Beyond the closet: The transformation of gay and lesbian life

Beyond the Closet: The Transformation of Gay and Lesbian Life

Volumn , Issue , 2003, Pages 1-245

  Seidman, Steven ^a  

^a STATE UNIVERSITY OF NEW YORK   (United States)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 84917324509     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.4324/9780203951811     Document Type: Book

References (352)

1. Daniel Mendelsohn, "Queerer Than Folk," New York, March 5, 2001, p. 35.
2. Jesse Green, "The New Gay Movement," New York, March 5, 2001, p. 27.
3. Simon Dumenco, "They're Here, They're Queer, We're Used to It," New York, March 5, 2001, pp. 29-31.
4. Michelangelo Signorile, Life Outside: The Signorile Report on Gay Men: Sex, Drugs, Muscles, and the Passages of Life (New York: HarperCollins, 1997), p. xv.
5. Bruce Bawer, A Place at the Table: The Gay Individual in American Society (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1993), p. 33.
6. Andrew Sullivan, Virtually Normal: An Argument about Homosexuality (New York: Vintage, 1996), p. 130.
7. Daniel Harris, The Rise and Fall of Gay Culture (New York: Ballantine, 1997), p. 7.
8. Urvashi Vaid, Virtual Equality: The Mainstreaming of Gay and Lesbian Liberation (New York: Doubleday, 1995), p. 5.
9. Michael Warner, The Trouble with Normal: Sex, Politics, and the Ethics of Queer Life (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2000), pp. 128-29.
10. My ideas about identity have benefited from the sociological views of Erving Goffman, in particular The Presentation of the Self in Everyday Life (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1959)
11. and Stigma: Notes on the Management of Spoiled Identity (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1963).
12. I have also drawn considerably from poststructural approaches that emphasize the relational and performative character of identity. In this regard, see Judith Butler, Gender Trouble: Gender and the Subversion of Identity (New York: Routledge, 1990)
13. and Diana Fuss, Essentially Speaking: Feminism, Nature, and Difference (New York: Routledge, 1990)
14. and "Inside/Out," in Inside/Out: Lesbian Theories, Gay Theories, ed. Diana Fuss (New York: Routledge, 1991).
15. The work of historians and social scientists has been crucial in recent discussions of sexual identity. For a sampling of this work, see Jeffrey Weeks, Coming Out:Homosexual Politics in Britain from the Nineteenth Century to the Present (London: Quartet, 1977)
16. and Sexuality and Its Discontents (London:Routledge, 1985);
17. John D'Emilio, Sexual Politics, Sexual Communities: The Making of a Homosexual Minority in the United States, 1940-1970 (Chicago:University of Chicago Press, 1983);
18. Lillian Faderman, Odd Girls and Twilight Lovers: A History of Lesbian Life in Twentieth-Century America (New York:Columbia University Press, 1991);
19. George Chauncey, Gay New York: Gender, Urban Culture, and the Making of the Gay Male World, 1890-1940 (New York:Basic Books, 1994);
20. Kenneth Plummer, Sexual Stigma: An Interactionist Account (London: Routledge, 1975);
21. Kristin Esterberg, Lesbian and Bisexual Identities: Constructing Communities, Constructing Selves (Philadelphia:Temple University Press, 1997);
22. Arlene Stein, Sex and Sensibility: Stories of a Lesbian Generation (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997);
23. Joshua Gamson, Freaks Talk Back: Tabloid Talk Shows and Sexual Nonconformity (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998);
24. and Viviane Namaste, Invisible Lives: The Erasure of Transsexual and Transgendered People (Chicago:University of Chicago Press, 2000).
25. In thinking about heterosexual dominance, I've drawn considerably from gay liberationism and lesbian feminism. Key texts include Dennis Altman, Homosexual Oppression and Liberation (New York: Avon Books, 1971);
26. Nancy Myron and Charlotte Bunch, eds. Lesbianism and the Women's Movement (Baltimore: Diana Press, 1975);
27. Karla Jay and Allen Young, eds., Out of the Closets: Voices of Gay Liberationism (New York: New York University Press, 1992 [1972]);
28. and Mark Blasius and Shane Phelan, eds., We Are Everywhere:A Historical Sourcebook of Gay and Lesbian Politics (New York: Routledge, 1997).
29. Among the key works inspired by these traditions are Adrienne Rich, "Compulsory Heterosexuality and Lesbian Existence," Signs 5 (Summer 1980): 631-60;
30. Michael Warner, "Fear of a Queer Planet," Social Text 9 (1991): 3-17;x
31. Eve Sedgwick, Epistemology of the Closet (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990);
32. and, in the British context, Stevie Jackson, Heterosexuality in Question (London: Sage, 1999).
33. In the past few years there has emerged an empirical literature that speaks to the ways compulsory heterosexuality operates in different institutions and societies. See Mary Louise Adams, The Trouble with Normal: Postwar Youth and the Making of Heterosexuality (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1997);
34. Karen Dubinsky, Improper Advances: Rape and Heterosexual Conflict in Ontario, 1880-1929 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993);
35. Debbie Epstein and Richard Johnson, Schooling Sexualities (Buckingham: Open University Press, 1998);
36. Chrys Ingraham, White Weddings: Romancing Heterosexuality in Popular Culture (New York: Routledge, 1999);
37. Mairtin Mac An Ghaill, The Making of Men: Masculinities, Sexualities, and Schooling (Buckingham: Open University Press, 1994);
38. Anna Marie Smith,"The Good Homosexual and the Dangerous Queer: Resisting the 'New Homophobia,'" in New Sexual Agendas, ed. Lynn Segal (New York: New York University Press, 1997);
39. D. Steinberg, D. Epstein, and R. Johnson, eds., Border Patrols: Policing the Boundaries of Heterosexuality (London: Cassell, 1997);
40. and Lisa Duggan, "The Social Enforcement of Heterosexuality and Lesbian Resistance," in Class, Race, and Sex: The Dynamics of Control, ed. Amy Swerdlow and Hannah Lessinger (Boston: G. K. Hall, 1983), 75-92.
41. In thinking about lesbian and gay politics beyond questions of rights and equality, my ideas have been sharpened by the work of Michel Foucault, The History of Sexuality, Vol. 1: An Introduction (New York: Vintage, 1980);
42. Gayle Rubin, "Thinking Sex: Notes for a Radical Theory of the Politics of Sexuality," in Pleasure and Danger: Exploring Female Sexuality, ed. Carole Vance (Boston: Routledge, 1984);
43. Pat Califia, Public Sex: The Culture of Radical Sex (Pittsburgh: Cleis, 1994);
44. Combahee River Collective, "A Black Feminist Statement," in All the Women Are White, All the Blacks Are Men, But Some of Us Are Brave: Black Women's Studies, ed. Gloria Hull, Patricia Bell Scott, and Barbara Smith (Old Westbury, N.Y.: Feminist Press, 1982);
45. Shane Phelan, Getting Specific: Postmodern Lesbian Politics (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1994);
46. Diane Richardson, "Constructing Sexual Citizenship: Theorizing Sexual Rights," Critical Social Policy 20 (2000): 100-35;
47. Jeffrey Weeks, "The Sexual Citizen," in Love and Eroticism, ed. Mike Featherstone (London: Sage, 1999), pp. 35-52.
48. For descriptions of homosexual life in the 1950s and 1960s, The Mattachine Review and The Ladder, respectively published by the Mattachine Society and the Daughters of Bilitis, are superb sources. For examples of personal testimony, see Peter Nardi, David Sanders, and Judd Marmor, eds., Growing up before Stonewall: Life Stories of Some Gay Men (New York: Routledge, 1994);
49. Donald Vining, A Gay Diary, 5 vols. (New York: Pepys Press, 1979-93);
50. Martin Duberman, Cures: A Gay Man's Odyssey (New York: Dutton, 1991);
51. Robert Reinhart, A History of Shadows: A Novel (Boston: Alyson, 1986);
52. Audre Lorde, Zami: A New Spelling of My Name (New York: Crossing Press, 1982);
53. Andrea Weiss and Greta Schiller, Before Stonewall: The Making of the Gay and Lesbian Community (New York: Naiad Press, 1988);
54. Jonathan Ned Katz, Gay American History (New York: Meridian, 1976)
55. and Gay/Lesbian Almanac (New York: Harper and Row, 1983);
56. and Eric Marcus, Making History: The Struggle for Gay and Lesbian Equal Rights: An Oral History (New York: HarperCollins, 1992).
57. Evelyn Hooker, "Male Homosexuals and Their Worlds," in Sexual Inversion, ed. J. Marmor (New York: Basic Books, 1965);
58. Martin Hoffman, The Gay World (New York:Basic Books, 1968);
59. Del Martin and Phyllis Lyon, Lesbian/Woman (San Francisco: Bantam, 1972);
60. Sidney Abbott and Barbara Love, Sappho Was a Right-On Woman: A Liberated View of Lesbianism (New York: Stein and Day, 1972);
61. John Gagnon and William Simon, "The Lesbians: A Preliminary Overview," in Sexual Deviance, ed. William Simon and John Gagnon (New York: Harper and Row, 1967).
62. For some current scholarly perspectives on gay life in the immediate postwar years, see John D'Emilio, Sexual Politics, Sexual Communities: The Making of a Homosexual Minority in the United States, 1940-1970 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1983);
63. Lillian Faderman, Odd Girls and Twilight Lovers: A History of Lesbian Life in Twentieth-Century America (New York: Columbia University Press, 1991);
64. Elizabeth Kennedy and Madeline Davis, Boots of Leather, Slippers of Gold: The History of a Lesbian Community (New York: Routledge, 1993);
65. Leila J. Rupp, "'Imagine My Surprise': Women's Relationships in Mid-Twentieth-Century America," in Hidden from History, ed. M. Duberman, M. Vicinus and G. Chauncey Jr. (New York: Meridian, 1990);
66. Rochella Thorpe, "'A House where Queers Go':African-American Lesbian Nightlife in Detroit, 1940-1975," in Inventing Lesbian Cultures in America, ed. Ellen Lewin (Boston: Beacon Press, 1996);
67. and Marc Stein, City of Sisterly and Brotherly Loves: Lesbian and Gay Philadelphia, 1945-72 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000).
68. Allan Berube, Coming Out under Fire: The History of Gay Men and Women in World War Two (New York: Macmillan, 1990), p. 271.
69. To understand the social context of the 1950s as a time of both change and anxiety, especially regarding gender and intimate life, I have drawn on the following: Wini Breines, Young, White, and Miserable: Growing up Female in the Fifties (Boston: Beacon Press, 1992);
70. Stephanie Coontz, The Way We Never Were: American Families and the Nostalgia Trap (New York: Basic Books, 1992);
71. Barbara Ehrenreich, Hearts of Men: American Dreams and the Flight from Commitment (Garden City, N.Y.: Anchor Books, 1983);
72. Elaine Tyler May, Homeward Bound: American Families in the Cold War Era (New York:Basic Books, 1988);
73. Jessica Weiss, To Have and to Hold: Marriage, the Baby Boom, and Social Change (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000);
74. Cynthia Enloe, The Morning after: Sexual Politics and the End of the Cold War (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993);
75. and Robert Corber, In the Name of National Security: Hitchcock, Homophobia, and the Political Construction of Gender in Postwar America (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1993).
76. On the making of the closet in the 1950s, see John D'Emilio, "The Homosexual Menace: The Politics of Sexuality in Cold War America," in Making Trouble: Essays on Gay History, Politics, and the University (New York:Routledge, 1992)
77. Allan Berube and John D'Emilio, "The Military and Lesbians during the McCarthy Years," Signs 9 (Summer 1984): 759-75;
78. Barbara Epstein, "Anti-Communism, Homophobia, and the Construction of Masculinity in the Postwar U.S." Critical Sociology 20 (1994): 21-44;
79. Robert Corber, Homosexuality in Cold War America: Resistance and the Crisis of Masculinity (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1997);
80. and Gerard Sullivan, "Political Opportunism and the Harassment of Homosexuals in Florida, 1952-1965," Journal of Homosexuality 37 (1999): 57-81.
81. William Eskridge Jr., Gaylaw: Challenging the Apartheid of the Closet (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1999), p. 13;
82. Paul Monette, Becoming a Man: Half a Life Story (New York:HarperCollins, 1992), p. 2;
83. Joseph Beam, "Leaving the Shadows Behind," in In the Life: A Black Gay Anthology, ed. Joseph Beam (Boston: Alyson, 1986), p. 16.
84. My research suggests that the category of the closet initially appeared in the writing of gay liberationists. The earliest reference I've found was an "editorial" statement in the short-lived newspaper Come Out! in 1969. By the early 1970s the concept of the closet was widely circulating in liberationist writings; e.g., Signo Canceris, "From the Closet," Fag Rag 4 ( January 1973);
85. Bruce Gilbert "Coming Out, "Fag Rag 23/24 (1976);
86. Morgan Pinney, "Out of Your Closets," Gay Sunshine 1 (October 1970);
87. Ian Young, "Closet Wrecking," Gay Sunshine 28 (Spring 1976);
88. Jennifer Woodhul, "Darers Go First," The Furies 1 ( June/July 1972);
89. Class is absent from much of queer social analysis. There are theoretical and rhetorical appeals to the importance of class, but little social research that addresses class patterns of concealment and coming out, gay and lesbian identification, and workplace dynamics. I have made use of the following work: Nicola Field, Over the Rainbow: Money, Class, and Homophobia (London: Pluto Press, 1995);
90. Steve Valocchi, "The Class-Inflected Nature of Gay Identity," Social Problems 46 (1999): 207-44;
91. Katie Gilmartin, "We Weren't Bar People: Middle Class Identities and Cultural Space," Gay and Lesbian Quarterly 3 (1996): 1-5;
92. Roger Lancaster, Life Is Hard: Machismo, Danger, and the Intimacy of Power in Nicaragua (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992);
93. and David Evans, Sexual Citizenship: The Material Construction of Sexualities (London: Routledge, 1993).
94. Joshua Gamson's Freaks Talk Back: Tabloid Talk Shows and Sexual Nonconformity (Chicago:University of Chicago Press, 1998)
95. Like class, race figures prominently in theoretical statements and in personal testimonies but is lacking when it comes to empirical research. There is an abundance of personal testimonies or interpretive statements; e.g., Cherríe Moraga and Gloria Anzaldúa, eds., This Bridge Called My Back: Writings by Radical Women of Color (New York: Kitchen Table, 1981);
96. Joseph Beam, ed., In the Life: A Black Gay Anthology (Boston: Alyson, 1986);
97. Essex Hemphill, ed., Brother to Brother:New Writings by Black Gay Men (Boston: Alyson, 1991);
98. Keith Boykin, One More River to Cross: Black and Gay in America (New York:Anchor Books, 1996);
99. Carla Trujillo, ed., Chicana Lesbians: The Girls Our Mothers Warned Us About (Berkeley: Third Woman Press, 1991);
100. Juanita Ramos, ed., Companeras: Latina Lesbians (New York: Latina Lesbian History Project, 1987);
101. Russell Leong, ed., Asian American Sexualities (New York:Routledge, 1996).
102. There has also developed a tradition of literary-critical studies of racialized gay identities; e.g., Arthur Flannigan-Saint-Augin, "Black Gay Male Discourse: Reading Race and Sexuality between the Lines," in American Sexual Politics: Sex, Gender, and Race since the Civil War, ed. John Fout and Maura Shaw Tantillo (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993);
103. Phillip Brian Harper, "Eloquence and Epitaph: AIDS, Homophobia, and Problematics of Black Masculinity," in Are We Not Men? Masculine Anxiety and the Problem of African-American Identity (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996);
104. Isaac Julien and Kobena Mercer, "True Confessions: A Discourse on Images of Black Male Sexuality," in Male Order: Unwrapping Masculinity, ed. R. Chapman and J. Rutherford (London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1988);
105. Ann duCille, "Blues Notes on Black Sexuality: Sex and the Texts of Jessie Fauset and Nella Larsen," in American Sexual Politics: Sex, Gender, and Race since the Civil War, ed. Fout and Tantillo;
106. Mason Stokes, The Color of Sex: Whiteness, Heterosexuality, and the Fictions of White Supremacy (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2000).
107. There is very little historical, empirical, or ethnographic research on race and gay identities. Regarding patterns of concealment, coming out, and sexual identification among African Americans, I've drawn from the following: Cathy Cohen, The Boundaries of Blackness: AIDS and the Breakdown of Black Politics (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999);
108. William Hawkesworth, One of the Children: Gay Black Men in Harlem (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996);
109. John Peterson, "Black Men and Their Same-Sex Desires and Behaviors," in Gay Culture in America: Essays from the Field, ed. Gilbert Herdt (Boston: Beacon Press, 1992);
110. Rochella Thorpe, "'A House where Queers Go'"; "African-American Lesbian Nightlife in Detroit, 1940-1975" in Inventing Lesbian Culture in America (Boston:Beacon Press, 1996);
111. Kevin Mumford, "Homosex Changes: Race, Cultural Geography, and the Emergence of the Gay," American Quarterly 48 (1996):220-31;
112. and Lisa Walker, Looking like What You Are: Sexual Style, Race, and Lesbian Identity (New York: New York University Press, 2001).
113. Marlon Riggs, "Black Macho Revisited: Reflections of a SNAP! Queen," in Brother to Brother: New Writings by Black Gay Men, ed. Essex Hemphill (Boston: Alyson, 1991) p. 254.
114. Barbara Smith and Beverly Smith, "Across the Kitchen Table: A Sister-to-Sister Dialogue,"in This Bridge Called My Back, ed. Moraga and Anzaldúa;
115. bell hooks, "Reflections on Homophobia and Black Communities," Out/Look 1 (1988): 22-25;
116. Cheryl Clarke, "The Failure to Transform: Homophobia in the Black Community," in Home Girls: A Black Feminist Anthology, ed. Barbara Smith (New York: Kitchen Table, 1983);
117. and Jackie Goldsby, "What It Means to Be Colored Me," Out/Look 9 (Summer 1990): 8-17.
118. There is a substantial theoretical and research literature on the role of gender in shaping patterns of sexual identification and dynamics of the closet and coming out. The literature of gay liberationism and lesbian feminism is crucial. On the tradition of lesbian feminism, see Nancy Myron and Charlotte Bunch, eds., Lesbianism and the Women's Movement. (Baltimore: Diana Press, 1975).
119. For gay liberationism, see Karla Jay and Allen Young, eds., Out of the Closets: Voices of Gay Liberationism, (New York: New York University Press, 1992 [1972]).
120. For more recent theoretical and empirical statements, see Judith Butler, Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Gender (New York: Routledge, 1990);
121. Biddy Martin, "Sexualities without Genders and Other Queer Utopias," Diacritics 24 (Summer 1994): 104-21;
122. Chrys Ingraham, "The Heterosexual Imaginary: Feminist Sociology and Theories of Gender," in Queer Theory/Sociology, ed. Steven Seidman (Cambridge:Blackwell, 1996);
123. Peggy Reeves Sanday, Fraternity Gang Rape: Sex, Brotherhood, and Privilege on Campus (New York: New York University, 1990);
124. Christine Williams and Arlene Stein, eds., Sexuality and Gender (Malden, Mass.: Blackwell, 2002);
125. and Kath Weston, Render Me, Gender Me:Lesbians Talk Sex, Class, Color, Nation, Studmuffins (New York: Columbia University Press, 1996).
126. For a wonderful illustration of the thickness of gender codes in contemporary America, see Deirdre McCloskey's description of gender passing in her memoir, Crossing (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999), pp. 160-62.
127. Diana Fuss, "Inside/Out," in Inside/Out: Lesbian Theories, Gay Theories (New York: Routledge, 1991);
128. Michael Moon, "Flaming Closets," in Out in Culture: Gay, Lesbian, and Queer Essays on Popular Culture, ed. Corey Creekmur and Alexander Doty (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1995);
129. and Lee Edelman, "Tearooms and Sympathy, or, The Epistemology of the Water Closet," in The Lesbian and Gay Studies Reader, ed. Henry Abelove, Michele Aina Barale, and David Halperin (New York: Routledge, 1993).
130. For sociological overviews of American gay life in the 1970s and 1980s, see Dennis Altman, The Homosexualization of America (Boston: Beacon Press, 1982);
131. Joseph Harry and William Devall, The Social Organization of Gay Males (New York: Praeger, 1978);
132. Laud Humphries, "Exodus and Identity:The Merging Gay Culture," in Gay Men, ed. Martin Levine (New York:Harper and Row, 1979);
133. John Lee, "The Gay Connection," Urban Life 8 (1979): 175-98;
134. Lillian Faderman, Odd Girls and Twilight Lovers: A History of Lesbian Life in Twentieth-Century America (New York: Columbia University Press, 1991);
135. Martin Levine, "Gay Macho," Ph.D. diss., New York University, 1986;
136. Stephen Murray, American Gay (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996);
137. Esther Newton, Cherry Grove (Boston: Beacon Press, 1993);
138. Barbara Ponse, Identity in the Lesbian World (Westport, Conn.:Greenwood, 1978);
139. Carol Warren, Identity and Community in the Gay World (New York:Wiley, 1974);
140. Deborah Wolfe, The Lesbian Community (Berkeley:University of California Press, 1979);
141. and Karla Jay and Allen Young, The Gay Report: Lesbians and Gay Men Speak out about Sexual Experiences and Lifestyles (New York: Summit Books, 1979).
142. Arlene Stein's Sex and Sensibility:Stories of a Lesbian Generation (Berkeley: University of California, 1997) offers much insight into lesbian-feminist culture.
143. For helpful overviews of various aspects of American gay life in the 1990s, see Christopher Carrington, No Place like Home: Relationships and Family Life among Lesbians and Gay Men (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999);
144. Peter Nardi, Gay Men's Friendships: Invisible Communities (Chicago:University of Chicago Press, 1999);
145. Michelangelo Signorile, Life Outside: The Signorile Report on Gay Men: Sex,Drugs, Muscles, and the Passages of Life (New York: HarperCollins, 1997);
146. Daniel Harris, The Rise and Fall of Gay Culture (New York: Ballantine, 1997);
147. Suzanna Danuta Walters, All the Rage: The Story of Gay Visibility (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001);
148. Michael Bronski, The Pleasure Principle: Sex, Backlash, and the Struggle for Gay Freedom (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1998);
149. Kristin Esterberg, Lesbian and Bisexual Identities: Constructing Communities, Constructing Selves (Philadelphia:Temple University Press, 1997);
150. and Frederick Lynch, "Nonghetto Gays: An Ethnography of Suburban Homosexuals," in Gay Culture in America: Essays from the Field, ed. Gilbert Herdt (Boston: Beacon Press, 1992).
151. see Gilbert Herdt and Andrew Boxer, "Introduction: Culture, History, and Life Course of Gay Men," in Gay Culture in America: Essays from the Field (Boston: Beacon Press, 1992);
152. Gilbert Herdt and Andrew Boxer, Children of Horizons: How Gay and Lesbian Teens Are Leading a New Way out of the Closet (Boston: Beacon Press, 1993);
153. George Smith, "The Ideology of Fag: The School Experience of Gay Students," The Sociological Quarterly 39 (1998): 309-35
154. Melinda Miceli, "Recognizing All the Differences: Gay Youth and Public Education in America Today," Ph.D. diss, State University of New York, Albany, 1998;
155. Robert Owens, Queer Kids (Binghamton, N.Y.: Harrington Park, 1998);
156. and G. Unks, ed., The Gay Teen:Educational Practice and Theory for Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Adolescents (New York: Routledge, 1995).
157. See Jeffrey Escoffier, "The Political Economy of the Closet: Notes towards an Economic History of Gay and Lesbian Life before Stonewall," in Homo Economics: Capitalism, Community, and Lesbian and Gay Life, ed. Amy Gluckman and Betsy Reed (New York:Routledge, 1997);
158. Beth Schneider, "Coming Out at Work: Bridging the Private/Public Gap," Work and Occupations 13 (1987): 463-87;
159. and James Woods with Jay Lucas, The Corporate Closet: The Professional Lives of Gay Men in America (New York: Free Press, 1993).
160. e.g., Debbie Epstein, "Keeping Them in Their Place: Hetero/sexist Harassment, Gender, and the Enforcement of Heterosexuality," in Sex, Sensibility, and the Gendered Body, ed. Janet Holland and Lisa Adkins (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1996);
161. and Anne Witz, Susan Halford, and Mike Savage, "Organized Bodies: Gender, Sexuality, and Embodiment in Contemporary Organizations," in Sexualizing the Social: Power and the Organization of Sexuality, ed. Lisa Adkins and Vicki Merchant (New York:St. Martin's Press, 1996).
162. Merle Miller, On Being Different (New York: Random House, 1971);
163. Martin Duberman, Cures: A Gay Man's Odyssey (New York: Penguin, 1991);
164. Julia Penelope and Susan Wolfe, eds., The Original Coming Out Stories, 2nd ed. (Calif.: Crossing Press, 1989).
165. For perspectives that understand coming-out narratives as both personal and political, see Robert McRuer, "Boys' Own Stories and New Spellings of My Name: Coming Out and Other Myths of Queer Positionality," in Eroticism and Containment, ed. C. Siegal and A. Kibbey (New York: Routledge, 1996);
166. Bonnie Zimmerman, "The Politics of Transliteration: Lesbian Personal Narratives," Signs 9 (Summer 1984): 663-82;
167. and Ken Plummer, Telling Sexual Stories (London: Routledge, 1995).
168. Paul Monette, Becoming a Man: Half a Life Story (New York: HarperCollins, 1992).
169. On the idea of homosexual signs, see Harold Beaver, "Homosexual Signs," Critical Inquiry (Fall 1981): 99-119.
170. Arlene Stein, Sex and Sensibility:Stories of a Lesbian Generation (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997);
171. George Chauncey, Gay New York: Gender, Urban Culture, and the Making of the Gay Male World, 1890-1940 (New York: Basic Books, 1994).
172. Paula Kamen, Her Way: Young Women Remake the Sexual Revolution (New York: New York University Press, 2000), p. 154.
173. This theme is central to an unpublished dissertation by Debbie Donovan, "Identity beyond the Community: The Making of Suburban Lesbian Friendship Networks," Ph.D diss., State University of New York, Albany, 1999.
174. See Kath Weston, Families We Choose: Lesbians, Gays, Kinship (New York:Columbia University Press, 1991).
175. Also see Jeffrey Weeks, Brian Heaphy, and Catherine Donovan, Same Sex Intimacies: Families of Choice and Other Life Experiments (New York: Routledge, 2001);
176. Christopher Carrington, No Place like Home: Relationships and Family Life among Lesbians and Gay Men (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999);
177. Ellen Lewin, Recognizing Ourselves: Ceremonies of Lesbian and Gay Commitment (New York: Columbia University Press, 1998).
178. Cf. Gilbert Herdt and Bruce Koff, Something to Tell You: The Road Families Travel when a Child Is Gay (New York: Columbia University Press, 1999).
179. See also Gilbert Herdt and Andrew Boxer, Children of Horizons: How Gay and Lesbian Teens Are Leading a New Way out of the Closet (Boston: Beacon Press, 1993);
180. Alice Hom, "Stories from the Homefront: Perspectives of Asian-American Parents with Lesbian Daughters and Gay Sons," in Asian American Sexualities, ed. Russell Leong, (New York: Routledge, 1996).
181. On the politics of lesbian and gay families, see Judith Stacey, In the Name of the Family: Rethinking Family Values in the Postmodern Age (Boston: Beacon Press, 1996)
182. and (with Elizabeth Davenport), "Queer Families Quack Back," in Handbook of Lesbian and Gay Studies, ed. Diane Richardson and Steven Seidman (London: Sage, 2002);
183. Valerie Lehr, Queer Family Values: Debunking the Myth of the Nuclear Family (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1999);
184. and Richard Mohr, A More Perfect Union (Boston: Beacon Press, 1994).
185. Regarding the politics of homosexuality within the church, see Saul Olyan and Martha Nussbaum, eds., Sexual Orientation and Human Rights in American Religious Discourse (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998);
186. Gary Comstock and Susan Henking, eds., Que(e)rying Religion: A Critical Anthology (New York: Continuum, 1999);
187. Didi Herman, The Antigay Agenda:Orthodox Vision and the Christian Right (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997);
188. Keith Hartman, The Battle over Homosexuality (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1996);
189. and Michele Dillon, Catholic Identity:Balancing Reason, Faith, and Power (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999).
190. Clyde Wilcox and Robin Wolpert, "Gay Rights in the Public Sphere: Public Opinion on Gay and Lesbian Equality," in The Politics of Gay Rights, ed. Craig Rimmerman, Kenneth Wald, and Clyde Wilcox (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000).
191. e.g., see Mary Borhek, Coming Out to Parents: A Two-Way Survival Guide for Lesbians and Gay Men and Their Parents (Cleveland, Ohio:Pilgrim, 1993);
192. Betty Fairchild and Nancy Hayward, Now That You Know:What Every Parent Should Know about Homosexuality (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1989);
193. Eric Marcus, Is It a Choice? Answers to the Most Frequently Asked Questions about Gay and Lesbian People (San Francisco:Harper, 1999);
194. Robert Bernstein, Straight Parents, Gay Children: Inspiring Families to Live Honestly and with Greater Understanding (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1997);
195. David Switzer, Coming Out as Parents: You and Your Homosexual Child (Louisville, Ky.: Westminster John Knox Press, 1996);
196. Carolyn Griffin et al., Beyond Acceptance: Parents of Lesbians and Gays Talk about Their Experiences (New York: Thunder's Mouth Press, 1997).
197. There is little research on the formation of heterosexual identities and on variations and changes in patterns of straight identification. I've drawn from the following historical research: Jonathan Ned Katz, The Invention of Heterosexuality (New York: Dutton, 1995);
198. George Chauncey, Gay New York:Gender, Urban Culture, and the Making of the Gay Male World, 1890-1940 (New York: Basic Books, 1994);
199. Kevin White, The First Sexual Revolution:The Emergence of Male Heterosexuality in America (New York: New York University Press, 1993).
200. I've also profited from the following sociological work: Mary Louise Adams, The Trouble with Normal: Postwar Youth and the Making of Heterosexuality (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1997);
201. Karen Dubinsky, Improper Advances: Rape and Heterosexual Conflict in Ontario, 1880-1929 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996);
202. Debbie Epstein and Richard Johnson, Schooling Sexualities (Buckingham: Open University Press, 1998);
203. Chrys Ingraham, White Weddings: Romancing Heterosexuality in Popular Culture (New York: Routledge, 1999);
204. Mairtin Mac An Ghaill, The Making of Men: Masculinities, Sexualities, and Schooling (Buckingham: Open University Press, 1994).
205. See Suzanna Danuta Walters, All the Rage: The Story of Gay Visibility in America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001).
206. e.g., John D'Emilio, Sexual Politics, Sexual Communities: The Making of a Sexual Minority in the United States, 1940-1970 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1983);
207. Lillian Faderman, Odd Girls and Twilight Lovers: A History of Lesbian Life in Twentieth-Century America (New York: Columbia University Press, 1991);
208. Janice Irvine, Disorders of Desire: Sex and Gender in Modern American Sexology (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1990);
209. and Jennifer Terry, An American Obsession: Science, Medicine, and Homosexuality in Modern Society (Chicago: University of Chicago Press 1999).
210. and Judith Mayne, "A Parallax View of Lesbian Authorship," in Inside/Out: Lesbian Theories, Gay Theories, ed. Diana Fuss (New York: Routledge, 1991);
211. Alexander Doty, Making Things Perfectly Queer: Interpreting Mass Culture (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1993)
212. Teresa de Lauretis, "Film and the Visible," in How Do I Look? Queer Film and Video, ed. Bad Object-Choices (Seattle, Wash.: Bay Press, 1991);
213. Chris Straayer, Deviant Eyes, Deviant Bodies: Sexual Reorientation in Film and Video (New York: Columbia University Press, 1996);
214. Robert Corber, Homosexuality in Cold War America:Resistance and the Crisis of Masculinity, (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1997);
215. and Ellis Hanson, ed., Out Takes: Essays on Queer Theory and Film (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1999).
216. Joshua Gamson, Freaks Talk Back: Tabloid Talk Shows and Sexual Nonconformity (Chicago:University of Chicago Press, 1998);
217. Steven Capsuto, Alternate Channels: The Uncensored Story of Gay and Lesbian Images on Radio and Television (New York: Ballantine Books, 2000);
218. Alexandra Chasin, Selling Out: The Gay and Lesbian Movement Goes to Market (New York: St. Martin's Press, 2000);
219. and Lisa Bennett, "Fifty Years of Prejudice in the Media," The Gay and Lesbian Review (Spring 2000): 30-35.
220. Jeni Loftus, "America's Liberalization in Attitudes toward Homosexuality, 1973 to 1998," American Sociological Review 66 (October 2001): 762-82;
221. and Alan Yang, "The Polls-Trends, Attitudes toward Homosexuality," Public Opinion Quarterly 61 (1997): 477-507.
222. There is a considerable literature documenting the various stereotypical, polluting images of homosexuality in films through the 1980s. See Vito Russo, The Celluloid Closet: Homosexuality in the Movies, 2nd ed. (New York: Harper and Row, 1987);
223. Fred Fejes and Kevin Petrich, "Invisibility, Homophobia, and Heterosexism: Lesbians, Gays, and the Media," Critical Studies in Mass Communication (December 1993): 396-422;
224. Larry Gross, "Out of the Mainstream: Sexual Minorities and the Mass Media," in Remote Control:Television, Audiences, and Cultural Power, ed. Ellen Seiter (New York:Routledge, 1989);
225. Richard Dyer, Gays and Film (New York: Zoetrope, 1984);
226. Martha Gever, John Greyson, and Pratibha Parmar, eds., Queer Looks:Perspectives on Lesbian and Gay Film and Video (New York: Routledge, 1993);
227. Parker Tyler, Screening the Sexes:Homosexuality in the Movies (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1972);
228. Andrea Weiss, Vampires and Violets: Lesbians in Film (New York: Penguin, 1992);
229. and Phillip Brian Harper, "Walk-on Parts and Speaking Subjects: Screen Representations of Black Gay Men," in Black Male: Representations of Masculinity in Contemporary American Art, ed. Thelma Golden (New York:Whitney Museum of American Art, 1994).
230. On the notion of social death, see Orlando Patterson, Slavery and Social Death: A Comparative Study (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1982).
231. Regarding the absence of lesbians in popular culture or the notion of the ephemeral character of lesbian identity, see Rhonda Berenstin, "Where the Girls Are: Riding the New Wave of Lesbian Feature Films," GLQ 3 (1996): 125-37;
232. Edith Becker, Michelle Citron, Julia Lesage, and Ruby Rich, "Lesbians and Film," in Out in Culture: Gay, Lesbian, and Queer Essays on Popular Culture, ed. Corey Creekmur and Alexander Doty (Durham:Duke University Press, 1995);
233. Tamsin Wilton, ed., Immortal, Invisible: Lesbians and the Moving Image (New York: Routledge, 1996).
234. Diana Fuss, "Introduction," in Inside/Out: Lesbian Theories, Gay Theories, ed. Diana Fuss (New York: Routledge, 1991);
235. Eve Sedgwick, The Epistemology of the Closet, (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990).
236. For perspectives on the sexual changes of the 1970s and after, see John D'Emilio and Estelle Freedman, Intimate Matters: A History of Sexuality in America (New York: Harper and Row, 1988);
237. Steven Seidman, Romantic Longings: Love in America, 1830-1980 (New York: Routledge, 1991);
238. and Embattled Eros: Sexual Ethics and Politics in Contemporary America (New York:Routledge, 1992);
239. Beth Bailey, Sex in the Heartland. (Cambridge, Mass.:Harvard University Press);
240. Lynn Segal, Straight Sex: Rethinking the Politics of Pleasure (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994);
241. and Paula Kamen, Her Way: Young Women Remake the Sexual Revolution (New York: New York University Press, 2000).
242. There was a notable exception to this cultural invisibility: pulp fiction. See Ian Young, "How Gay Paperbacks Changed America,"
243. and Michael Bronski, "Fictions about Pulp," in Gay and Lesbian Review 6 (November/December 2001).
244. See Jeff Escoffier, "The Political Economy of the Closet: Notes toward an Economic History of Gay and Lesbian Life before Stonewall," in Homo Economics, ed. Amy Gluckman and Betsy Reed (New York: Routledge, 1997);
245. and Elizabeth Kennedy and Madeline Davis, Boots of Leather, Slippers of Gold (New York: Routledge, 1993).
246. John D'Emilio and Estelle Freedman, Intimate Matters: A History of Sexuality in America (New York: Harper and Row, 1988);
247. Steven Seidman, Romantic Longings: Love in America, 1830-1980 (New York: Routledge, 1991);
248. Jonathan Ned Katz, "The Age of Sodomitical Sin, 1607-1740," in Gay/Lesbian Almanac: A New Documentary (New York: Harper and Row, 1983);
249. Karen Lystra, Searching the Heart:Women, Men, and Romantic Love in Nineteenth-Century America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989);
250. and Peter Gay, The Bourgeois Experience: Victoria to Freud, Vol. 1: Education of the Senses (New York: Oxford University Press, 1984).
251. See Jonathan Ned Katz, The Invention of Heterosexuality (New York: Dutton, 1995)
252. and Love Stories: Sex between Men before Homosexuality (Chicago:University of Chicago Press, 2001);
253. William Eskridge Jr., Gaylaw: Challenging the Apartheid of the Closet (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1999), p. 1.
254. Jonathan Goldberg, ed., Reclaiming Sodom (New York:Routledge, 1994);
255. See D'Emilio and Freedman, Intimate Matters, p. 133;
256. Steven Marcus, The Other Victorians (New York: Basic Books, 1964)
257. Walter Kendrick, The Secret Museum (New York: Viking, 1987);
258. Linda Hirshman and Jane Larson, Hard Bargains: The Politics of Sex (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), p. 134.
259. D'Emilio and Freedman, Intimate Matters, p. 147;
260. Mary Gordon, Woman's Body,Woman's Rights: A Social History of Birth Control (New York: Grossman, 1967);
261. Rosiland Petchesky, Abortion and Women's Choice: The State, Sexuality, and Reproductive Freedom (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1984), ch. 2;
262. James Mohr, Abortion in America: The Origins and Evolution of National Policy (New York: Oxford University Press, 1978);
263. and Janet Brodie, Contraception and Abortion in Nineteenth-Century America (Ithaca, N.Y.:Cornell University Press, 1994).
264. Kristin Luker, "Sex, Hygiene, and the State: The Double-Edged Sword of Social Reform," Theory and Society 27 (1998): 615.
265. See also Ruth Rosen, The Lost Sisterhood: Prostitution in America, 1900-1918 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1982);
266. and David Pivar, Purity Crusade: Sexual Morality and Social Control, 1868-1900 (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1973).
267. D'Emilio and Freedman, Intimate Matters, pp. 157-59.
268. Hirshman and Larson, Hard Bargains, p. 172.
269. George Chauncey, Gay New York: Gender, Urban Culture, and the Making of the Gay Male World, 1890-1940 (New York: Basic Books, 1994).
270. See Hirshman and Larson, Hard Bargains, pp. 185-91.
271. Jana Singer, "The Privatization of Family Law," Wisconsin Law Review (1992): 1444-45.
272. D'Emilio and Freedman, Intimate Matters, p. 287.
273. See David Richards, Women, Gays, and the Constitution (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998), p. 246.
274. John D'Emilio, Sexual Politics, Sexual Communities: The Making of a Homosexual Minority in the United States, 1940-1970 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1983)
275. and "The Homosexual Menace: The Politics of Sexuality in Cold War America," in Making Trouble: Essays on Gay History, Politics, and the University (New York: Routledge, 1992).
276. For overviews of liberationist politics, see Stephen Engel, The Unfinished Revolution: Social Movement Theory and the Gay and Lesbian Movement (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001);
277. Barry Adam, The Rise of the Gay and Lesbian Movement (New York: Twayne Publishers, 1995);
278. Steven Epstein, "Gay and Lesbian Movements in the United States: Dilemmas of Identity, Diversity, and Political Strategy," in The Global Emergence of Gay and Lesbian Politics: National Imprints of a Worldwide Movement, ed. Barry Adam, Jan Willem Duyvendak, and Andre Krouwel (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1999);
279. Toby Marotta, The Politics of Homosexuality (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1981);
280. Laud Humphreys, Out of the Closets: The Sociology of Homosexual Liberation (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1972);
281. Martin Duberman, Stonewall (New York: Dutton, 1993);
282. Alice Echols, Daring to Be Bad: Radical Feminism in America, 1967-1975 (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1989);
283. Verta Taylor and Leila Rupp, "Women's Culture and Lesbian Feminist Activism: A Reconsideration of Cultural Feminism," Signs 19 (Fall 1993): 32-61;
284. Terence Kissack, "Freaking Fag Revolutionaries: New York's Gay Liberation Front, 1969-1971," Radical History Review 62 (1995): 104-34.
285. Stuart Byron, "The Closet Syndrome," in Out of the Closets: Voices of Gay Liberationism, ed. Karla Jay and Allen Young (New York: New York University Press, 1992 [1972]), p. 58.
286. Cf. Judy Grahn, "Lesbians as Bogeywomen," Women 1 (Summer 1970): 36-38;
287. On the renewal of gay liberationist politics, see Urvashi Vaid, Virtual Equality: The Mainstreaming of Gay and Lesbian Liberation (New York:Doubleday, 1995);
288. Michael Warner, Fear of a Queer Planet (Minneapolis:University of Minnesota Press, 1993);
289. Michael Fraser, "Identity and Representation as Challenges to Social Movement Theory: A Case Study of Queer Nation," in Mainstream(s) and Margins: Cultural Politics in the 90s, eds. Michael Morgan and Susan Leggett (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1966);
290. Douglas Crimp and Adam Rolston, AIDS Demo Graphics (Seattle, Wash.: Bay Press, 1990).
291. For overviews of the rights-oriented gay politics of the 1980s and 1990s, see the essays collected in Craig Rimmerman, Kenneth Wald, and Clyde Wilcox, eds., The Politics of Gay Rights (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000);
292. Chris Bull and John Gallagher, Perfect Enemies: The Religious Right, the Gay Movement, and the Politics of the 1990s (New York: Crown Publishers, 1998);
293. David Deitcher, ed., The Question of Equality: Lesbian and Gay Politics since Stonewall (New York: Scribner, 1995);
294. David Rayside, On the Fringe: Gays and Lesbians in Politics (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1998);
295. James Button, Barbara Rienzo, and Kenneth Wald, Private Lives, Public Conflicts:Battles over Gay Rights in American Communities (Washington, D.C.:Congressional Quarterly Press, 1997).
296. For example, Bruce Bawer, A Place at the Table: The Gay Individual in American Society (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1993), p. 47.
297. See, for example, D'Emilio, Sexual Politics, Sexual Communities; Toby Marotta, The Politics of Homosexuality (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1981).
298. "Editorial," Mattachine Review 8 (November 1962): 2.
299. For an overview of gains and losses through the mid-1990s, see National Gay and Lesbian Task Force Policy Institute, Capital Gains and Losses: A State by State Review of Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, and Transgender, and HIV/AIDS-related Legislation in 1997 (Washington,D.C.: NGLTRF Policy Institute, 1997);
300. see also Jean Reith Schroedel and Pamela Fiber, "Lesbian and Gay Policy Priorities: Commonality and Difference,"
301. and James Button et al., "The Politics of Gay Rights at the Local and State Level," in The Politics of Gay Rights, ed. Craig Rimmerman et al. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000).
302. See Suzanna Danuta Walters, All the Rage: The Story of Gay Visibility in America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001), p. 9.
303. Gregory Lewis and Jonathan Edelson, "DOMA and ENDA: Congress Votes on Gay Rights," in The Politics of Gay Rights, ed. Rimmerman, et al., p. 195.
304. Researchers have documented a dramatic and unexpected shift in moral attitudes in the mid-1990s. See Jeni Loftus, "America's Liberalization in Attitudes toward Homosexuality, 1973 to 1998," American Sociological Review 66 (October 2001): 762-82;
305. Alan Yang, "The Polls-Trends, Attitudes toward Homosexuality," Public Opinion Quarterly 61 (1997): 477-507;
306. Simon Dumenco, "They're Here, They're Queer, We're Used to It," New York, March 5, 2001, pp. 29-31.
307. On nationalism and sexual identity, see Jacqui Alexander, "Not Just (Any) Body Can Be a Citizen: The Politics of Law, Sexuality, and Postcoloniality in Trinidad and Tobago and the Bahamas," Feminist Review 48 (Fall 1994):5-23;
308. George Mosse, Nationalisms and Sexualities: Middle-Class Moralities and Sexual Norms in Modern Europe (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1985);
309. Richard Herrell, "Sin, Sickness, Crime: Queer Desire and the American State," Identities 2 (3): 273-300;
310. Jyoti Puri, "Nationalism Has a Lot to Do with It! Unraveling Questions of Nationalism and Transnationalism in Lesbian/Gay Studies," in Handbook of Lesbian and Gay Studies, ed. Diane Richardson and Steven Seidman (London: Sage, 2002);
311. Lauren Berlant and Elizabeth Freeman, "Queer Nationality," in Fear of a Queer Planet;
312. Carl Stychin, A Nation by Rights: National Cultures, Sexual Identity Politics, and the Discourse of Rights (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1998).
313. Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities (New York: Verso, 1983);
314. Liah Greenfeld, Nationalism: Five Roads to Modernity (Cambridge, Mass.:Harvard University Press, 1992);
315. Lynn Spillman, Nation and Commemoration:Creating National Identities in the United States and Australia (Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 1997).
316. Cf. Anna Marie Smith, "The Politicization of Marriage in Contemporary American Public Policy: The Defense of Marriage Act and the Personal Responsibility Act," Citizenship Studies 5 (November 2001): 303-20;
317. Don Westervelt, "Defending Marriage and Country," Constellations 8 (March 2001): 106-126;
318. Richard Mohr, A More Perfect Union: Why Straight America Must Stand up for Gay Rights (Boston: Beacon Press, 1994).
319. See William Eskridge Jr., The Case for Same-Sex Marriage: From Sexual Liberty to Civilized Commitment (New York: Free Press, 1996)
320. and Equality Practice:Civil Unions and the Future of Gay Rights (New York: Routledge, 2002).
321. A number of scholars have recently made similar arguments. Cf. Cheshire Calhoun, Feminism, the Family, and the Politics of the Closet (New York:Oxford University Press, 2000);
322. Morris Kaplan, Sexual Justice: Democratic Citizenship and the Politics of Desire (New York:Routledge, 1997).
323. Andrew Sullivan, Virtually Normal: An Argument about Homosexuality (New York: Vintage, 1996).
324. On the way race organizes social institutions and culture, see Michael Omi and Howard Winant, Racial Transformation in the United States from the 1960s to the 1980s (New York: Routledge, 1986);
325. Joe Feagin and Hernan Vera, White Racism (New York: Routledge, 1995);
326. Melvin Oliver and Thomas Shapiro, Black Wealth/White Wealth: A New Perspective on Racial Inequality (New York: Routledge, 1995). On gender as organizing social structure, see R. W. Connell, Gender and Power: Society, the Person, and Sexual Politics (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1987);
327. Cynthia Epstein, Deceptive Distinctions: Sex, Gender, and the Social Order (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1988);
328. and Catherine MacKinnon, Towards a Feminist Theory of the State (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1989).
329. For the defense of gay marriage, see Thomas Stoddard, "Why Gay People Should Seek the Right to Marry," in Lesbians, Gay Men, and the Law, ed. William Rubenstein (New York: New Press, 1993);
330. Nan Hunter, "Marriage, Law, and Gender: A Feminist Inquiry," Law and Sexuality 9 (1991);
331. For arguments against gay marriage, see Paula Ettelbrick, "Since When Is Marriage a Path to Liberation?" in Lesbians, Gay Men, and the Law, ed. Rubenstein;
332. Nancy Polikoff, "We Will Get What We Ask For:Why Legalizing Gay and Lesbian Marriage Will Not 'Dismantle the Legal Structure of Gender in Every Marriage,'" Virginia Law Review 79 (1993): 1535-50;
333. and Michael Warner, The Trouble with Normal: Sex, Politics, and the Ethics of Queer Life (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2000).
334. For some recent overviews of this research, see the work of the following sociologists: Suzanne Bianchi et al., "Is Anyone Doing the Housework? Trends in the Gender Division of Household Labor," Social Forces 79 (December 2000): 191-228;
335. Scott Coltrane, Gender and Families (Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Pine Forge Press, 1998)
336. and Family Man:Fatherhood,Housework, and Gender Equity (New York:Oxford University Press, 1996);
337. and Linda Waite, ed., The Ties That Bind: Perspectives on Marriage and Cohabitation (New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 2000).
338. See Jeffrey Weeks, Brian Heaphy, and Catherine Donovan, Same Sex Intimacies: Families of Choice and Other Life Experiments (New York:Routledge, 2001);
339. Christopher Carrington, No Place like Home: Relationships and Family Life among Lesbians and Gay Men (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999);
340. and Ellen Lewin, Recognizing Ourselves: Ceremonies of Lesbian and Gay Commitment (New York: Columbia University Press, 1998).
341. See Nancy Cott, Public Vows: A History of Marriage and the Nation (Cambridge, Mass.:Harvard University Press, 2000), ch. 9.
342. Will Kymlicka, "Rethinking the Family," Philosophy and Public Affairs 20 (1991):77-97;.
343. Nathan Glazer, We Are All Multiculturalists Now (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1997).
344. For example, Ronald Takaki, A Different Mirror: A History of Multicultural America (New York: Little, Brown, 1993).
345. Desmond King, Making Americans: Immigration, Race, and the Origins of the Diverse Democracy (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2000), p. 124.
346. My concept of multiculturalism has been influenced by the following work: David Hollinger, Postethnic America: Beyond Multiculturalism (New York:Basic Books, 1995);
347. Will Kymlicka, Multicultural Citizenship (New York:Oxford University Press, 1995);
348. Christopher Newfield and Avery Gordon, "Multuculturalism's Unfinished Business," in C. Newfield and A. Gordon, Mapping Multiculturalism (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1996);
349. Iris Marion Young, Justice and the Politics of Difference (Princeton, N.J.:Princeton University Press, 1990);
350. and Charles Taylor, Multiculturalism and the Politics of Recognition (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1992).
351. Glazer, We Are All Multiculturalists Now, p. 79.
352. See Alan Wolfe, One Nation, after All (New York: Viking, 1998), p. 298.