal heat and luminous intensities. Bird Banding 4: 8-18.
22. Boulakoud MS and Goldsmith AR. (1991). Thyroxine treatment induces changes in hypothalamic gonadotrophin-releasing hormone characteristic of photorefractoriness in starlings (Sturnus vulgaris). Gen Comp Endocrinol 82:78-85.
23. Boulakoud MS and Goldsmith AR. (1994). Acqusition of photosensitivity in castrated male starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) under short daily photoperiods. J Reprod Fert 100: 77-79.
24. Boulakoud MS and Goldsmith AR. (1995). The effect of duration of exposure to short days on the gonadal response to long days in male starlings (Sturnus vulgaris). J Reprod Fert 104: 215-217.
25. Brandstätter R. (2003). Encoding time of day and time of year by the avian circadian system. J Neuroendocrinol 15: 398-404.
26. Brandstätter R, Kumar V, Abraham U, and Gwinner E. (2000). Photoperiodic information acquired and stored in vivo is retained in vitro by a circadian oscillator, the avian pineal gland. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 97:12324-12328.
27. Bubenik GA. (2002). Gastrointestinal melatonin: Localization, function, and clinical relevance. Dig Dis Sci 47: 2336-2348.
28. Bünning E. (1936). Die endogene Tagesrhythmik als Grundlage der photoperiodischen Reaktion. Ber Dt Bot Ges 54: 590-607.
29. Calisi RM, Rizzo NO, and Bentley GE. (2008). Seasonal differences in hypothalamic EGR-1 and GnIH expression following capture-handling stress in House sparrows (Passer domesticus). Gen Comp Endocrinol.157: 283-287.
30. Caro SP, Balthazart J, Thomas DW, Lacroix A, Chastel O, and Lambrechts MM. (2005). Endocrine correlates of the breeding asynchrony between two Corsican populations of blue tits (Parus caeruleus). Gen Comp Endocrinol 140: 52-60.
31. Caro SP, Lambrechts MM, Chastel O, Sharp PJ, Thomas DW, and Balthazart J. (2006). Simultaneous pituitary-gonadal recrudescence in two Corsican populations of male blue tits with asynchronous breeding dates. Horm Behav 50: 347-360.
32. Cassone VM, Bartell PA, Earnest BJ, and Kumar V. (2008). Duration of melatonin regulates seasonal changes in song control nuclei of the house sparrow, Passer domesticus: Independence from gonads and circadian entrainment. J Biol Rhythms 23: 49-58.
33. Cassone VM and Menaker M. (1984). Is the avian circadian system a neuroendocrine loop? J Exp Zool 232: 539-549.
34. Ciccone NA, Dunn IC, Boswell T, Tsutsui K, Ubuka T, Ukena K, and Sharp PJ. (2004). Gonadotrophin inhibitory hormone depresses gonadotrophin α and follicle-stimulating hormone β? subunit expression in the pituitary of the domestic chicken. J Neuroendocrinol 16: 999-1006.
35. Clerens S, D'Hondt E, Berghman LR, Vandesande F, and Arckens L. (2003). Identification of cGnRH-II in the median eminence of Japanese quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica). Gen Comp Endocrinol 131: 48-56.
36. Cockrem JF and Follett BK. (1985). Circadian rhythm of melatonin in the pineal gland of the Japanese quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica). J Endocrinol 107: 317-324.
37. Cusick EK and Wilson FE. (1972). On the control of spontaneous testicular regression in tree sparrows (Spizella arborea). Gen Comp Endocrinol 19: 441-456.
38. Dahl GE, Evans NP, Moenter SM, and Karsch FJ. (1994). The thyroid gland is required for reproductive responses to photoperiod in the ewe. Endocrinology 135: 10-15.
39. Dawson A. (1983). Plasma gonadal steroid levels in wild starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) during the annual cycle and in relation to the stages of breeding. Gen Comp Endocrinol 49: 286-294.
40. Dawson A. (1984). Changes in plasma thyroxine concentration in male and female starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) during a photo-induced gonadal cycle. Gen Comp Endocrinol 56: 193-197.
41. Dawson A. (1986). The effect of restricting the daily period of food availability on testicular growth of starlings Sturnus vulgaris. Ibis 128: 572-575.
42. Dawson A. (1987). Photorefractoriness in European starlings: Critical daylength is not affected by photoperiodic history. Physiol Zool 60: 722-729.
43. Dawson A. (1989a). Pharmacological doses of thyroxine simulate the effects of increased daylength, and thyroidectomy, decreased daylength on the reproductive system of European starlings. J Exp Zool 249: 62-67.
44. Dawson A. (1989b). The involvement of thyroxine and daylength in the development of photorefractoriness in European starlings. J Exp Zool 249:68-75.
45. Dawson A. (1991). Effect of daylength on the rate of recovery of photosensitivity in male starlings (Sturnus vulgaris). J Reprod Fert 93: 521-524.
46. Dawson A. (2001). The effect of a single long photoperiod on induction and dissipation of reproductive photorefractoriness in European starlings. Gen Comp Endocrinol 121: 316-324.
47. Dawson A and Goldsmith AR. (1982). Prolactin and gonadotrophin secretion in wild starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) during the annual cycle and in relation to nesting, incubation and rearing young. Gen Comp Endocrinol 48: 213-221.
48. Dawson A and Goldsmith AR. (1983). Plasma prolactin and gonadotrophins during gonadal development and the onset of photorefractoriness in male and female starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) on artificial photoperiods. J Endocrinol 97: 253-260.
49. Dawson A and Goldsmith AR. (1984). Effects of gonadectomy on seasonal changes in plasma LH and prolactin concentrations in male and female starlings (Sturnus vulgaris). J Endocrinol 100: 213-218.
50. Dawson A, Goldsmith AR, and Nicholls TJ. (1985). Development of photorefractoriness in intact and castrated male starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) exposed to different periods of long daylengths. Physiol Zool 58: 253-261.
51. Dawson A and King V. (1994). Thyroidectomy does not affect the daily or free-running rhythms of plasma melatonin in European starlings. J Biol Rhythms 9: 137-144.
52. Dawson A, King VM, Bentley GE, and Ball GF. (2001). Photoperiodic control of seasonality in birds. J Biol Rhythms 16: 365-380.
53. Dawson A and Sharp PJ. (1998). The role of prolactin in the development of reproductive photorefractoriness and postnuptial molt in the European starling (Sturnus vulgaris). Endocrinology 139: 485-490.
54. Dawson A, Williams TD, and Nicholls TJ. (1987). Thyroidectomy of nestling starlings appears to cause neotenous sexual maturation. J Endocrinol 112:R5-R6.
55. D'Hondt E, Billen J, Berghman L, Vandesande F, and Arckens L (2001). Chicken luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone-I and -II are located in distinct fiber terminals in the median eminence of the quail: a light and electron microscopic study. Belg J Zool 131: 137-144.
56. Dittami JP and Gwinner E. (1985). Annual cycles in the African stonechat Saxicola torquata axillaris and their relationship to environmental factors. J Zool Lond 207: 357-370.
57. Dunn IC, Chen C, Hook C, Sharp PJ, and Sang HM. (1993). Characterization of the chicken preprogonadotrophin-releasing hormone-I gene. J Mol Endocrinol 11: 19-29.
58. Ebling FJP, Goldsmith AR, and Follett BK. (1982). Plasma prolactin and luteinizing hormone during photoperiodically induced testicular growth and regression in starlings (Sturnus vulgaris). Gen Comp Endocrinol 48: 485-490.
59. Elliott JA. (1976). Circadian rhythms and photoperiodic time measurement in mammals. Fed Proc 35: 2339-2346.
60. Farner DS. (1964). The photoperiodic control of reproductive cycles in birds. Am Sci 52: 137-156.
61. Farner DS, Donham RS, Lewis RA, Mattocks PW, Darden TR, and Smith JP. (1977). The circadian component in the photoperiodic mechanism of the house sparrow, Passer domesticus. Physiol Zool 50: 247-268.
62. Farner DS and Follett BK. (1966). Light and other environmental factors affecting avian reproduction. J Animal Sci 25(suppl): 90-118.
63. Follett BK. (1973). Circadian rhythms and photoperiodic time measurement in birds. J Reprod Fert 19(suppl): 5-18.
64. Follett BK, Kumar V, and Juss TS. (1992). Circadian nature of the photoperiodic clock in Japanese quail. J Comp Physiol A 171: 533-540.
65. Follett BK, Mattocks PW Jr, and Farner DS. (1974). Circadian function in the photoperiodic induction of gonadotropin secretion in the white-crowned sparrow, Zonotrichia leucophrys gambelii. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 71: 1666-1669.
66. Follett BK and Nicholls TJ. (1984). Photorefractoriness in Japanese quail:Possible involvement of the thyroid gland. J Exp Zool 232: 573-580.
67. Follett BK and Nicholls TJ. (1985). Influences of thyroidectomy and thyroxine replacement on photoperiodically controlled reproduction in quail. J Endocrinol 107: 211-221.
68. Follett BK and Sharp PJ. (1969). Circadian rhythmicity in photoperiodically induced gonadotrophin secretion and gonadal growth in quail. Nature 223:968-971.
69. Foster RG and Follett BK. (1985). The involvement of a rhodopsin-like photopigment in the photoperiodic response of the Japanese quail. J Comp Physiol A 157: 519-528.
70. Foster RG, Follett BK, and Lythgoe JN. (1985). Rhodopsin-like sensitivity of extra-retinal photoreceptors mediating the photoperiodic response in quail. Nature 313: 50-52.
71. Foster RG, Plowman G, Goldsmith AR, and Follett BK. (1987). Immunohistochemical demonstration of marked changes in the LHRH system of photosensitive and photorefractory European starlings (Sturnus vulgaris). J Endocrinol 115: 211-220.
72. Foster RG, Provencio I, Hudson D, Fiske S, DeGrip W, and Menaker M. (1991). Circadian photoreception in the retinally degenerate mouse (rd/rd). J Comp Physiol A 169: 39-50.
73. Foster RG, Timmers AM, Schalken JJ, and DeGrip WJ. (1989). A comparison of some photoreceptor characteristics in the pineal and retina: II. The Djungarian hamster (Phodopus sungarus). J Comp Physiol A 165: 565-572.
74. Gibb J. (1950). The breeding biology of the great and blue titmice. Ibis 92:507-539.
75. Goldsmith AR. (1983). Prolactin in avian reproductive cycles. In Hormones and Behaviour in Higher Vertebrates (J Balthazart, E Pröve, and R Gilles, eds). Toronto: Springer-Verlag, pp. 375-387.
76. Goldsmith AR. (1985). Prolactin in avian reproduction: Incubation and the control of seasonal breeding. In Fidia Research Series, vol 1, Prolactin (RM Macleod, U Scapagnini, and MO Thorner, eds). Padova: Liviana Press/Berlin:Springer-Verlag, pp. 411-426.
77. Goldsmith AR, Ivings WE, Pearce-Kelly AS, Parry DM, Plowman G, Nicholls TJ, and Follett BK. (1989). Photoperiodic control of the development of the LHRH neurosecretory system of European starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) during puberty and the onset of photorefractoriness. J Endocrinol 122: 255-268.
78. Goldsmith AR and Nicholls TJ. (1984a). Thyroidectomy prevents the development of photorefractoriness and the associated rise in plasma prolactin in starlings. Gen Comp Endocrinol 54: 256-263.
79. Goldsmith AR and Nicholls TJ. (1984b). Changes in plasma prolactin in male starlings during testicular regression under short days compared with those during photorefractoriness. J Endocrinol 102: 353-356.
80. Goldsmith AR and Nicholls TJ. (1984c). Thyroxine induces photorefractoriness and stimulates prolactin secretion in European starlings (Sturnus vulgaris). J Endocrinol 101: R1-R3.
81. Griffith MK and Minton JE. (1992). Effect of light intensity on circadian profiles of melatonin, prolactin, ACTH, and cortisol in pigs. J Anim Sci 70: 492-498.
82. Groos G. (1982). The comparative physiology of extraocular photoreception. Exp Gen 38: 989-1128.
83. Guyomarc'h C, Lumineau S, Vivien-Roels B, Richard J, and Deregnaucourt S. (2001). Effect of melatonin supplementation on the sexual development in European quail (Coturnix coturnix). Behav Processes 53: 121-130.
84. Gwinner E, Dittami JP, and Beldhuis HJA. (1988). The seasonal development of photoperiodic responsiveness in an equatorial migrant, the garden warbler Sylvia borin. J Comp Physiol A 162: 389-396.
85. Gwinner E and Scheuerlein A. (1998). Seasonal changes in day-light intensity as a potential zeitgeber of circannual rhythms in equatorial stonechats. J Ornithol 139: 407-412.
86. Gwinner E and Scheuerlein A. (1999). Photoperiodic responsiveness of equatorial and temperate-zone stonechats. Condor 101: 347-359.
87. Gwinner E, Wozniak J, and Dittami J. (1981). The role of the pineal organ in the control of annual rhythms in birds. In The Pineal Organ: Photobiology-Biochronometry-Endocrinology (A Oksche and P Pévet, eds). Amsterdam:Elsevier/North-Holland, pp. 99-121.
88. Hahn TP. (1998). Reproductive seasonality in an opportunistic breeder, the red crossbill, Loxia curvirostra. Ecology 79: 2365-2375.
89. Hahn TP, Wingfield JC, Mullen R, and Deviche PJ. (1995). Endocrine bases of spatial and temporal opportunism in Arctic-breeding birds. Am Zool 35: 259-273.
90. Hamner WM. (1963). Diurnal rhythm and photoperiodism in testicular recrudescence of the house finch. Science 142: 1294-1295.
91. Hamner WM. (1964). Circadian control of photoperiodism in the house finch demonstrated by interrupted-night experiments. Nature 203: 1400-1401.
92. Hamner WM. (1971). On seeking an alternative to the endogenous reproductive rhythm hypothesis in birds. In Biochronometry (M Menaker, ed). Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences, pp. 448-461.
93. Hattar S, Lucas RJ, Mrosovsky N, Thompson S, Douglas RH, Hankins MW, Lem J, Biel M, Hofmann F, Foster RG, and Yau KW. (2003). Melanopsin and rod-cone photoreceptive systems account for all major accessory visual functions in mice. Nature 424: 76-81.
94. Hau M, Wikelski M, and Wingfield JC. (1998). A neotropical forest bird can measure the slight changes in tropical photoperiod. Proc R Soc Lond Biol Sci 1391: 89-95.
95. Hinde RA and Steel E. (1978). The influence of day length and male vocalizations on the estrogen-dependent behavior of female canaries and budgerigars, with discussion of data from other species. Adv Stud Behav 8:39-73.
96. Immelman K. (1971). Ecological aspects of periodic reproduction. In Avian Biology, vol 1 (DS Farner and JR King, eds). New York: Academic Press. pp 341-389.
97. Johnson MA, Tsutsui K, and Fraley GS. (2007). Rat RFamide-related peptide-3 stimulates GH secretion, inhibits LH secretion, and has variable effects on sex behavior in the adult male rat. Horm Behav 51: 171-180.
98. Juss TS, Meddle SL, Servant RS, and King VM. (1993). Melatonin and photoperiodic time measurement in Japanese quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica). Proc R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 254: 21-28.
99. Kang SW, Thayananuphat A, Bakken T, and El Halawani ME. (2007). Dopamine-melatonin neurons in the avian hypothalamus controlling seasonal reproduction. Neuroscience 150: 223-233.
100. Kauffman AS and Rissman EF. (2004). A critical role for the evolutionarily conserved gonadotropin-releasing hormone II: Mediation of energy status and female sexual behavior. Endocrinology 145: 3639-3646.
101. King JA and Millar RP. (1982a). Structure of chicken hypothalamic luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone. I. Structural determination on partially purified material. J Biol Chem 257: 10722-10732.
102. King JA and Millar RP. (1982b). Structure of chicken hypothalamic luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone. II. Isolation and characterization. J Biol Chem 257: 10729-10732.
103. Kluijver HN. (1951). The population ecology of the Great tit Parus m. major. Ardea 39: 1-135.
104. Kriegsfeld LJ, Feng-Mei D, Bentley GE, Ukena K, Tsutsui K, and Silver R. (2006). Identification and characterization of a gonadotropin-inhibitory system in the brains of mammals. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 103: 2410-2415.
105. Kumar V and Follett BK. (1993). The circadian nature of melatonin secretion in Japanese quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica). J Pineal Res 14: 192-200.
106. Kumar V, Rani S, Malik S, Trivedi AK, Schwabl I, Helm B, and Gwinner E. (2007). Daytime light intensity affects seasonal timing via changes in the nocturnal melatonin levels. Naturwissenschaften 94: 693-696.
107. Lee PP and Pang SF. (1993). Melatonin and its receptors in the gastrointestinal tract. Biol Signals 2: 181-193.
108. Lees AD. (1973). Photoperiodic time measurement in the aphid Megoura viciae. J Insect Physiol 19: 2279-2316.
109. Lincoln GA, Racey PA, Sharp PJ, and Klandorf H. (1980). Endocrine changes associated with spring and autumn sexuality of the rook (Corvus frugilegus). J Zool 190: 137-153.
110. Maney DL, Richardson RD, and Wingfield JC. (1997). Central administration of chicken gonadotropin-releasing hormone-II enhances courtship behavior in a female sparrow. Horm Behav 32: 11-18.
111. Marshall FHA and Bowden FP. (1934). The effect of irradiation with different wave-lengths on the oestrus cycle of the ferret, with remarks on the factors controlling sexual periodicity. J Exp Biol 11: 409-422.
112. Meddle SL, Bush S, Sharp PJ, Millar RP, and Wingfield JC. (2006). Hypothalamic pro-GnRH-GAP, GnRH-I and GnRH-II during the onset of photorefractoriness in the white-crowned sparrow (Zonotrichia leucophrys gambelii). J Neuroendocrinol 18: 217-226.
113. Meddle SL and Follett BK. (1995). Photoperiodic activation of fos-like immunoreactive protein in neurones within the tuberal hypothalamus of Japanese quail. J Comp Physiol A 176: 79-89.
114. Meddle SL and Follett BK. (1997). Photoperiodically driven changes in Fos expression within the basal tuberal hypothalamus and median eminence of Japanese quail. J Neurosci 17: 8909-8918.
115. Meier AH. (1972). Temporal synergism of prolactin and adrenal steroids in the regulation of fat storage. Gen Comp Endocrinol 3(suppl): 499-508.
116. Meier AH and MacGregor R. (1972). Temporal organization in avian reproduction. Am Zool 12: 257-271.
117. Menaker M. (1971). In Biochronometry: Proceedings of a Symposium:Synchronization with the Photic Environment via Extraretinal Receptors in the Avian Brain. (M Menaker, ed). Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences, pp. 315-332.
118. Menaker M and Keatts H. (1968). Extraretinal light perception in the sparrow, II. Photoperiodic stimulation of testis growth. Proc Nat Acad Sci USA 60: 146-151.
119. Millam JR, Faris PL, Youngren OM, El Halawani ME, and Hartman BK. (1993). Immunohisto-chemical localization of chicken gonadotropin-releasing hormones I and II (cGnRH-I and -II) in turkey hen brain. J Comp Neurol 333:68-82.
120. Millam JR, Ottinger MA, Craig-Veit CB, Fan Y, Chaiseha Y, and El Halawani ME. (1998). Multiple forms of GnRH are released from perifused medial basal hypothalamic/preoptic area (MBH/POA) explants in birds. Gen Comp Endocrinol 111: 95-101.
121. Miller AH. (1965). Capacity for photoperiodic response and endogenous factors in the reproductive cycles of an equitorial sparrow. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 54: 97-101.
122. Miyamoto K, Hasegawa Y, Nomura M, Igarashi M, Kangawa K, and Matsuo H. (1984). Identification of the second gonadotropin-releasing hormone in chicken hypothalamus: Evidence that gonadotropin secretion is probably controlled by two distinct gonadotropin-releasing hormones in avian species. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 81: 3874-3878.
123. Moenter SM, Woodfill CJI, and Karsch FJ. (1991). Role of the thyroid gland in seasonal reproduction: Thyroidectomy blocks seasonal suppression of reproductive neuroendocrine activity in ewes. Endocrinology 128: 1337-1344.
124. Moore IT, Bentley GE, Wotus C, and Wingfield JC. (2006). Photoperiodindependent changes in immunoreactive brain gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) in a free-living, tropical bird. Brain Behav Evol 68:37-44.
125. Murton RK and Westwood NJ. (1977). Avian Breeding Cycles. Oxford:Clarendon.
126. Nakao N, Ono H, Yamamura T, Anraku T, Takagi T, Higashi K, Yasuo S, Katou Y, Kageyama S, Uno Y, Kasukawa T, Iigo M, Sharp PJ, Iwasawa A, et al. (2008). Thyrotrophin in the pars tuberalis triggers photoperiodic response. Nature 452: 317-322.
127. Nelson RJ and Zucker I. (1981). Absence of extraocular photoreception in diurnal and nocturnal rodents exposed to direct sunlight. Comp Biochem Physiol 69A:145-148.
128. Nicholls TJ, Follett BK, Goldsmith AR, and Pearson H. (1988b). Possible homologies between photorefractoriness in sheep and birds: The effect of thyroidectomy on the length of the ewe's breeding season. Reprod Nutr Dev 28: 375-385.
129. Nicholls TJ, Follett BK, and Robinson JE. (1983). A photoperiodic response in gonadectomized Japanese quail exposed to a single long day. J Endocrinol 97: 121-126.
130. Nicholls TJ, Goldsmith AR, and Dawson A. (1988a). Photorefractoriness in birds and comparison with mammals. Physiol Rev 68: 133-176.
131. Nicholls TJ and Storey CR. (1977). The effect of duration of the daily photoperiod on recovery of photosensitivity in photorefractory canaries (Serinus canarius). Gen Comp Endocrinol 31: 72-74.
132. Ohta M, Kadota C, and Konishi H. (1989). A role of melatonin in the initial stage of photoperiodism in the Japanese quail. Biol Reprod 40: 935-941.
133. Oliver J and Baylé JD. (1982). Brain photoreceptors for the photo-induced testicular response in birds. Experentia 38: 1021-1029.
134. Osugi T, Ukena K, Bentley GE, O'Brien S, Moore IT, Wingfield JC, and Tsutsui K. (2004). Gonadotropin-inhibitory hormone in Gambel's white-crowned sparrows: CDNA identification, transcript localization and functional effects in laboratory and field experiments. J Endocrinol 182: 33-42.
135. Parkinson TJ, Douthwaite JA, and Follett BK. (1995). Responses of prepubertal and mature rams to thyroidectomy. J Reprod Fert 104: 51-56.
136. Parkinson TJ and Follett BK. (1994). Effect of thyroidectomy upon seasonality in rams. J Reprod Fert 101: 51-58.
137. Parry DM and Goldsmith AR. (1993). Ultrastructural evidence for changes in synaptic input to the hypothalamic luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone neurons in photosensitive and photorefractory starlings. J Neuroendocrinol 5:387-395.
138. Perfito N, Bentley GE, and Hau M. (2006). Tonic activation of brain GnRH immunoreactivity despite reduction of peripheral reproductive parameters in opportunistically breeding zebra finches. Brain Behav Evol 67: 123-134.
139. Perfito N, Kwong JM, Bentley GE, and Hau M. (2008). Cue hierarchies and testicular development: Is food a more potent stimulus than day length in an opportunistic breeder (Taeniopygia g. guttata)? Horm Behav 53: 567-572.
140. Pittendrigh CS and Minis DH. (1964). The entrainment of circadian oscillators by light and their role as photoperiodic clocks. Am Nat 98: 261-294.
141. Pittendrigh CS and Minis DH. (1971). The photoperiodic time measurement in Pectinophora gossypiella and its relation to the circadian system in that species. In Biochronometry (M Menaker, ed). Washington, DC: National Academy of Science, pp. 212-250.
142. Reiter RJ. (1978). Interaction of photoperiod, pineal and seasonal reproduction as exemplified by findings in the hamster. Prog Reprod Biol 4:169-190.
143. Ringoen AR. (1942). Effects of continuous green and red light illumination on gonadal response in the English sparrow, Passer domesticus (Linnaeus). Am J Anat 71: 99-116.
144. Robinson JE and Follett BK. (1982). Photoperiodism in Japanese quail: The termination of seasonal breeding by photorefractoriness. Proc R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 215: 95-116.
145. Rollo M and Domm LV. (1943). Light requirements of the weaver finch. 1. Light period and intensity. Auk 60: 357-367.
146. Rowan W. (1925). Relation of light to bird migration and developmental changes. Nature 115: 494-495.
147. Rozenboim I, Aharony T, and Yahav S. (2002). The effect of melatonin administration on circulating plasma luteinizing hormone concentration in castrated White Leghorn roosters. Poult Sci 81: 1354-1359.
148. Saldanha CJ, Silverman AJ, and Silver R. (2001). Direct innervation of GnRH neurons by encephalic photoreceptors in birds. J Biol Rhythms 16: 39-49.
149. Sharp PJ, Dunn IC, and Talbot RT. (1987). Sex differences in the LH responses to chicken LHRH-I and -II in the domestic fowl. J Endocrinol 115: 323-331.
150. Sharp PJ and Klandorf H. (1981). The interaction between day length and the gonads in the regulation of levels of plasma thyroxine and triiodothyronine in the Japanese quail. Gen Comp Endocrinol 45: 504-512.
151. Sharp PJ and Moss R. (1977). The effect of castration on plasma LH levels in photorefractory red grouse (Lagopus lagopus scoticus). Gen Comp Endocrinol 32: 289-293.
152. Sharp PJ, Talbot RT, Main GM, Dunn IC, Fraser HM, and Huskisson NS. (1990). Physiological roles of chicken LHRH-I and -II in the control of gonadotrophin release in the domestic chicken. J Endocrinol 124: 291-299.
153. Sherwood NM, Wingfield JC, Ball GF, and Dufty AM. (1988). Identity of gonadotropin-releasing hormone in passerine birds: Comparison of GnRH in song sparrow (Melospiza melodia) and starling (Sturnus vulgaris) with five vertebrate GnRHs. Gen Comp Endocrinol 69: 341-351.
154. Shi ZD and Barrell GK. (1992). Requirement of thyroid function for the expression of seasonal reproductive and related changes in red deer (Cervus elaphus) stags. J Reprod Fert 94: 251-259.
155. Sicard V, Oliver J, and Baylé JD. (1983). Gonadotrophic and photosensitive abilities of the lobus parolfactorius: Electrophysiological study in quail. Neuroendocrinology 36: 81-87.
156. Silver R, Witkovsky P, Horvath P, Alones V, Barnstable CJ, and Lehman MN. (1988). Coexpression of opsin-like and VIP-like immunoreactivity in CSFcontacting neurons of the avian brain. Cell Tiss Res 253: 189-198.
157. Silverin B, Massa R, and Stokkan KA. (1993). Photoperiodic adaptation to breeding at different latitudes in great tits. Gen Comp Endocrinol 90: 14-22.
158. Small TW, Sharp PJ, Bentley GE, Millar RP, Tsutsui K, Mura E, and Deviche P. (2008). Photoperiod-independent hypothalamic regulation of luteinizing hormone secretion in a free-living Sonoran desert bird, the rufous-winged Sparrow (Aimophila carpalis). Brain Behav Evol 71: 127-142.
159. Steel E, Follett BK, and Hinde RA. (1975). The role of short days in the termination of photorefractoriness in female canaries (Serinus canarius). J Endocrinol 64: 451-464.
160. Stevenson TJ and Macdougall-Shackleton SA. (2005). Season- and agerelated variation in neural cGnRH-I and cGnRH-II immunoreactivity in house sparrows (Passer domesticus). Gen Comp Endocrinol 143: 33-39.
161. Stokkan K-A and Sharp PJ. (1980a). The roles of daylength and the testes in the regulation of plasma LH levels in photosensitive and photorefractory willow ptarmigan (Lagopus lagopus lagopus). Gen Comp Endocrinol 41: 520-526.
162. Stokkan K-A and Sharp PJ. (1980b). The development of photorefractoriness in willow ptarmigan (Lagopus lagopus lagopus) after the suppression of photoinduced LH release with implants of testosterone. Gen Comp Endocrinol 41: 527-530.
163. Temple JL, Millar RP, and Rissman EF. (2003). An evolutionarily conserved form of gonadotropin-releasing hormone coordinates energy and reproductive behavior. Endocrinology 144: 13-19.
164. Teruyama R and Beck MM. (2000). Changes in immunoreactivity to anticGnRH-I and -II are associated with photostimulated sexual status in male quail. Cell Tiss Res 300: 413-426.
165. Tsutsui K, Saigoh E, Ukena K, Teranishi H, Fujisawa Y, Kikuchi M, Ishii S, and Sharp PJ. (2000). A novel avian hypothalamic peptide inhibiting gonadotropin release. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 275: 661-667.
166. Turek FW. (1974). Circadian rhythmicity and the initiation of gonadal growth in sparrows. J Comp Physiol 92: 59-64.
167. Turek FW. (1975). The termination of the avian photorefractory period and the subsequent gonadal response. Gen Comp Endocrinol 26: 562-564.
168. Ubuka T and Bentley GE. (2009). Identification, localization, and regulation of passerine GnRH-1 messenger RNA. J Endocrinol. 201: 81-87.
169. Ubuka T, Cadigan PA, Wang A, Liu J, and Bentley GE. (2009). Identification of European starling GnRH-1 precursor mRNA and its seasonal regulation. Gen Comp Endocrinol. 162: 301-305.
170. Ubuka T, Bentley GE, Ukena K, Wingfield JC, and Tsutsui K. (2005). Melatonin induces the expression of gonadotropin-inhibitory hormone in the avian brain. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 102: 3052-3057.
171. Ubuka T, Ueno M, Ukena K, and Tsutsui K. (2003). Developmental changes in gonadotropin-inhibitory hormone in the Japanese quail (Coturnix japonica) hypothalamo-hypophysial system. J Endocrinol 178: 311-318.
172. Ubuka T, Ukena K, Sharp PJ, Bentley GE, and Tsutsui K. (2006). Gonadotropin-inhibitory hormone inhibits gonadal development and maintenance by decreasing gonadotropin synthesis and release in male quail. Endocrinology 147: 1187-1194.
173. Ukena K, Ubuka T, and Tsutsui K. (2003). Distribution of a novel avian gonadotropin-inhibitory hormone in the quail brain. Cell Tissue Res 312: 73-79.
174. Underwood H, Binkley S, Siopes T, and Mosher K. (1984). Melatonin rhythms in the eyes, pineal bodies, and blood of Japanese quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica). Gen Comp Endocrinol 56: 70-81.
175. Underwood H and Menaker M. (1970). Photoperiodically significant photoreception in sparrows: Is the retina involved? Science 167: 299-301.
176. van Gils J, Absil P, Grauwels L, Moons L, Vandesande F, and Balthazart J. (1993). Distribution of luteinizing hormone-releasing hormones I and II (LHRH-I and -II) in the quail and chicken brain as demonstrated with antibodies directed against synthetic peptides. J Comp Neurol 334: 304-323.
177. Vaz Nunes M and Veerman A. (1984). Light-break experiments and photoperiodic time measurement in the spider mite Tetranychus urticae. J Insect Physiol 30: 891-897.
178. Vaz Nunes M and Veerman A. (1986). A "dusk" oscillator affects photoperiodic induction of diapause in the spider mite Tetranychus urticae. J Insect Physiol 32: 605-614.
179. Vaugien L. (1955). Sur les réactions testiculaires du jeune moineau domestique illuminé à diverses époques de la mauvais saison. Bull Biol Fran Belg 89: 218-244.
180. Veerman A, Beckman M, and Veenedaal RL. (1988). Photoperiodic induction of diapause in the large white butterfly, Pieris brassicae-evidence for hour glass time measurement. J Insect Physiol 34: 1063-1069.
181. Wieselthier AS and van Tienhoven A. (1972). The effect of thyroidectomy on testicular size and on the photorefractory period in the starling (Sturnus vulgaris L.) J Exp Zool 179: 331-338.
182. Williams TD, Dawson A, Nicholls TJ, and Goldsmith AR. (1987). Short days induce premature reproductive maturation in juvenile starlings, Sturnus vulgaris. J Reprod Fert 80: 327-333.
183. Wilson FE. (1985). Androgen feedback-dependent and independent control of photoinduced LH secretion in male tree sparrows (Spizella arborea). J Endocrinol 105: 141-152.
184. Wilson FE. (1991). Neither retinal nor pineal photoreceptors mediate photoperiodic control of seasonal reproduction in American tree sparrows (Spizella arborea). J Exp Zool 259: 117-127.
185. Wilson FE and Donham RS. (1988). Daylength and control of seasonal reproduction in male birds. In Processing of Environmental Information in Vertebrates (MH Stetson, ed). Berlin: Springer-Verlag, pp. 101-120.
186. Wilson FE and Reinert BD. (1993). The thyroid and photoperiodic control of seasonal reproduction in American tree sparrows (Spizella arborea). J Comp Physiol B 163: 563-573.
187. Wilson FE and Reinert BD. (1995a). The photoperiodic control circuit in euthyroid American tree sparrows (Spizella arborea) is already programmed for photorefractoriness by week 4 under long days. J Reprod Fert 103: 279-284.
188. Wilson FE and Reinert BD. (1995b). A one-time injection of thyroxine programmed seasonal reproduction and postnuptial moult in chronically thyroidectomised male American tree sparrows Spizella arborea exposed to long days. J Avian Biol 26: 225-233.
189. Wingfield JC. (1980). Fine temporal adjustment of reproductive functions. In Avian Endocrinology (A Epple and MH Stetson, eds). New York: Academic Press, pp. 367-389.
190. Wingfield JC and Farner DS. (1993). The endocrinology of wild species. In Avian Biology, vol 9 (DS Farner, JR King, and KC Parkes, eds). New York:Academic, pp. 163-327.
191. Wingfield JC, Moore MC, and Farner DS. (1983). Endocrine responses to inclement weather in naturally breeding populations of white-crowned sparrows (Zonotrichia leucophrys pugetensis). Auk 100: 56-62.
192. Yamamura T, Hirunagi K, Ebihara S, and Yoshimura T. (2004). Seasonal morphological changes in the neuro-glial interaction between gonadotropinreleasing hormone nerve terminals and glial endfeet in Japanese quail. Endocrinology 145: 4264-4267.
193. Yoshimura T, Yasuo S, Watanabe M, Iigo M, Yamamura T, Hirunagi K, and Ebihara S. (2003). Light-induced hormone conversion of T4 to T3 regulates photoperiodic response of gonads in birds. Nature 426: 178-181.
194. Zann RA, Morton SR, Jones KR, and Burley NT. (1995). The timing of breeding by zebra finches in relation to rainfall in central Australia. Emu 95: 208-222.