Management and environmental influences on mammary gland development and milk production

Managing the Prenatal Environment to Enhance Livestock Productivity

Volumn , Issue , 2010, Pages 259-292

  Capuco, Anthony V ^a   Akers, R Michael ^b  

^a AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH SERVICE   (United States)

^b VIRGINIA POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE AND STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84919717584     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1007/978-90-481-3135-8_9     Document Type: Chapter

References (159)

1. Adams, N. R. 1995. Detection of the effects of phytoestrogens on sheep and cattle. J. Anim. Sci. 73:1509-1515.
2. Akers, R. M. 1985. Lactogenic hormones: binding sites, mammary growth, secretory cell differentiation, and milk biosynthesis in ruminants. J. Dairy Sci. 68:501-519.
3. Akers, R. M. 2002. Lactation and the Mammary Gland. Iowa State Press, Ames, IA.
4. Akers, R. M. 2006. Major advances associated with hormone and growth factor regulation of mammary growth and lactation in dairy cows. J. Dairy Sci. 89:1222-1234.
5. Akers, R. M., D. E. Bauman, A. V. Capuco, G. T. Goodman, and H. A. Tucker. 1981. Prolactin regulation of milk secretion and biochemical differentiation of mammary epithelial cells in periparturient cows. Endocrinology 109:23-30.
6. Akers, R. M., D. E. Bauman, G. T. Goodman, A. V. Capuco, and H. A. Tucker. 1981. Prolactin regulation of cytological differentiation of mammary epithelial cells in periparturient cows. Endocrinology 109:31-40.
7. Akers, R. M. and A. V. Capuco 2002. Lactogenesis, p. 1442-1446. In H. Roginski, J. W. Fuquay, and P. F. Fox, (eds.), Encyclopedia of Dairy Sciences, Academic Press, London.
8. Akers, R. M., S. E. Ellis, and S. D. Berry. 2005. Ovarian and IGF-I axis control of mammary development in prepubertal heifers. Domest. Anim. Endocrinol. 29:259-267.
9. Akers, R. M., T. B. McFadden, S. Purup, M. Vestergaard, K. Sejrsen, and A. V. Capuco. 2000. Local IGF-I axis in peripubertal ruminant mammary development. J. Mammary Gland Biol. Neoplasia 5:43-51.
10. Anderson, R. R. 1985. Mammary Gland. p. 3-38. In B. L. Larson, (ed), Lactation, The Iowa State University Press, Ames, IA.
11. Badger, T. M., M. J. Ronis, R. Hakkak, J. C. Rowlands, and S. Korourian. 2002. The health consequences of early soy consumption. J. Nutr. 132:559S-565S.
12. Barash, H., Y. Barmeir, and I. Bruckental. 1994. Effects of low-energy diet followed by a compensatory diet on growth, puberty and milk production in dairy heifers. Livest. Prod. Sci. 39:263-268.
13. Berry, S. D. K., P. M. Jobst, S. E. Ellis, R. D. Howard, A. V. Capuco, and R. M. Akers. 2003. Mammary epithelial proliferation and estrogen receptor alpha expression in prepubertal heifers: effects of ovariectomy and growth hormone. J. Dairy Sci. 86:2098-2105.
14. Bickenbach, J. R. 1981. Identification and behavior of label-retaining cells in oral mucosa and skin. J. Dent. Res. Sp. Iss. C 60:1611-1620.
15. Blackburn, D. G., V. Hayssen, and C. J. Murphy. 1989. The origins of lactation and evolution of milk: A review with new hypothesis. Mamm. Rev. 19:1-26.
16. Block, S. S., J. M. Smith, R. A. Ehrhardt, M. C. Diaz, R. P. Rhoads, M. E. Van Amburgh, and Y. R. Boisclair. 2003. Nutritional and developmental regulation of plasma leptin in dairy cattle. J. Dairy Sci. 86:3206-3214.
17. Bocchinfuso, W. P. and K. S. Korach. 1997. Mammary gland development and tumorigenesis in estrogen receptor knockout mice. J. Mammary Gland Biol. Neoplasia 2:323-334.
18. Boisclair, Y. R., R. P. Rhoads, I. Ueki, J. Wang, and G. T. Ooi. 2001. The acid-labile subunit (ALS) of the 150 kDa IGF-binding protein complex: an important but forgotten component of the circulating IGF system. J. Endocrinol. 170:63-70.
19. Borellini, F. and T. Oka. 1989. Growth control and differentiation in mammary epithelial cells. Environ. Health Perspect. 80:85-99.
20. Capuco, A. V. 2007. Identification of putative bovine mammary epithelial stem cells by their retention of labeled DNA strands. Exp. Biol. Med. (Maywood) 232:1381-1390.
21. Capuco, A. V. and R. M. Akers. 1999. Mammary involution in dairy animals. J. Mammary Gland Biol. Neoplasia 4:137-144.
22. Capuco, A. V., E. Annen, A. C. Fitzgerald, S. E. Ellis, and R. J. Collier 2006. Mammary cell turnover: relevance to lactation persistency and dry period management. p. 363-388. In Ruminant physiology: Digestion, metabolism and impact of nutrition on gene expression, immunology and stress, Wageningen Academic Publishers, Wageningen, The Netherlands.
23. Capuco, A. V., G. E. Dahl, D. L. Wood, U. Moallem, and R. E. Erdman. 2004. Effect of bovine somatotropin and rumen-undegradable protein on mammary growth of prepubertal dairy heifers and subsequent milk production. J. Dairy Sci. 87:3762-3769.
24. Capuco, A. V. and S. Ellis. 2005. Bovine mammary progenitor cells: current concepts and future directions. J. Mammary Gland Biol. Neoplasia 10:5-15.
25. Capuco, A. V., S. Ellis, D. L. Wood, R. M. Akers, and W. Garrett. 2002. Postnatal mammary ductal growth: three-dimensional imaging of cell proliferation, effects of estrogen treatment, and expression of steroid receptors in prepubertal calves. Tissue Cell 34:143-154.
26. Capuco, A. V., J. J. Smith, D. R. Waldo, and C. E., Jr. Rexroad. 1995. Influence of prepubertal dietary regimen on mammary growth of Holstein heifers. J. Dairy Sci. 78:2709-2725.
27. Ceriani, R. L. 1970. Fetal mammary gland differentiation in vitro in response to hormones. I. Morphological findings. Dev. Biol. 21:506-529.
28. Ceriani, R. L. 1970. Fetal mammary gland differentiation in vitro in response to hormones. II. Biochemical findings. Dev. Biol. 21:530-546.
29. Choi, Y. J., K. Jang, D. S. Yim, M. G. Baik, D. H. Myung, Y. S. Kim, H. J. Lee, and J. S. Kim. 1998. Effects of compensatory growth on the expression of milk protein gene and biochemical changes of the mammary gland in Holstein cows. J. Nutr. Biochem. 9:380-387.
30. Clark, R. D. and R. W. Touchberry. 1962. Effect of body weight and age at calving on milk production in Holstein cattle. J. Dairy Sci. 45:1500-1510.
31. Connor, E. E., D. L. Wood, T. S. Sonstegard, A. F. da Mota, G. L. Bennett, J. L. Williams, and A. V. Capuco. 2005. Chromosomal mapping and quantitative analysis of estrogen-related receptor alpha-1, estrogen receptors alpha and beta and progesterone receptor in the bovine mammary gland. J. Endocrinol. 185:593-603.
32. Coppock, R. W., M. S. Mostrom, C. G. Sparling, B. Jacobsen, and S. C. Ross. 1990. Apparent zearalenone intoxication in a dairy herd from feeding spoiled acid-treated corn. Vet. Hum. Toxicol. 32:246-248.
33. Couse, J. F. and K. S. Korach. 1999. Estrogen receptor null mice: what have we learned and where will they lead us? Endocr. Rev. 20:358-417.
34. Cowie, A. T., J. S. Tindal, and A. Yokoyama. 1966. The induction of mammary growth in the hypophysectomised goat. J. Endocrinol. 34:185-195.
35. Crews, D. and J. A. McLachlan. 2006. Epigenetics, evolution, endocrine disruption, health, and disease. Endocrinology 147:S4-10.
36. D'Cruz, C. M., S. E. Moody, S. R. Master, J. L. Hartman, E. A. Keiper, M. B. Imielinski, J. D. Cox, J. Y. Wang, S. I. Ha, B. A. Keister, and L. A. Chodosh. 2002. Persistent parity-induced changes in growth factors, TGF-beta3, and differentiation in the rodent mammary gland. Mol. Endocrinol. 16:2034-2051.
37. D'Mello, J. P. F., C. M. Placinta, and A. M. C. Macdonald. 1999. Fusarium mycotoxins: a review of global implications for animal health, welfare and productivity. Anim. Feed Sci. Techn. 80:183-205.
38. Dahl, G. E. and D. Petitclerc. 2003. Management of photoperiod in the dairy herd for improved production and health. J. Anim. Sci. (Suppl. 3) 81:11-17.
39. de Groot, A. N., P. W. van Dongen, T. B. Vree, Y. A. Hekster, and J. van Roosmalen. 1998. Ergot alkaloids. Current status and review of clinical pharmacology and therapeutic use compared with other oxytocics in obstetrics and gynaecology. Drugs 56:523-535.
40. De Ome, K. B., L. J. Jr. Faulkin, H. A. Bern, and P. B. Blair. 1959. Development of mammary tumors from hyperplastic alveolar nodules transplanted into gland-free mammary fat pads of female C3H mice. Cancer Res. 19:515-520.
41. Desai, M., N. J. Crowther, S. E. Ozanne, A. Lucas, and C. N. Hales. 1995. Adult glucose and lipid metabolism may be programmed during fetal life. Biochem. Soc. Trans. 23:331-335.
42. Di Augustine, R. P., R. G. Richards, and J. Sebastian. 1997. EGF-related peptides and their receptors in mammary gland development. J. Mammary Gland Biol. Neoplasia 2:109-117.
43. Diaz, G. J. and H. J. Boermans. 1994. Fumonisin toxicosis in domestic animals: a review. Vet. Hum. Toxicol. 36:548-555.
44. Dontu, G., M. Al-Hajj, W. M. Abdallah, M. F. Clarke, and M. S. Wicha. 2003. Stem cells in normal breast development and breast cancer. Cell. Prolif. (Suppl. 1) 36:59-72.
45. Ellis, S. and A. V. Capuco. 2002. Cell proliferation in bovine mammary epithelium: identification of the primary proliferative cell population. Tissue Cell 34:155-163.
46. Feldman, M., W. Ruan, I. Tappin, R. Wieczorek, and D. L. Kleinberg. 1999. The effect of GH on estrogen receptor expression in the rat mammary gland. J. Endocrinol. 163:515-522.
47. Filep, R. and R. M. Akers. 2000. Casein secretion and cytological differentiation inmammary tissue from bulls of high or low genetic merit. J. Dairy Sci. 83:2261-2268.
48. Ford, J. A. Jr. and C. S. Park. 2001. Nutritionally directed compensatory growth enhances heifer development and lactation potential. J. Dairy Sci. 84:1669-1678.
49. Forsyth, I. A., G. Gabai, and G. Morgan. 1999. Spatial and temporal expression of insulinlike growth factor-I, insulin-like growth factor-II and the insulin-like growth factor-I receptor in the sheep fetal mammary gland. J. Dairy Res 66:35-44.
50. Gardner, R. W., J. D. Schuh, and L. G. Vargas. 1977. Accelerated growth and early breeding of Holstein heifers. J. Dairy Sci. 60:1941-1948.
51. Gaynor, P. J., D. R. Waldo, A. V. Capuco, R. A. Erdman, and L. W. Douglass. 1995. Effects of prepubertal growth rate and diet on lipid metabolism in lactating Holstein cows. J. Dairy Sci. 78:1534-1543.
52. Giguere, V. 2002. To ERR in the estrogen pathway. Trends Endocrinol. Metab. 13:220-225.
53. Ginger, M. R., M. F. Gonzalez-Rimbau, J. P. Gay, and J. M. Rosen. 2001. Persistent changes in gene expression induced by estrogen and progesterone in the rat mammary gland. Mol. Endocrinol. 15:1993-2009.
54. Ginger, M. R. and J. M. Rosen. 2003. Pregnancy-induced changes in cell-fate in the mammary gland. Breast Cancer Res. 5:192-197.
55. Gluckman, P. D., M. A. Hanson, and A. S. Beedle. 2007. Early life events and their consequences for later disease: A life history and evolutionary perspective. Am. J. Hum. Biol. 19:1-19.
56. Grings, E. E., D. M. de Avila, R. G. Eggert, and J. J. Reeves. 1990. Conception rate, growth, and lactation of dairy heifers treated with recombinant somatotropin. J. Dairy Sci. 73:73-77.
57. Hansen, P. J. 1985. Seasonal modulation of puberty and the postpartum anestrus in cattle: a review. Livest. Prod. Sci. 12:309-328.
58. Hardville, D. A. and C. R. Henderson. 1966. Interrelationships among age, body weight, and production traits during first lactation of dairy cattle. J. Dairy Sci. 49:1254-1261.
59. Harrison, R. D., I. P. Reynolds, and W. Little. 1983. A quantitative analysis of mammary glands of dairy heifers reared at different rates of live weight gain. J. Dairy Res. 50:405-412.
60. Heinrichs, A. J. and G. L. Hargrove. 1987. Standards of weight and height for Holstein heifers. J. Dairy Sci. 70:653-660.
61. Hilakivi-Clarke, L., R. Clarke, and M. Lippman. 1999. The influence of maternal diet on breast cancer risk among female offspring. Nutrition 15:392-401.
62. Hilakivi-Clarke, L., A. Shajahan, B. Yu, and S. de Assis. 2006. Differentiation of mammary gland as a mechanism to reduce breast cancer risk. J. Nutr. 136:2697S-2699S.
63. Hoffman, P. C. 1997. Optimum body size of Holstein replacement heifers. J. Anim. Sci. 75:836-845.
64. Hogg, N. A., C. J. Harrison, and C. Tickle. 1983. Lumen formation in the developing mouse mammary gland. J. Embryol. Exp. Morphol. 73:39-57.
65. Houseknecht, K. L., D. E. Bauman, D. G. Fox, and D. F. Smith. 1992. Abomasal infusion of casein enhances nitrogen retention in somatotropin-treated steers. J. Nutr. 122:1717-1725.
66. Hovey, R. C., J. F. Trott, and B. K. Vonderhaar. 2002. Establishing a framework for the functional mammary gland: from endocrinology to morphology. J. Mammary Gland Biol. Neoplasia 7:17-38.
67. Humphreys, R. C., M. Krajewska, S. Krnacik, R. Jaeger, H. Weiher, S. Krajewski, J. C. Reed, and J. M. Rosen. 1996. Apoptosis in the terminal endbud of the murine mammary gland: A mechanism of ductal morphogenesis. Development 122:4013-4022.
68. Hussein, H. S. and J. M. Brasel. 2001. Toxicity, metabolism, and impact of mycotoxins on humans and animals. Toxicology 167:101-134.
69. Katzenellenbogen, B. S., M. M. Montano, T. R. Ediger, J. Sun, K. Ekena, G. Lazennec, P. G. Martini, E. M. McInerney, R. Delage-Mourroux, K. Weis, and J. A. Katzenellenbogen. 2000. Estrogen receptors: selective ligands, partners, and distinctive pharmacology. Recent Prog. Horm. Res. 55:163-193.
70. Kewon, J. F. and R. W. Everett. 1986. Effect of days carried calf, days dry, and weight of first calf heifers on yield. J. Dairy Sci. 69:1891-1896.
71. Kim, H., J. Xu, Y. Su, H. Xia, L. Li, G. Peterson, J. Murphy-Ullrich, and S. Barnes. 2001. Actions of the soy phytoestrogen genistein in models of human chronic disease: potential involvement of transforming growth factor beta. Biochem. Soc. Trans. 29:216-222.
72. Kleinberg, D. L. 1997. Early mammary development: growth hormone and IGF-1. J. Mammary Gland Biol. Neoplasia 2:49-57.
73. Kleinberg, D. L., M. Feldman, and W. Ruan. 2000. IGF-I: an essential factor in terminal end bud formation and ductal morphogenesis. J. Mammary Gland Biol. Neoplasia 5:7-17.
74. Knabel, M., S. Kolle, and F. Sinowatz. 1998. Expression of growth hormone receptor in the bovine mammary gland during prenatal development. Anat. Embryol. (Berl) 198:163-169.
75. Kordon, E. C. and G. H. Smith. 1998. An entire functional mammary gland may comprise the progeny from a single cell. Development 125:1921-1930.
76. Kostelac, D., G. Rechkemmer, and K. Briviba. 2003. Phytoestrogens modulate binding response of estrogen receptors alpha and beta to the estrogen response element. J. Agric. Food Chem. 51:7632-7635.
77. Lamartiniere, C. A. 2002. Timing of exposure and mammary cancer risk. J. Mammary Gland Biol. Neoplasia 7:67-76.
78. Lammers, B. P., A. J. Heinrichs, and R. S. Kensinger. 1999. The effects of accelerated growth rates and estrogen implants in prepubertal Holstein heifers on estimates of mammary development and subsequent reproduction and milk production. J. Dairy Sci. 82:1753-1764.
79. Lammers, B. P., A. J. Heinrichs, and R. S. Kensinger. 1999. The effects of accelerated growth rates and estrogen implants in prepubertal Holstein heifers on growth, feed efficiency, and blood parameters. J. Dairy Sci. 82:1746-1752.
80. Li, R. W., M. J. Meyer, C. P. Van Tassell, T. S. Sonstegard, E. E. Connor, M. E. Van Amburgh, Y. R. Boisclair, and A. V. Capuco. 2006. Identification of estrogen-responsive genes in the parenchyma and fat pad of the bovine mammary gland by microarray analysis. Physiol. Genomics 27:42-53.
81. Lin, C. L. and H. L. Buttle. 1991. Progesterone receptor in the mammary tissue of pregnant and lactating gilts and the effect of tamoxifen treatment during late gestation. J. Endocrinol. 130:251-257.
82. Little, W. and R. M. Kay. 1977. The effects of rapid rearing and early calving on the subsequent performance of dairy heifers. Anim. Prod. 29:131-142.
83. Lucas, A. 1998. Programming by early nutrition: an experimental approach. J. Nutr. 128:401S-406S.
84. Lucas, A., B. A. Baker, M. Desai, and C. N. Hales. 1996. Nutrition in pregnant or lactating rats programs lipid metabolism in the offspring. Br. J. Nutr. 76:605-612.
85. Lyons, W. R. 1958. Hormonal synergism in mammary growth. Proc. Royal. Soc. B 149:303-325.
86. Mallepell, S., A. Krust, P. Chambon, and C. Brisken. 2006. Paracrine signaling through the epithelial estrogen receptor alpha is required for proliferation and morphogenesis in the mammary gland. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U S A 103:2196-2201.
87. Markusfeld, O. and E. Ezra. 1993. Body measurements, metritis, and postpartum performance of first lactation cows. J. Dairy Sci. 76:3771-3777.
88. McCann, A. H., N. Miller, A. O'Meara, I. Pedersen, K. Keogh, T. Gorey, and P. A. Dervan. 1996. Biallelic expression of the IGF2 gene in human breast disease. Hum. Mol. Genet. 5:1123-1127.
89. Mellor, D. J. 1987. Nutritional effects on the fetus and mammary gland during pregnancy. Proc. Nutr. Soc. 46:249-257.
90. Meyer, M. J., A. V. Capuco, Y. R. Boisclair, and M. E. Van Amburgh. 2006. Estrogendependent responses of the mammary fat pad in prepubertal dairy heifers. J. Endocrinol. 190:819-827.
91. Meyer, M. J., A. V. Capuco, D. A. Ross, L. M. Lintault, and M. E. Van Amburgh. 2006. Developmental and nutritional regulation of the prepubertal bovine mammary gland: II. Epithelial cell proliferation, parenchymal accretion rate, and allometric growth. J. Dairy Sci. 89:4298-4304.
92. Meyer, M. J., A. V. Capuco, D. A. Ross, L. M. Lintault, and M. E. Van Amburgh. 2006. Developmental and nutritional regulation of the prepubertal heifer mammary gland: I. Parenchyma and fat pad mass and composition. J. Dairy Sci. 89:4289-4297.
93. Michels, K. B. and F. Xue. 2006. Role of birthweight in the etiology of breast cancer. Int. J. Cancer 119:2007-2025.
94. Miller, D. M., B. P. Stuart, W. A. Crowel, R. J. Cole, A. J. Goven, and J. Brown. 1978. Aflatoxin in swine: its effect on immunity and relationship to salmonellosis. Am. Assoc. Vet. Lab. Diagn. 21:135-142.
95. Moallem, U., G. E. Dahl, E. K. Duffey, A. V. Capuco, and R. A. Erdman. 2004. Bovine somatotropin and rumen-undegradable protein effects on skeletal growth in prepubertal dairy heifers. J. Dairy Sci. 87:3881-3888.
96. Moallem, U., G. E. Dahl, E. K. Duffey, A. V. Capuco, D. L. Wood, K. R. McLeod, R. L. Baldwin 6th, and R. A. Erdman. 2004. Bovine somatotropin and rumen-undegradable protein effects in prepubertal dairy heifers: effects on body composition and organ and tissue weights. J. Dairy Sci. 87:3869-3880.
97. Morris, R. J., S. M. Fischer, and T. J. Slaga. 1985. Evidence that the centrally and peripherally located cells in the murine epidermal proliferative unit are two distinct cell populations. J. Invest. Dermatol. 84:277-281.
98. Oftedal, O. T. 2002. The mammary gland and its origin during synapsid evolution. J. Mammary Gland Biol. Neoplasia 7:225-252.
99. Oftedal, O. T. 2002. The origin of lactation as a water source for parchment-shelled eggs. J. Mammary Gland Biol. Neoplasia 7:253-266.
100. Oommen, A. M., J. B. Griffin, G. Sarath, and J. Zempleni. 2005. Roles for nutrients in epigenetic events. J. Nutr. Biochem. 16:74-77.
101. Park, C. S. 2005. Role of compensatory mammary growth in epigenetic control of gene expression. FASEB J. 19:1586-1591.
102. Park, C. S., M. G. Baik, W. L. Keller, I. E. Berg, and G. M. Erickson. 1989. Role of compensatory growth in lactation: a stair-step nutrient regimen modulates differentiation and lactation of bovine mammary gland. Growth Dev. Aging 53:159-166.
103. Park, C. S., R. B. Danielson, B. S. Kreft, S. H. Kim, Y. S. Moon, and W. L. Keller. 1998. Nutritionally directed compensatory growth and effects on lactation potential of developing heifers. J. Dairy Sci. 81:243-249.
104. Peters, R. R., L. T. Chapin, K. B. Leining, and H. A. Tucker. 1978. Supplemental lighting stimulates growth and lactation in cattle. Science 199:911-912.
105. Petitclerc, D., R. D. Kineman, S. A. Zinn, and H. A. Tucker. 1985. Mammary growth response of Holstein heifers to photoperiod. J. Dairy Sci. 68:86-90.
106. Plath, A., R. Einspanier, F. Peters, F. Sinowatz, and D. Schams. 1997. Expression of transforming growth factors alpha and beta-1 messenger RNA in the bovine mammary gland during different stages of development and lactation. J. Endocrinol. 155:501-511.
107. Plaut, K. 1993. Role of epidermal growth factor and transforming growth factors in mammary development and lactation. J. Dairy Sci. 76:1526-1538.
108. Potten, C. S., W. J. Hume, P. Reid, and J. Cairns. 1978. The segregation of DNA in epithelial stem cells. Cell 15:899-906.
109. Potten, C. S., G. Owen, and D. Booth. 2002. Intestinal stem cells protect their genome by selective segregation of template DNA strands. J. Cell Sci. 115:2381-2388.
110. Prelusky, D. B., P. M. Scott, H. L. Trenholm, and G. A. Lawrence. 1990. Minimal transmission of zearalenone to milk of dairy cows. J. Environ. Sci. Health B 25:87-103.
111. Purup, S., K. Sejrsen, J. Foldager, and R. M. Akers. 1993. Effect of exogenous bovine growth hormone and ovariectomy on prepubertal mammary growth, serum hormones and acute in-vitro proliferative response of mammary explants from Holstein heifers. J. Endocrinol. 139:19-26.
112. Purup, S., M. Vestergaard, and K. Sejrsen. 2000. Involvement of growth factors in the regulation of pubertal mammary growth in cattle. Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. 480:27-43.
113. Radcliff, R. P., M. J. Van de Haar, L. T. Chapin, R. E. Pilbeam, D. K. Beede, E. P. Stanisiewski, and H. A. Tucker. 2000. Effects of diet and injection of bovine somatotropin on prepubertal growth and first-lactation milk yields of Holstein cows. J. Dairy Sci. 83:23-29.
114. Radcliff, R. P., M. J. Van de Haar, A. L. Skidmore, L. T. Chapin, B. R. Tadke, J. W. Lloyd, E. P. Stanisiewski, and H. A. Tucker. 1997. Effects of diet and bovine somatotropin on heifer growth and mammary development. J. Dairy Sci. 80:1996-2003.
115. Ryan, F. P. 2006. Genomic creativity and natural selection. Biol. J. Linnean Soc. 88:655-672.
116. Santos, F. and W. Dean. 2004. Epigenetic reprogramming during early development in mammals. Reproduction 127:643-651.
117. Schams, D., S. Kohlenberg, W. Amselgruber, B. Berisha, M. W. Pfaffl, and F. Sinowatz. 2003. Expression and localisation of oestrogen and progesterone receptors in the bovine mammary gland during development, function and involution. J. Endocrinol. 177:305-317.
118. Schwertfeger, K. L., J. M. Rosen, and D. A. Cohen. 2006. Mammary gland macrophages: pleiotropic functions in mammary development. J. Mammary Gland Biol. Neoplasia 11:229-238.
119. Sejrsen, K. 1978. Mammary development and milk yield in relation to growth rate in dairy and dual-purpose heifers. Acta. Agriculturae Scandinavica 28:41-46.
120. Sejrsen, K. 1994. Relationships between nutrition, puberty and mammary development in cattle. Proc. Nutr. Soc. 53:103-111.
121. Sejrsen, K. and J. Foldager. 1992. Mammary growth and milk production capacity of replacemment heifers in relation to diet energy concentration and plasma hormone levels. Acta Agric. Scand. Sect. A. Anim. Sci. 42:99-105.
122. Sejrsen, K., J. Foldager, M. T. Sorensen, R. M. Akers, and D. E. Bauman. 1986. Effect of exogenous bovine somatotropin on pubertal mammary development in heifers. J. Dairy Sci. 69:1528-1535.
123. Sejrsen, K., J. T. Huber, and H. A. Tucker. 1983. Influence of amount fed on hormone concentrations and their relationship to mammary growth in heifers. J. Dairy Sci. 66:845-855.
124. Sejrsen, K., J. T. Huber, H. A. Tucker, and R. M. Akers. 1982. Influence of nutrition on mammary development in pre- and postpubertal heifers. J. Dairy Sci. 65:793-800.
125. Sejrsen, K. and S. Purup. 1997. Influence of prepubertal feeding level on milk yield potential of dairy heifers: a review. J. Anim. Sci. 75:828-835.
126. Sejrsen, K., S. Purup, M. Vestergaard, M. S. Weber, and C. H. Knight. 1999. Growth hormone and mammary development. Domest. Anim. Endocrinol. 17:117-129.
127. Shackleton, M., F. Vaillant, K. J. Simpson, J. Stingl, G. K. Smyth, M. L. Asselin-Labat, L. Wu, G. J. Lindeman, and J. E. Visvader. 2006. Generation of a functional mammary gland from a single stem cell. Nature 439:84-88.
128. Shinin, V., B. Gayraud-Morel, D. Gomes, and S. Tajbakhsh. 2006. Asymmetric division and cosegregation of template DNA strands in adult muscle satellite cells. Nat. Cell Biol. 8:677-687.
129. Sieber, M., A. E. Freeman, and P. N. Hinz. 1988. Comparison between factor analysis from a phenotypic and genetic correlation matrix using linear type traits of Holstein dairy cows. J. Dairy Sci. 71:477-484.
130. Silva, L. F., J. S. Liesman, M. S. Nielsen Weber, and M. J. Van de Haar. 2003. Intramammary infusion of leptin decreases proliferation of mammary epithelial cells in prepubertal heifers. J. Dairy Sci. (Suppl. 1) 82:166.
131. Silva, L. F., M. J. Van de Haar, M. S. Weber Nielsen, and G. W. Smith. 2002. Evidence for a local effect of leptin in bovine mammary gland. J. Dairy Sci. 85:3277-3286.
132. Sinha, Y. N. and H. A. Tucker. 1969. Mammary development and pituitary prolactin level of heifers from birth through puberty and during the estrous cycle. J. Dairy Sci. 52:507-512.
133. Smith, G. H. 2005. Stem cells and mammary cancer in mice. Stem Cell Rev. 1:215-223.
134. Smith, G. H. 2005. Label-retaining epithelial cells in mouse mammary gland divide asymmetrically and retain their template DNA strands. Development 132:681-687.
135. Smith, G. H. and G. Chepko. 2001. Mammary epithelial stem cells. Microsc. Res. Tech. 52:190-203.
136. Smith, G. H. and D. Medina. 1988. A morphologically distinct candidate for an epithelial stem cell in mouse mammary gland. J. Cell Sci. 90:173-184.
137. Srinivasan, M., S. G. Laychock, D. J. Hill, and M. S. Patel. 2003. Neonatal nutrition: metabolic programming of pancreatic islets and obesity. Exp. Biol. Med. 228:15-23.
138. Sternlicht, M. D., S. W. Sunnarborg, H. Kouros-Mehr, Y. Yu, D. C. Lee, and Z. Werb. 2005. Mammary ductal morphogenesis requires paracrine activation of stromal EGFR via ADAM17-dependent shedding of epithelial amphiregulin. Development 132:3923-3933.
139. Stingl, J., P. Eirew, I. Ricketson, M. Shackleton, F. Vaillant, D. Choi, H. I. Li, and C. J. Eaves. 2006. Purification and unique properties of mammary epithelial stem cells. Nature 439:993-997.
140. Suetsugi, M., L. Su, K. Karlsberg, Y. C. Yuan, and S. Chen. 2003. Flavone and isoflavone phytoestrogens are agonists of estrogen-related receptors. Mol. Cancer Res. 1:981-991.
141. Swanson, E. W. 1967. Optimum growth patterns for dairy cattle. J. Dairy Sci. 50:244-252.
142. Ting, A. H., K. M. McGarvey, and S. B. Baylin. 2006. The cancer epigenome-components and functional correlates. Genes Dev. 20:3215-3231.
143. Tomlinson, I. P. 2001. Mutations in normal breast tissue and breast tumours. Breast Cancer Res. 3:299-303.
144. Tsai, Y. C., Y. Lu, P. W. Nichols, G. Zlotnikov, P. A. Jones, and H. S. Smith. 1996. Contiguous patches of normal human mammary epithelium derived from a single stem cell: implications for breast carcinogenesis. Cancer Res. 56:402-404.
145. Tsubura, A., N. Uehara, Y. Kiyozuka, and N. Shikata. 2005. Dietary factors modifying breast cancer risk and relation to time of intake. J. Mammary Gland Biol. Neoplasia 10:87-100.
146. Van Amburgh, M. E., D. M. Galton, D. E. Bauman, R. W. Everett, D. G. Fox, L. E. Chase, and H. N. Erb. 1998. Effects of three prepubertal body growth rates on performance of Holstein heifers during first lactation. J. Dairy Sci. 81:527-538.
147. Van Amburgh, M. E., D. M. Galton, D. G. Fox, and D. E. Bauman, 1991. Optimizing heifer growth. p. 85-93. In Proceedings of Cornell Nutrition Conference. Department of Animal Science and Division of Nutritional Sciences, Cornell University.
148. van Heugten, E., J. W. Spears, M. T. Coffey, E. B. Kegley, and M. A. Qureshi. 1994. The effect of methionine and aflatoxin on immune function in weanling pigs. J. Anim. Sci. 72:658-664.
149. Van de Haar, M. J. Feeding heifers for lifelong profit. p. 101-109. In Proceedings of Southwest Nutrition and Management Conference, Department of Animal Science, University of Arizona.
150. Wagner, K. U. and G. H. Smith. 2005. Pregnancy and stem cell behavior. J. Mammary Gland Biol. Neoplasia 10:25-36.
151. Waldo, D. R., A. V. Capuco, and C. E. Rexroad Jr. 1998. Milk production of Holstein heifers fed either alfalfa or corn silage diets at two rates of daily gain. J. Dairy Sci. 81:756-764.
152. Waldo, D. R., H. F. Tyrrell, A. V. Capuco, and C. E. Rexroad Jr. 1997. Components of growth in Holstein heifers fed either alfalfa or corn silage diets to produce two daily gains. J. Dairy Sci. 80:1674-1684.
153. Wallace, C. 1953. Observations on mammary development in calves and lambs. J. Agric. Sci. 43:413-421.
154. Weaver, G. A., H. J. Kurtz, J. C. Behrens, T. S. Robison, B. E. Seguin, F. Y. Bates, and C. J. Mirocha. 1986. Effect of zearalenone on the fertility of virgin dairy heifers. Am. J. Vet. Res. 47:1395-1397.
155. Weaver, G. A., H. J. Kurtz, J. C. Behrens, T. S. Robison, B. E. Seguin, F. Y. Bates, and C. J. Mirocha. 1986. Effect of zearalenone on dairy cows. Am. J. Vet. Res. 47:1826-1828.
156. Whitacre, M. D. and W. R. Threlfall. 1981. Effects of ergocryptine on plasma prolactin, luteinizing hormone, and progesterone in the periparturient sow. Am. J. Vet. Res. 42:1538-1541.
157. Wiesen, J. F., P. Young, Z. Werb, and G. R. Cunha. 1999. Signaling through the stromal epidermal growth factor receptor is necessary for mammary ductal development. Development 126:335-44.
158. Wogan, G. N. 1966. Chemical nature and biological effects of the aflatoxins. Bacteriol. Rev. 30:460-470.
159. Zinedine, A., J. M. Soriano, J. C. Molto, and J. Manes. 2007. Review on the toxicity, occurrence, metabolism, detoxification, regulations and intake of zearalenone: An oestrogenic mycotoxin. Food Chem. Toxicol. 45:1-18.