UNTAC in Cambodia – from Occupation, Civil War and Genocide to Peace

Max Planck Yearbook of United Nations Law

Volumn 9, Issue , 2005, Pages 127-178

  Keller, Lucy ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 84917307238     PISSN: 13894633     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1163/187574105x00057     Document Type: Article

References (291)

1. Since its independence from French colonialism, Cambodia’s official designation changed repeatedly, the different terms standing for the respective political change: “Kingdom of Cambodia” (1954-1970), “Khmer Republic” (1970-1975), “Democratic Kampuchea” (1976-1979), “Peoples Republic of Kampuchea” (1979-1989), “State of Cambodia” (1989-1993); in 1993, the constituent assembly decided upon the renaming of “Cambodia”; cf. P. Hazdra, Die UNO-Friedensoperationen in Kambodscha, 1997, 34. In order to maintain a uniform terminology and as “Kampuchea”, albeit being the original country designation in the Khmer language, is occupied with negative connotations, the term “Cambodia” will be used as the state’s name throughout the following study.
2. Cf. A. Rapp/ C. Philipp, “Conflicts Cambodia/Kampuchea”, in: R. Wolfrum (ed.), United Nations: Law, Policies and Practice, Vol. I, 1995, 200 et seq.
3. The word “Khmer” describes the ethnic group of Cambodia’s indigenous and predominant people and moreover the indigenous Cambodian language; cf. Hazdra, see note 1, 34.
4. See B. Boutros-Ghali, The United Nations and Cambodia 1991-1995, The United Nations Blue Book Series, Vol. II, 1995, 5.
5. Cf. under II. 4.
6. Report of a Finnish Inquiry Commission, “Kampuchea: Decade of the Genocide”, in: K. Kiljunen (ed.) 1986, 1 et seq.
7. See D.P. Chandler, A History of Cambodia, 1996, 81.
8. Chandler, see note 7, 137 et seq.
9. L. Fernando, “Khmer Socialism, Human Rights and the UN Intervention”, in: A. Tay (ed.), East Asia: Human Rights, Nation-Building, Trade, 1999, 449 et seq.
10. Chandler, see note 7, 153 et seq.
11. M.F. Herz, A Short History of Cambodia, 1958, 69 et seq.
12. Chandler, see note 7, 169 et seq.
13. Herz, see note 11, 65.
14. Hazdra, see note 1, 37.
15. Hazdra, see note 1, 37.
16. S.P. Marks, “The new Cambodian constitution: From civil war to a fragile democracy”, Colum. Hum. Rts L. Rev. 26 (1994), 45 et seq.
17. J. Cable, The Geneva Conference of 1954 on Indochina, 1986, 9 et seq.
18. Cf. Cable, see note 17, 146 et seq.
19. Cable, see note 17, 146 et seq.
20. Rapp/ Philipp, see note 2, 200.
21. Cf. A/RES/995 (X) of 14 December 1955.
22. Hazdra, see note 1, 38.
23. Decolonisation became a general issue in the UN with the “Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and People”, A/RES/1514 (XV) of 14 December 1960; Rapp/ Philipp, see note 2, 201.
24. Cf. Chandler, see note 7, 191 et seq.
25. Hazdra, see note 1, 38 et seq.
26. Cable, see note 17, 83.
27. Cf. Hazdra, see note 1, 39.
28. Rapp/ Philipp, see note 2, 201.
29. Cf. Hazdra, see note 1, 41.
30. Marks, see note 16, 45 et seq.
31. An estimated number of 400,000 persons fell victim to the U.S. bombardments; cf. Rapp/ Philipp, see note 2, 201.
32. Marks, see note 16, 45 et seq.
33. B. Kiernan, The Pol Pot Regime, 1996, 54.
34. Kiernan, see note 33, 54.
35. Chandler, see note 7, 209.
36. Kiernan, see note 33, 159 et seq., 251 et seq.
37. Estimations of the exact number of dead vary – at any rate, one million people killed in a population of seven million is one of the highest rates of mass killing in the world’s history.
38. Hazdra, see note 1, 41 et seq.
39. Kiljunen, see note 6, 22 et seq.
40. Doc. E/CN. 4/1350 – E/CN. 4/Sub. 2/435, 47.
41. Ibid., para. 3.
42. Ibid., para. 2.
43. H. Hannum, “International Law and Cambodian Genocide: The Sounds of Silence”, HRQ 11 (1989), 82 et seq.
44. Compare under II. 5.
45. Doc. E/CN. 4/1413 – E/CN. 4/Sub. 2/459, 80.
46. Ibid., para. 3.
47. M.W. Doyle, UN Peacekeeping in Cambodia: UNTAC’s Civil Mandate, 1995, 17.
48. Chandler, see note 7, 228.
49. Doyle, see note 47, 18.
50. Marks, see note 16, 45 et seq.
51. Chandler, see note 7, 228.
52. Doyle, see note 47, 17.
53. Hazdra, see note 1, 56.
54. Institute of Policy Studies (IPS) of Singapore and the United Nations Institute for Training and Research (UNITAR) (eds), The United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia (UNTAC): Debriefing and Lessons, 1995, 7.
55. Doyle, see note 47, 17.
56. IPS/ UNITAR, see note 54, 7.
57. Doyle, see note 47, 17.
58. I.e. Brunei Darussalam, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore and Thailand.
59. Doyle, see note 47, 19.
60. Cf. L. Salmen, Kambodscha und die UNO: Der Krieg und seine Eingrenzung von 1978 bis 1993, 1999, 103 et seq.
61. Hessische Stiftung für Friedens- und Konfliktforschung (HSFK) (ed.), Friedensanalysen, 1978, 21 et seq.
62. Doyle, see note 47, 23 et seq.
63. HSFK, see note 61, 15 et seq.
64. Salmen, see note 60, 44.
65. Cf. under II. 2.
66. Cf. S. Ratliff, “UN Representation Disputes”, California Law Review 87 (1999), 1207 et seq.
67. A/RES/34/2 of 21 September 1979; A/RES/35/4 of 13 October 1980; A/RES/36/2A of 18 September 1981; A/RES/37/5A of 26 October 1982; cf. also Rapp/Philipp, see note 2, 205.
68. Ratliff, see note 66, 1207 et seq.
69. Ratliff, see note 66, 1207 et seq.
70. Rapp/ Philipp, see note 2.
71. Doc. S/13022 of 11 January 1979 and Doc. S/13027 of 15 January 1979.
72. Doc. S/13162 of 13 March 1979.
73. A/RES/34/22 of 14 November 1979.
74. K. Hailbronner/ E. Klein, “Article 12”, in: B. Simma (ed.), The Charter of the United Nations: A Commentary, 2002, Vol. I, MN 2.
75. Cf. E. Jiménez de Aréchaga, “United Nations Security Council”, in: R. Bernhard (ed.), EPIL, 2000, Vol. IV, 1168; J. Delbrück, “Article 24”, in: Simma, see note 74, MN 3 et seq.
76. Hailbronner/ Klein, see note 74, MN 1.
77. Cf. Sir F. Vallat, “United Nations General Assembly”, in: Bernhard, see note 75, 1122; K. Hailbronner/ E. Klein, “Article 10”, in: Simma, see note 74, MN 1 et seq.
78. Compare only the formulation in paras 4-7, in which the General Assembly inter alia “urges all parties to cooperate with the humanitarian relief efforts” and “calls upon all parties to the conflict to cease all hostilities”.
79. For a detailed account of this subject matter compare the discussion on the so called “Uniting for Peace Resolution”, A/RES/377 (V) of 3 November 1950, adopted on the occasion of the Korean conflict, see B. Nolte, “Uniting for Peace”, in: Wolfum, see note 2, Vol. II, 1341 et seq.
80. A/RES/35/6 of 22 October 1980.
81. Report of the International Conference on Kampuchea, Doc. A/CONF. 109/5, annex 1.
82. Ibid., annex II.
83. See, e.g. A/RES/43/19 of 3 November 1988.
84. S.R. Ratner, “The Cambodia Settlement Agreements”, AJIL 87 (1993), 1 et seq.
85. Cf. Boutros-Ghali, see note 4, 6.
86. Doyle, see note 47, 21.
87. T. Findlay, Cambodia: The Legacy and Lessons of UNTAC, 1995, 4.
88. Letter from the permanent representative of Indonesia to the United Nations addressed to the Secretary-General, Doc. A/43/493-S/20071 of 28 July 1988, annex 1.
89. Letter from the permanent representative of Indonesia to the United Nations addressed to the Secretary-General, Doc. A/44/138-S/20477 of 22 February 1989.
90. Boutros-Ghali, see note 4, 7.
91. Cf. A. Acharya/ P. Lizée/ S. Peou (eds), Cambodia: The 1989 Paris Peace Conference, 1991, Introduction 23.
92. Findlay, see note 87, 5.
93. Cf. A. Acharya/ P. Lizée/ S. Peou, see note 91, 45.
94. Doyle, see note 47, 22.
95. Cf. Boutros-Ghali, see note 4, 7.
96. Acharya/ Lizée/ Peou, see note 91, 23.
97. Findlay, see note 87, 6.
98. Cf. Rapp/ Philipp, see note 2, 206.
99. Cf. “Statement of the Five Permanent Members of the Security Council of the United Nations on Cambodia”, in: Letter dated 30 August 1990 from the permanent representatives of China, France, the USSR, the United Kingdom and the United States to the United Nations addressed to the Secretary-General transmitting statement and framework document adopted by their representatives at a meeting in New York, 27-28 August 1990; Doc. A/45/472-S/21689 of 31 August 1990.
100. Framework Agreement, section 1, paras 1 and 2.
101. Framework Agreement, section 1, paras 3 and 4.
102. Framework Agreement, section 1, para. 7.
103. Framework Agreement, section 2, para. 13.
104. Framework Agreement, section 3, para. 14.
105. Framework Agreement, section 2, para. 17.
106. Framework Agreement, section 2, para. 15.
107. Framework Agreement, section 1, para. 1 and section 3, para. 20.
108. Framework Agreement, section 3, paras 21 and 22.
109. Framework Agreement, section 3, para. 23.
110. For details compare E. Afsah/ A. Guhr, in this Volume.
111. For details compare R. Wolfrum, case study Iraq, in this Volume.
112. Framework Agreement, section 4, para. 24.
113. Framework Agreement, section 4, paras 26 and 27.
114. Framework Agreement, section 5, para. 31.
115. Framework Agreement, section 5, paras 33-36.
116. Doyle, see note 47, 24.
117. For details to the SNC see under III. 3. c. aa.
118. See S/RES/668 (1990) of 20 September 1990.
119. Cf. Communiqué issued on 30 August 1991 by the Co-Chairman of the Paris Conference on Cambodia and the Five Permanent Members of the Security Council, in: Letter dated 3 September 1991 from the representatives of China, France, Indonesia, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and the United States of America to the United Nations addressed to the Secretary-General, Doc. A/46/418-S/23011 of 3 September 1991.
120. Doc. A/46/608-S/23177 of 30 November 1991.
121. S/RES/718 (1991) of 31 October 1991.
122. A/RES/46/18 of 20 November 1991.
123. Compare under III. 1.
124. Final Act, para. 10.
125. Final Act, para. 12.
126. Declaration, para. 2.
127. Declaration, para. 3.
128. Declaration, para. 9.
129. Comprehensive Settlement Agreement, part 1, section 3, arts 3 and 5.
130. Comprehensive Settlement Agreement, part 1, section 3, article 4.
131. Comprehensive Settlement Agreement, part 1, section 3, article 6, para. 1.
132. Comprehensive Settlement Agreement, part 1, section 3, article 6, para. 2.
133. Comprehensive Settlement Agreement, part 2, article 12.
134. Comprehensive Settlement Agreement, annex 1, section D, para. 5.
135. Comprehensive Settlement Agreement, annex 1, section D, para. 3, lit. d.
136. Comprehensive Settlement Agreement, annex 1, section D, para. 3, lit. i.
137. Comprehensive Settlement Agreement, annex 1, section D, para. 3, lit. l.
138. Comprehensive Settlement Agreement, annex 3, para. 1.
139. Comprehensive Settlement Agreement, annex 3, para. 3.
140. Comprehensive Settlement Agreement, annex 3, para. 9.
141. Ratner, see note 84, 1 et seq.
142. Comprehensive Settlement Agreement, annex 5, para. 2.
143. Comprehensive Settlement Agreement, part 3, article 15, para. 2, lit. a.
144. Comprehensive Settlement Agreement, part 3, article 16.
145. Comprehensive Settlement Agreement, annex 5, paras 1 and 6.
146. Comprehensive Settlement Agreement, annex 5, para. 3.
147. Comprehensive Settlement Agreement, annex 5, para. 4.
148. Comprehensive Settlement Agreement, annex 5, para. 5.
149. Guarantees Agreement, article 1, para. 2, lit. a.
150. Guarantees Agreement, article 1, para. 2, lit. b.
151. Guarantees Agreement, article 1, para. 2, lit. d.
152. Guarantees Agreement, article 1, para. 2, lit. c and article 2, para. 2, lit. b.
153. Guarantees Agreement, article 1, para. 2, lit. e and article 2, para. 2, lit. c.
154. Guarantees Agreement, article 1, para. 2, lit. f and article 2, para. 2, lit. d.
155. Cf. Doc. S/22945 of 14 August 1991.
156. S/RES/717 (1991) of 16 October 1991.
157. Ibid., para. 2.
158. Cf. http://www.un.org/Depts/dpko/dpko/co_mission/unamicbackgr.html.
159. S/RES/728 (1992) of 8 January 1992.
160. Report of the Secretary-General on Cambodia containing his proposed implementation plan for UNTAC, including administrative and financial aspects; Doc. S/23613 of 19 February 1992.
161. S/RES/745 (1992) of 28 February 1992.
162. Para. 1 of Resolution 745, see note 161.
163. Comprehensive Settlement Agreement, part 1, section 2, article 2.
164. Para. 1 of Resolution 745, see note 161.
165. Para. 4 of Resolution 745, see note 161.
166. Para. 5 of Resolution 745, see note 161.
167. Para. 6 of Resolution 745, see note 161.
168. Compare E. Suy, “United Nations Peacekeeping System”, in: Bernhard, see note 75, 1144; S. Chesterman, You, the People: The United Nations, Transitional Administration and State-Building, 2004, 48.
169. For details of the trusteeship system see N. Matz, in this Volume; D. Rauschnig, “Chapter XII. International Trusteeship System”, in: Simma, see note 74, Vol. II, MN 1 et seq.
170. Cf. E. De Wet, “The Direct Administration of Territories by the United Nations”, in: A. von Bogdandy/ R. Wolfrum (eds), Max Planck UNYB 8 (2004), 306 et seq.
171. For details to UNMIK see J. Friedrich, in this Volume.
172. For details to UNTAET see M. Benzing, in this Volume.
173. S/RES/1244 (1999) of 10 June 1999 (UNMIK in Kosovo); S/RES/1037 (1996) of 15 January 1996 (UNTAES in Eastern Slavonia); S/RES/1272 (1999) of 25 October 1999 (UNTAET in East Timor).
174. Answering the important material questions of the genesis of a treaty, i.e. the mode of the negotiations leading to a treaty, which parties are involved in the treaty-making procedure and the issue of whether a consent represents a real accord between the parties, would go beyond the scope of the present analysis.
175. Cf. M. Bothe, “Peace-keeping”, in: Simma, see note 74, MN 13 et seq.; M. J. Matheson, “United Nations Governance of Postconflict Societies”, AJIL 95 (2001), 76 et seq.; De Wet, see note 170, 314 et seq.
176. Bothe, see note 175, MN 1 et seq.; the terminology in the field of UN peace-keeping operations is far from consistent, cf. W. M. Reisman, “Preparing to Wage Peace: Toward the Creation of an International Peacemaking Command and Staff College”, AJIL 88 (1994), 76 et seq.
177. Bothe, see note 175, MN 5 et seq.; De Wet, see note 170, 314 et seq.
178. Bothe, see note 175, MN 5 et seq.
179. Doyle, see note 47, 25.
180. The military support aims at containing the conflict by facilitating ceasefires and by preventing a resurgence of hostilities; Bothe, see note 175, MN 7 et seq.
181. See N. Matz, in this Volume.
182. See D. Gruss, in this Volume.
183. J. A. Frowein/ N. Krisch, “Article 41”, in: Simma, see note 74, MN 20.
184. According to a different opinion, the consensual territories administration is based on the implied powers in Article 39 in conjunction with Article 29 of the UN Charter; De Wet, see note 170, 314.
185. Comprehensive Settlement Agreement, annex 1, section A, para. 2, lit. a.
186. Comprehensive Settlement Agreement, annex 1, section A, para. 2, lit. b.
187. Comprehensive Settlement Agreement, annex 1, section A, para. 2, lit. c.
188. Comprehensive Settlement Agreement, annex 1, section A, para. 2, lit. e.
189. Comprehensive Settlement Agreement, annex 1, section A, para. 3.
190. UN (ed.), The United Nations in Cambodia: A Vote for Peace, 1993, 10.
191. See above.
192. V. Krishnadasan, “A Legal Perspective on UNTAC: An Overview”, in: IPS/UNITAR, see note 54, 193.
193. De Wet, see note 170, 297.
194. Cf. Ratner, see note 84, 1 et seq.
195. Cf. Ratner, see note 84, 1 et seq.
196. Comprehensive Settlement Agreement, part 1, section 3, article 6 and annex 1, section B, para. 1.
197. Comprehensive Settlement Agreement, annex 1, section B, para. 2.
198. Comprehensive Settlement Agreement, annex 1, section B, para. 3.
199. Compare under IV. 2. b. aa.; Ratner, see note 84, 1 et seq.
200. Cf. Doyle, see note 47, 37 et seq.
201. Findlay, see note 87, 59.
202. Comprehensive Settlement Agreement, annex 1, section B, para. 2.
203. Ratner, see note 84, 1 et seq.
204. The precedent direct administration of West-Irian by UNTEA cannot be compared with UNTAC, since the former was not endowed with a similar broad- scale mandate; for details to UNTEA see D. Gruss, in this Volume.
205. Comprehensive Settlement Agreement, annex 1, section C, para. 1, lit. a-e.
206. Comprehensive Settlement Agreement, annex 1, section C, paras 2 and 3.
207. Comprehensive Settlement Agreement, annex 1, section C, para. 4 and annex 2.
208. Comprehensive Settlement Agreement, annex 1, section C, para. 5.
209. UN, see note 190, 37 et seq.
210. Comprehensive Settlement Agreement, part 3, article 16.
211. Comprehensive Settlement Agreement, annex 1, section E, lit. a.
212. Comprehensive Settlement Agreement, annex 1, section E, lit. b.
213. Comprehensive Settlement Agreement, annex 1, section E, lit. c.
214. UN, see note 191, 54.
215. IPS/UNITAR, see note 54, 19.
216. Findlay, see note 87, 64.
217. Cf. Ratner, see note 84, 1 et seq.
218. Comprehensive Settlement Agreement, part 2, article 12.
219. Compare under III. 3. c. bb.
220. Comprehensive Settlement Agreement, annex 1, section D, para. 5.
221. Comprehensive Settlement Agreement, annex 1, section D, para. 6.
222. Comprehensive Settlement Agreement, annex 1, section D, para. 3, lit. a.
223. Comprehensive Settlement Agreement, annex 1, section D, para. 3, lit. b.
224. Comprehensive Settlement Agreement, annex 1, section D, para. 3, lit. c.
225. Comprehensive Settlement Agreement, annex 1, section D, para. 3, lit. d.
226. Comprehensive Settlement Agreement, annex 1, section D, para. 3, lit. i-k.
227. Comprehensive Settlement Agreement, annex 1, section D, para. 3, lit. l.
228. Comprehensive Settlement Agreement, annex 1, section D, para. 4.
229. Marks, see note 16, 45 et seq.
230. Doyle, see note 47, 20.
231. Doyle, see note 47, 46.
232. S/RES/835 (1993) of 2 June 1993.
233. Doc. S/25913 of 10 June 1993.
234. S/RES/840 (1993) of 15 June 1993.
235. Findlay, see note 87, 97.
236. See N. Matz, in this Volume.
237. Doc. S/23613 of 19 February 1992.
238. Findlay, see note 87, 102.
239. Findlay, see note 87, 102.
240. Salmen, see note 60, 123 et seq.
241. Doc. S/24090 of 12 June 1992.
242. Salmen, see note 60, 123 et seq.
243. S/RES/792 (1992) of 30 November 1992.
244. Boutros-Ghali, see note 4, 19.
245. Doyle, see note 47, 25.
246. UNTAC’s personal and financial dimension could at most be compared to that of UNMIK in Kosovo; for more details see J. Friedrich, in this Volume.
247. Cf. http://www.un.org/Depts/dpko/dpko/co_mission/untacfacts.html.
248. Comprehensive Settlement Agreement, part 1, section 3, arts 3 and 6.
249. Chesterman, see note 168, 74.
250. See under IV. 2. a.
251. IPS/UNITAR, see note 54, 28.
252. For a detailed study of the Cambodian post-conflict situation compare International Crisis Group (ICG), Asia Report 8, 2000, Cambodia: The Elusive Peace Dividend, www.crisisgroup.org.
253. Chesterman, see note 168, 154.
254. Compare for detailed account of post-conflict justice A. Seibert-Fohr, in this Volume.
255. Marks, see note 16, 45 et seq.
256. Similar logic has been applied in the case of peace settlements in Nicaragua and South Africa; cf. Findlay, see note 87, 6.
257. C. Etcheson, “The politics of Genocide Justice in Cambodia”, in: P. Sands/ R. Mackenzie/ C. Romano (eds), Internationalized Criminal Courts, 2004, 181.
258. Law on the Establishment of the Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia for the Prosecution of Crimes Committed during the Period of Democratic Kampuchea, Law NS/RKM/0801/12, http://www.derechos.org/human-rights/seasia/doc/krlaw.html.
259. E.E. Meijer, “The Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia for Prosecuting Crimes Committed by the Khmer Rouge: Jurisdiction, Organization, and Procedure of an Internationalized National Tribunal”, in: Sands/ Mackenzie/ Romano, see note 257, 207.
260. Cf. Documentation Centre of Cambodia (DCCAM), www.dccam.org.
261. Para. 1 of A/RES/57/228 A of 18 December 2002.
262. Ibid., para. 2.
263. Ibid., para. 3.
264. Ibid., paras 4, lit. a and 5.
265. Agreement between the United Nations and the Royal Government of Cambodia concerning the prosecution under Cambodian law of crimes committed during the period of Democratic Kampuchea, annex 1 of A/RES/57/228 B of 13 May 2003.
266. A/RES/57/228 B of 13 May 2003.
267. Cf. Meijer, see note 259, 208.
268. Cf. Meijer, see note 259, 210 et seq.
269. For details to the SCSL see M. Goldmann, in this Volume.
270. Cambodian law, article 3.
271. Meijer, see note 259, 212.
272. Agreement, article 1; Cambodian law, article 4.
273. With respect to the Iraqi Special Tribunal see R. Wolfrum, in this Volume.
274. Agreement, arts 1 and 9; Cambodian law, article 9.
275. Cambodian law, article 12, para. 1.
276. Agreement, article 12.
277. Cambodian law, article 33, para. 1.
278. Agreement, arts 12, paras 2 and 13.
279. Cambodian law, article 33.
280. Cambodian law, article 34.
281. Cambodian law, article 35.
282. Cf. Meijer, see note 259, 227.
283. Agreement, article 10; Cambodian law, article 28.
284. Cf. Meijer, see note 259, 229.
285. Cambodian law, article 39.
286. Cf. Etcheson, see note 257, 201 et seq.
287. Doyle, see note 47, 51 et seq.
288. For details, see R. Utz, in this Volume.
289. Herz, see note 11, 62.
290. Ratner, see note 84, 1 et seq.
291. Cf. Bothe, see note 175, MN 7 et seq.