War, politics and society in early modern China, 900-1795

War, Politics and Society in Early Modern China, 900-1795

Volumn , Issue , 2005, Pages 1-188

  Lorge, Peter ^a  

^a VANDERBILT UNIVERSITY   (United States)

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EID: 84917138866     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.4324/9780203969298     Document Type: Book

References (187)

1. Ouyang Xiu, Xin Wudaishi, Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju, 1974, 27.297.
2. David Graff, Medieval Chinese Warfare, London: Routledge, 2002, pp. 217-223 (Anlushan), and p. 238 (Huang Chao).
3. Johannes, Kurz, "The Five Dynasties and Ten States in Song Times," Journal of Sung-Yuan Studies, 33 (2003), pp. 190-191.
4. For example, the Southern Tang campaigns began abortively in 940, and then with greater vigor under a new emperor in 945, described in Johannes Kurz, "The Yangzi between the Southern Tang and Its Neighbors," Wiesbaden: Harrasowitz Verlag, 1997, pp. 30-35.
5. This section follows Wang Gungwu, The Structure of Power in North China During the Five Dynasties, Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1967 (first published by the University of Malaysia Press, 1963).
6. Sima Guang, Zizhi Tongjian, Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju, 1992, 268.8759.
7. Traditional Chinese historiography assumed that the Kitan always wanted to conquer China, even after their retreat in 947. It is only recently that this assumption has been called into question. Christian Lamouroux, "Geography and Politics: The Song-Liao Border Dispute of 1074/75," in Sabine Dabringhaus and Roderich Ptak (eds), China and Her Neighbours, Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, 1997;
8. Peter Lorge, "War and the Creation of the Northern Song," Ph.D. dissertation, University of Pennsylvania, 1996, pp. 260-262.
9. Robert Hartwell, "A Revolution in the Chinese Iron and Coal Industries during the Northern Sung, 960-1126 ad," Journal of Asian Studies, 12 (1962), pp. 153-162.
10. Sima Guang, Zizhi Tongjian, 289.9447-290.9450.
11. Peter Lorge, "The Entrance and Exit of the Song Founders," Journal of Sung-Yuan Studies, 30 (1999), pp. 43-62.
12. For the follow up campaign against the Northern Han (3 May-30 July 954), see Sima Guang, Zizhi Tongjian 291.9513-292.9516;
13. Peter Lorge, "War and the Creation of the Northern Song," pp. 89-92.
14. For the campaign to capture the four northern prefectures of Shu (24 May-30 December 955), see Sima Guang, Zizhi Tongjian, 292.9524-33;
15. Peter Lorge, "War and the Creation of the Northern Song," pp. 96-101.
16. For the Huainan campaign (17 December 955-8 April 957), see Sima Guang, Zizhi Tongjian, 292.9532-294.9581;
17. Jiu Wudaishi, 115/5b-116/5b;
18. Ouyang Xiu, 12.120;
19. Peter Lorge, "War and the Creation of Northern Song," pp. 101-131.
20. For the Sixteen Prefectures campaign (29 April-27 July 959), see Sima Guang, Zizhi Tongjian, 294.9594-9602;
21. Jiu Wudaishi, 120/4b;
22. Ouyang Xiu, Xin Wudaishi, 20.124;
23. Peter Lorge, "War and the Creation of the Northern Song," pp. 132-135.
24. For the Rebellion of Li Yun (10 May-15 July 960), see Li Tao, Xu Zizhi Tongjian Changbian, Beijing, Zhonghua Shuju, 1979, 1/12b-15a,
25. Toghto (ed.) Songshi; Beijing: Zhonghua Shuja, 1995, 1.6;
26. Peter Lorge, "War and the Creation of the Northern Song," pp. 137-142.
27. For the Rebellion of Li Zhongjin (15 October-2 December 960), see Li Tao, Xu Zizhi Tongjian Changbian, 1/20a-24a;
28. Toghto, Songshi 1.7;
29. Peter Lorge, "War and the Creation of the Northern Song," pp. 142-145.
30. Sima Guang, Sushui Jiwen, in Zhongguo Yeshi Jicheng, Chengdu: Ba-Shu shushe, 1993, 8:526
31. On the south-first strategy, see Leung Wai Kei, "Xian nanzheng, hou beifa: Songchu tongyi quanguo de wei yi zhanlue (960-976)?," Zhongguo Wenhua Yanjiusuo Xuebao, 8 (1999), pp. 73-100. Mr Leung's discussion convincingly supersedes all previous studies.
32. Li Tao, Xu Zizhi Tongjian Changbian, 3/10b-4/6a
33. Toghto, Songshi, 1.13;
34. Peter Lorge, "War and the Creation of the Northern Song," pp. 151-156.
35. Li Tao, Xu Zizhi Tongjian Changbian, 4/14b-5/4b
36. Toghto, Songshi, 1.14-17;
37. Peter Lorge, "War and the Creation of the Northern Song," pp. 156-158.
38. For the conquest of Shu (8 December 964-11 February 965), see Li Tao, Xu Zizhi Tongjian Changbian, 5/16a-6/2a
39. Toghto, Songshi, 1.18-2.21;
40. Peter Lorge, "War and the Creation of the Northern Song," pp. 159-167.
41. For Song Taizu's first campaign against the Northern Han (10 September 968-3 July 969), see Li Tao, 9/6a-10/11b
42. Toghto, Songshi, 2.27-29;
43. Peter Lorge, "War and the Creation of the Northern Song," pp. 167-177.
44. For the conquest of the Southern Han, see Li Tao, Xu Zizhi Tongjian Changbian, 11/ 8a-(Yongle Dadian), 12306/1b
45. Toghto, Songshi, 2.32;
46. Peter Lorge, "War and the Creation of the Northern Song," pp. 177-183.
47. For the conquest of the Southern Tang see Li Tao, Xu Zizhi Tongjian Changbian, (Yongle Dadian), 12307/2b-12308/1a
48. Toghto, Songshi, 3.42-46;
49. Peter Lorge, "War and the Creation of the Northern Song," pp. 185-202.
50. For Song Taizu's second Northern Han campaign (9 September 976-3 January 977), see Li Tao, Xu Zizhi Tongjian Changbian, (Yongle Dadian), 12308/9a-16a
51. Toghto, Songshi, 3.48-51;
52. Peter Lorge, "War and the Creation of the Northern Song," pp. 202-204.
53. For Taizong's conquest of the Northern Han (6 February-19 June 979), see Li Tao, Xu Zizhi Tongjian Changbian, 20/1a-10b;
54. Xu Song, Song Huiyao Jigao, Tarbei: Xinwenfeng chubangongsi, 1976, Bing, 7/5a-7b
55. Toghto, Songshi, 4.60-62;
56. Peter Lorge, "War and the Creation of the Northern Song," pp. 207-214.
57. For Taizong's first Sixteen Prefectures Campaign (26 June-1 August 979), see Li Tao, Xu Zizhi Tongjian Changbian, 20/10b-13b;
58. Xu Song, Song Huiyao: Bing, 7/8a-9a;
59. Toghto, Songshi, 4.62-63;
60. Toghto (ed.), Liaoshi, Beijing: Zhonghua Shuja, 1996, 9.102;
61. Peter Lorge, "War and the Creation of the Northern Song," pp. 214-217.
62. Robert Hartwell, "New Approaches to the Study of Bureaucratic Factionalism in Sung China: A Hypothesis," The Bulletin of Sung-Yuan Studies, 18 (1986), pp. 33-40.
63. Peter Bol, This Culture of Ours, Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1992.
64. For Song Taizong's second Sixteen Prefectures campaign (20 February-18 June 986), see Li Tao, Xu Zizhi Tongjian Changbian, 27/1a-14b;
65. Xu Song, Song Huiyao: Bing, 7/10a-b
66. Toghto, Liaoshi, 11.120-122;
67. Peter Lorge, "War and the Creation of the Northern Song," pp. 226-235.
68. Peter Lorge, "The Great Ditch of China," in Don Wyatt (ed.), Battlefronts Real and Imagined, Palgrave, forthcoming.
69. Quoted and translated in Henry Raymond Williamson, Wang An Shih, Westport, Conn.: Hyperion Press, 1973 (reprint of Arthur Probsthain edition of 1935), pp. 186-187.
70. John Labadie, "Rulers and Soldiers: Perception and Management of the Military in Northern Sung China (960-ca. 1060)," Ph.D. dissertation, University of Washington, 1981.
71. Huang K'uan-ch'ung, "Cong Hezhan dao Nanbeiren," in Zhongguo Lishishang de fenyu He Xueshu Yantao hui Lunwen Ji, Taibei: Lianhe baixi wenhua jijinhui, 1995, pp. 169-189.
72. Robert Hartwell, "Demographic, Political and Social Transformation of China, 750-1550," Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies, 42, no. 2 (1982), pp. 365-442;
73. Robert Hymes, Statesmen and Gentlemen: The Elite of Fu-chou, Chiang-his, in Northern and Southern Sung, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986.
74. Toghto, Songshi, p. 13993
75. Wang Zengyu, Songchao Bingzhi Chutan, pp. 29-30.
76. This account of the Song-Tangut war follows Shui-lung Tsang, "War and Peace in Northern Sung China: Violence and Strategy in Flux, 960-1104," Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Arizona, 1997, pp. 221-239.
77. Bi Yuan, Xu Zizhi Tongjian, Shanghai: Shanghai Guji chubanshe, 1987, ch. 77, p. 398a.
78. Lin Ruihan, Songdai Zhengzhishi, Taibei: Zhengzhong shuju, 1989, pp. 293-299.
79. Peter Lorge, "Song Gaozong's letters to Yue Fei," Journal of Sung-Yuan Studies, 30 (2000), pp. 169-173.
80. Quoted in Huang K'uan-ch'ung, "Geju shili, jingji liyi yu zhengzhi jueze," Nansong Difang Wuli, Taibei: Dongda tushu gongsi, 2002, p. 275.
81. This discussion follows Huang K'uan-chung, "Cong Hezhan dao Nanbeiren" in Zhongguo Lishishang de Fenyu He Xueshu Yantao hui Lunwen Ji, Taibei: Lianhe baixi wenhua jijinhui, 1995.
82. Richard L. Davis, Wind Against the Mountain, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1996, is a broad-ranging discussion of loyalty and the motivations behind sacrifice for a dynasty.
83. Herbert Franke, "The Chin Dynasty," in Herbert Franke and Denis Twitchett (eds), The Cambridge History of China, Volume 6: Alien Regimes and Border States, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994, pp. 235-257.
84. Huang K'uan-ch'ung, "Songting dui minjian ziwei wuli de liyong he kongzhi," in Huang K'uan-ch'ung, Nansong Difang Wuli, pp. 145-202
85. "Lianghuai shanshuizhai-difang ziwei wuli de fazhan," in Huang K'uan-ch'ung, Nansong Difang Wuli, Taibei: Dongda tushu gongsi, 2002, pp. 203-238.
86. Herbert Franke, "The Chin Dynasty," pp. 239-243.
87. Lin Ruihan, Songdai Zhengzhishi, Taibei: Da xue lian he chu ban wei yuan hui, 1989, pp. 348-349.
88. On the rise of Chinggis Khan and the creation of the Mongol empire, see. H. Md. Desmond Martin, The Rise of Chingis Khan and his Conquest of North China, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1950;
89. Thomas Allsen, "The Rise of the Mongolian Empire and Mongolian Rule in North, China," in Herbert Franke and Denis Twitchett (eds), The Cambridge History of China, Volume 6: Alien Regimes and Border States, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994, pp. 333-365.
90. On Li Quan and his son Li Tan, see Huang K'uan-ch'ung, "Geju shili, jingji liyi yu zhengzhi jueze," pp. 275-306.
91. Thomas Allsen, "The Rise of the Mongolian Empire," pp. 364-365;
92. Desmond Martin, The Rise of Chingis Khan, pp. 283-308.
93. Herbert Franke, "The Chin Dynasty," pp. 259-264;
94. Thomas Allsen, "The Rise of the Mongolian Empire," pp. 370-372.
95. Li Tianming, Song-Yuan Zhanshi, Taibei: Shihuo chubanshe, 1988, pp. 181-188.
96. John E. Herman, "The Mongol Conquest of Dali: The Failed Second Front," in Nicola Di Cosmo (ed.), Warfare in Inner Asian History, Leiden: E.J. Brill, 2001, pp. 295-334.
97. Huang K'uan-ch'ung, "Shancheng yu shuizhai de fangyu gongneng," in Huang K'uan-ch'ung, Nansong Difang Wuli, pp. 307-328.
98. Huang K'uan-ch'ung, "Geju shili, jingji liyi yu zhengzhi jueze," pp. 275-306.
99. Edict promulgated on 18 January 1272 by Khubilai Khan's order naming the Mongol dynast the Yuan. Translated in John D. Langlois, "Introduction," in John D. Langlois (ed.), China Under Mongol Rule, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1981, p. 4.
100. Nancy Shatzman Steinhardt, Chinese Imperial City Planning, Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 1990, pp. 147-160.
101. Richard L. Davis, Wind Against the Mountains, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1996
102. Jennifer Jay, A Change in Dynasties: Loyalism in Thirteenth-Century China, Bellingham, Washington: Western Washington University, Center for East Asian Studies, 1991, for the loyalists who refused to serve the Yuan dynasty.
103. Robert Hartwell, "Demographic, Political and Social Transformation of China, 750-1550," Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies, 42 (1982), no. 2, pp. 365-442.
104. Peter Lorge, "The Entrance and Exit of the Song Founders," Journal of Sung-Yuan Studies, 30 (1999), pp. 43-62;
105. "Northern Song Military Aristocracy and the Royal Family," War and Society, vol. 18, no. 2 (October 2000), pp. 37-47.
106. John Chaffee, Branches of Heaven, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1999.
107. Huang K'uan-ch'ung, "Cong Hezhan dao Nanbeiren." 10 Huan K'uan-ch'ung, "Guangdong Cuifengjun," in Huang K'uan-ch'ung, Nansong Difang Wuli, Taibei: Dangda tushu gongsi, 2002, pp. 9-50;
108. "Fujian Zuoyijun," in Huang K'uan-ch'ung, Nansong Difang Wuli, pp. 51-108;
109. "Hunan Feihujun," in Huang K'uan-ch'ung, Nansong Difang Wuli, pp. 109-142.
110. Yao Mian, Xuepo Ji, 7.23
111. Cheng-Hua Fang, "Military Families and the Southern Song Court," Journal of Sung-Yuan Studies, 33 (2003), p. 51. Professor Fang also provides a brief overview of military education in the Song in the same article, pp. 50-53.
112. Li Tianming, Song-Yuan Zhanshi, Taibei: Shihuo chubanshe, 1988, p. 219.
113. Cheng-Hua Fang, "Military Families," pp. 53-56.
114. Morris Rossabi, Khubila Khan-His Life and Times, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1988, pp. 49-50.
115. Li Tianming, Song-Yuan Zhanshi, pp. 770-773.
116. Cheng-Hua Fang, "Military Families," pp. 56-61.
117. Richard L. Davis, Wind Against the Mountains, pp. 64-69.
118. Cheng-Hua Fang, "Military Families," p. 62;
119. Li Tianming, Song-Yuan Zhanshi, pp. 970-971.
120. Cheng-Hua Fang, "Military Families.," pp. 62-63.
121. Li Tianming, Song-Yuan Zhanshi, pp. 954-1055;
122. Richard L. Davis, Wind Against the Mountains, pp. 52-59;
123. Morris Rossabi, Khubilai Khan, pp. 82-86;
124. Cheng-Hua Fang, "Jia Sidao yu Xiang Fan zhizhan," Dalu Zashi, 90.4 (1995), pp. 32-33.
125. Richard L. Davis, Wind Against the Mountain, pp. 133-199.
126. Toghto (ed.), Songshi, Beijing: Zhonghna shuju, 1995, 47.937-938.
127. Paul Jakov Smith, "Problematizing the Song-Yuan-Ming Transition", pp. 11-19, for the development, economic, cultural, and political importance of Jiangnan.
128. Richard L. Davis, Wind Against the Mountains, pp. 119, 122-123.
129. Bettine Birge, "Women and Confucianism from Song to Ming: the Institutionalization of Patrilineality," in Paul Jakov Smith and Richard von Glahn (eds), The Song-Yuan-Ming Transition, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2003, pp. 212-240.
130. Hsiao Ch'i-Ch'ing, "Mid-Yuan Politics," in Herbert Franke and Denis Twitchett (eds), The Cambridge History of China, Volume 6: Alien Regimes and Border States, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994, pp. 496-505.
131. This section follows John Dardess, "Shun-ti and the End of Yüan Rule in China," in Herbert Franke and Denis Twitchett (eds), The Cambridge History of China, Volume 6: Alien Regimes and Border States, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1994, pp. 561-586, for Toghon Temür's reign and the fall of the Yuan dynasty.
132. For the origins of the Red Turbans see Frederick Mote, Imperial China, 900-1800, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2003, pp. 530-533.
133. Edward L. Dreyer, Early Ming China, Stanford: Stanford University, 1982, pp. 17-19.
134. For Zhu Yuanzhang's early life, see Mote, Imperial China, pp. 541-548.
135. Edward L. Dreyer, Early Ming China, pp. 34-35.
136. For this account of the Late Poyang campaign, see Edward L. Dreyer, "The Poyang Campaign, 1363: Inland Naval Warfare in the Founding of the Ming Dynasty," in Frank A. Kierman and John K. Fairbank (eds), Chinese Ways in Warfare, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1974, pp. 202-242.
137. Edward L. Dreyer, Early Ming China, pp. 55-57.
138. Edward L. Dreyer, Early Ming China, pp. 73-74.
139. Romeyn Taylor, "The Yüan Origins of the Wei-so System," in Charles Hucker (ed.), Chinese Government in Ming Times, New York: Columbia University Press, 1969, pp. 23-40.
140. Edward L. Dreyer, Early Ming China, pp. 76-87.
141. For Zhu Di's pre-imperial life, see Shih-Shan Henry Tsai, Perpetual Happiness, pp. 20-56.
142. Shih-Shan Henry Tsai, Perpetual Happiness, pp. 169-176;
143. Edward L. Dreyer, Early Ming China, pp. 179-182.
144. Shih-Shan Henry Tsai, Perpetual Happiness, pp. 178-186;
145. Edward L. Dreyer, Early Ming China, pp. 206-212.
146. For the Tumu Incident, see F.W. Mote, "The T'u-mu Incident of 1449," in Frank A. Kierman and John K. Fairbank, Chinese Ways in Warfare, Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1974, pp. 243-272.
147. The first time being Emperor Hui of the Western Jin on 9 September 304. See David Graff, Medieval Chinese Warfare, London: Routledge, 2002, p. 46.
148. Henry Serruys, "Sino-Mongol Relations during the Ming," Melanges Chinois et Bouddhiques, 18 (1975), vol. 2, p. 8 cited in Mote, "Tumu," p. 250.
149. Mote, "T'u-mu," p. 253.
150. Ph. de Heer, The Care-taker Emperor, Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1986.
151. Arthur Waldron, The Great Wall of China, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992, p. 100.
152. Albert Chan, The Glory and Fall of the Ming Dynasty, Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1982, p. 54.
153. Kwan-wai So, Japanese Piracy in Ming China During the 16th Century, Ann Arbor: Michigan State University Press, 1975, pp. 15-36.
154. Ray Huang, 1587, A Year of No Significance, New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1981, pp. 170-171.
155. For a survey of Chinese naval warfare, see Peter Lorge, "Water Forces and Naval Operations," in David A. Graff and Robin Higham (eds), A Military History of China, Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 2002, pp. 81-96.
156. Brian Moloughney and Xia Weizhong, "Silver and the Fall of the Ming: A Reassessment," Papers on Far Eastern History, 40 (September 1989), pp. 51-78, cited in Kenneth Swope, "The Three Great Campaigns," p. 14.
157. Swope, "Three Great Campaigns," p. 19.
158. Swope, "Three Great Campaigns," pp. 386-453, for the account of the campaign against Yang Yinglong.
159. Gertrude Roth Li, "State Building before 1644," in The Cambridge History of China, Volume 9: Part 1, The Chi'ing Empire to 1800, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002, pp. 9-72, for the discussion that follows.
160. Frederic Wakeman, The Great Enterprise, pp. 59-62.
161. James Bunyan Parsons, Peasant Rebellions of the Late Ming Dynasty, Tucson, Ariz.: University of Arizona Press, 1970, pp. 1-21.
162. Frederic Wakeman, The Great Enterprise, pp. 240-257.
163. James Bunyan Parsons, Peasant Rebellions, pp. 161-167;
164. Frederic Wakeman, The Great Enterprise, pp. 501-508.
165. Frederic Wakeman, The Great Enterprise, pp. 546-563.
166. Lawrence D. Kessler, K'ang-hsi and the Consolidation of Ch'ing Rule, 1661-1684, Chicago, Ill.: University of Chicago Press, 1976, pp. 80-82.
167. Lawrence D. Kessler, K'ang-hsi, pp. 83-89.
168. Lawrence D. Kessler, K'ang-hsi, p. 94.
169. Peter Perdue, "Three Qing Emperors and Their Mongol Rivals," in Nicola di Cosmo (ed.), Warfare in Inner Asian History, Leiden: E.J. Brill, 2001, p. 371.
170. Lawrence D. Kessler, K'ang-hsi and the Consolidation of Ch'ing Rule, 1661-1684, Chicago, Ill.: University of Chicago Press, 1976, p. 108.
171. For the Kangxi emperor's Zunghar campaigns, see Peter Perdue, "Three Qing Emperors," pp. 373-377
172. Jonathan D. Spence, Emperor of China, New York: Vintage Books, 1988, pp. 17-22.
173. For the Yongzheng emperor's Zunghar campaigns, see Peter Perdue, "Three Qing Emperors," pp. 377-387.
174. R. Kent Guy, The Emperor's Four Treasuries, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1987.
175. Beatrice S. Bartlett, Monarchs and Ministers: The Rise of the Grand Council in Mid-Ch'ing China, 1723-1820, Berkeley: University of California Press 8
176. For the Qianlong emperor's Zunghar campaigns, see Peter Perdue, "Three Qing Emperors," pp. 387-390.
177. For the first Jinchuan war, see Paul Lococo, Jr, "The Qing Empire," in David Graff and Robin Higham (eds), A Military History of China, Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 2002, pp. 130-131.
178. Paul Lococo, "The Qing Empire," pp. 131-132.
179. David Wright, "Rebellion in Taiwan," Insight, vol. 4, no. 1 (Fall 1987), pp. 1-4, pp. 16-19, for this account of Lin Shuangwen's rebellion. I am grateful to Professor Wright for making a copy of his article available to me on very short notice.
180. Jonathan Spence, The Search for Modern China, New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 1990, p. 111, for this account of the Qianlong emperor's Vietnam war.
181. Frederich Mote, Imperial China, 900-1800, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2003, p. 940.
182. See Joanna Waley-Cohen, "China and Western Technology in the Eighteenth Century," American Historical Review (December 1993).
183. It is extremely difficult to estimate China's population before the twentieth century, and scholars differ, sometimes quite broadly, on their figures. The range I have provided in the text is in keeping with a survey of several sources. See Ping-ti Ho, Studies on the Population of China, 1368-1953, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1959;
184. Yuesheng Wang, "A Study on the Size of the Chinese Population in the Middle and Late Eighteenth Century," in Chinese Journal of Population Science, vol. 9, no. 4 (1997), pp. 317-336;
185. C.Y. Cyrus Chu and Ronald D. Lee, "Famine, Revolt, and the Dynastic Cycle: Population Dynamics in Historic China," in Journal of Population Economics, vol. 7, no. 4 (1994), pp. 351-378;
186. J. D. Durand, "The Population Statistics of China, ad 2-1953," in Population Studies, vol. 13, no. 3 (1960), pp. 209-256;
187. Huanyong Hu (ed.), The Population Geography of China, Shanghai: East China Normal University Press, 1984.