Power in the global information age: From realism to globalization

Power in the Global Information Age: From Realism to Globalization

Volumn , Issue , 2004, Pages 1-231

  Nye, Joseph S ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 84917112057     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.4324/9780203507292     Document Type: Book

References (286)

1. E. H. Carr, The Twenty Years' Crisis, 1919-1939: An Introduction to the Study of International Relations (NewYork: Palgrave, 2001);
2. Hans Morgenthau, Politics Among Nations: The Struggle for Power and Peace (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1985).
3. The details are described in Yoichi Funibashi, Alliance Adrift (New York: Council on Foreign Relations Press, 1999).
4. See Ernst Haas, The Obsolescence of Regional Integration Theory (Berkley, CA:Institute of International Studies, University of California, 1975).
5. Robert O. Keohane and Joseph S. Nye, Transnational Relations and World Politics (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1972).
6. National Security Strategy of the United States, September 2002 (http://www. whitehouse.gov/nsc/nss.html).
7. Robert O. Keohane and Joseph S. Nye, Jr., Power and Interdependence (Boston: Little, Brown, 1977).
8. Stanley Hoffmann, Robert Keohane and Joseph Nye, After the Cold War: International Institutions and State Strategies in Europe 1989-1991 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993).
9. Also relevant is Joseph S. Nye, Nuclear Ethics (New York: The Free Press, 1986).
10. John Arquilla and David Ronfeldt make this point in The Emergence of Noopolitik:Toward an American Information Strategy (Santa Monica: RAND, 1999).
11. Paul Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers: Economic Change and Military Conflict from 1500 to 2000 (New York: Random House, 1987).
12. See, for example, Andrew Bacevich, American Empire: The Realities and Consequences of US Diplomacy (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2002).
13. Josef Joffe, "America the Inescapable," Portland Oregonian, June 22, 1997, p. D1.
14. Anatol Rapoport, "Approaches to Peace Research," in Martin Nettleship, R. Dale Givens, and Anderson Nettleship (eds.), War: Its Causes and Correlates (The Hague, 1975), 44.
15. Jack S. Levy, "Theories of General War," World Politics, XXXVII (1985), 372.
16. Imre Lakatos, "Falsification and the Methodology of Scientific Research Programmes," in idem
17. Alan Musgrave (eds.), Criticism and the Growth of Knowledge (London, 1970), 91-180;
18. Harry Eckstein, "Case Study and Theory in Political Science,"
19. Donald J. Moon, "The Logic of Political Inquiry," in Fred Greenstein and Nelson Polsby (eds.), Handbook of Political Science (Reading, Mass., 1975), I, 131-209; VII, 79-138.
20. Judith N. Shklar, "Squaring the Hermeneutic Circle," Social Research, LIII (1986), 473.
21. Charles S. Maier, "Wargames: 1914-1919," Journal of Interdisciplinary History, XVIII (1988), 821.
22. Donald Kagan, The Outbreak of the Peloponnesian War (Ithaca, 1969).
23. Edward Vose Gulick, Europe's Classical Balance of Power (New York, 1955), 30.
24. See Robert O. Keohane (ed.), Neorealism and its Critics (New York, 1986), 158-203.
25. Michael Doyle, "Kant, Liberal Legacies, and Foreign Affairs," Philosophy and Public Affairs, XII (1983), 205-235, 323-353.
26. A. Geoffrey Blainey, The Causes of War (New York, 1973), 114.
27. Maier, "Wargames," 840.
28. Joseph S. Nye, Jr., Nuclear Ethics (New York, 1986), 61.
29. Robert Gilpin, "The Theory of Hegemonic War," Journal of Interdisciplinary History, XVIII (1988), 611-612.
30. Michael Howard, The Causes of War (Cambridge, Mass., 1984), 12.
31. Blainey, Causes of War, 15, 144.
32. See Graham Allison, Albert Carnesale, and Nye (eds.), Hawks, Doves, and Owls (New York, 1985), 206-222.
33. Donald Kagan, The Outbreak of the PeloponnesianWar (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1969).
34. Herman Kahn and B. Bruce-Briggs, Things to Come (New York: Macmillan, 1972).
35. Hans J. Morgenthau, "The New Diplomacy of Movement," Encounter 43 (August 1974), 52-57, at 56.
36. Seyom Brown, New For ces in World Politics (Washington: Brookings Institution, 1974), 186.
37. Joseph S. Nye, Jr., "Nuclear Learning and U.S.-Soviet Security Regimes," International Organization 41 (Summer 1987), 371-402.
38. K. J. Holsti, The Dividing Discipline: Hegemony and Diversity in International Theory (Boston: Allen & Unwin, 1985).
39. Karl Deutsch et al., Political Community and the North Atlantic Area (Princeton:Princeton University Press, 1957);
40. Ernst Haas, The Uniting of Europe (Stanford, CA:Stanford University Press, 1958);
41. Joseph S. Nye, Jr., Peace in Parts (Boston: Little, Brown, 1971).
42. Robert O. Keohane and Joseph S. Nye, Jr., Power and Interdependence (Boston: Little, Brown, 1977).
43. Stephen Krasner, ed., International Regimes (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1983).
44. Waltz, Theory of International Politics (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1979).
45. Francis M. Bator, The State of Macroeconomics (Kennedy School Discussion Paper 1520, Cambridge, MA: 1986), 19.
46. Imre Lakatos, "Falsification and the Methodology of Scientific Research Programmes," in Imre Lakatos and Alan Musgrave, eds., Criticism and the Growth of Knowledge (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970).
47. Robert Gilpin, War and Change in World Politics (New York and Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 1981).
48. Stanley Hoffmann, "Liberalism and International Affairs," in Janus and Minerva (Boulder, CO:Westview Press, 1987). Hoffmann points out a terminological difficulty:many Realists are liberal in their domestic political preferences.
49. Michael Doyle, "Liberalism andWorld Politics," American Political Science Review 80 (December 1986), 1151-69.
50. Robert O. Keohane, "Economic Limits of Modern Politics: International Liberalism Reconsidered," unpub., 1986.
51. Cobden, quoted in Kenneth Waltz, Man, the State, and War (New York: Columbia University Press, 1959), 104.
52. For alternative explanations, see Robert O. Keohane, After Hegemony (Princeton:Princeton University Press, 1984)
53. Bruce Russett, "The Mysterious Case of Vanishing Hegemony: or Is Mark Twain Really Dead?" International Organization 39 (Spring 1985), 207-31.
54. Doyle, "Kant, Liberal Legacies, and Foreign Affairs," Philosophy and Public Affairs 12 (Summer 1983), 205-35.
55. Hayward R. Alker, Jr. "The Presumption of Anarchy in World Politics," unpub., 1986.
56. See also Hedley Bull, The Anarchical Society (London: Macmillan, 1977).
57. See Robert O. Keohane and Joseph S. Nye, Jr., "Power and Interdependence Revisited," International Organization 41 (Autumn 1987), 725-53, for a fuller discussion of the concepts that are introduced here.
58. Jack S. Levy, War in the Modern Great Power System, 1495-1975 (Lexington:University Press of Kentucky, 1983).
59. Joseph S. Nye, Jr., Understanding International Conflicts (New York, N.Y.:HarperCollins, 1993), pp. 1-24, 36-41.
60. Paul M. Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers (New York, N.Y.: Random House, 1988).
61. Joseph S. Nye, Jr., Bound to Lead: The Changing Nature of American Power (NewYork, N.Y.: Basic Books, 1990).
62. Robert O. Keohane and Joseph S. Nye, Jr., Power and Interdependence: World Politics in Transition (Boston: Little, Brown, 1977).
63. Richard N. Rosecrance, The Rise of the Trading State: Commerce and Conquest in the Modern World (New York, N.Y.: Basic Books, 1986).
64. Karl W. Deutsch, Political Community and the North Atlantic Area: International Organization in the Light of Experience (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1957).
65. Department of Defense, Office of International Security Affairs, United States Security Strategy for Europe and NATO (Washington, D.C., June 1995).
66. Department of Defense, Office of International Security Affairs, United States Security Strategy for the East Asia-Pacific Region (Washington, D.C., February 1995).
67. Department of Defense, Office of International Security Affairs, United States Security Strategy for the Middle East (Washington, D.C., May 1995).
68. Samuel P. Huntington, "The Clash of Civilizations?" Foreign Affairs 72 (Summer 1993).
69. Robert A. Dahl, Who Governs? Democracy and Power in an American City (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1961).
70. See also James March, "The Power of Power" in David Easton, ed., Varieties of Political Theory (New York: Prentice Hall, 1966), 39-70;
71. Herbert Simon, Models of Man (New York: John Wiley, 1957);
72. David Baldwin, "Power Analysis andWorld Politics,"World Politics 31 (January 1979): 161-94.
73. See Ray S. Cline, World Power Assessment (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1977);
74. Hans J. Morgenthau, Politics among Nations (New York: Alfred Knopf, 1955), chap. 9;
75. Klaus Knorr, The Power of Nations (New York: Basic Books, 1975), chaps, 3, 4.
76. A. J. P. Taylor, The Struggle for Mastery in Europe, 1848-1918 (Oxford, Eng.: Oxford University Press, 1954), xxix.
77. Edward V. Gulick, Europe's Classical Balance of Power (New York: W. W. Norton, 1955), 248-51.
78. Kenneth N. Waltz, Theory of International Politics (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1979), 172.
79. Richard N. Rosecrance, The Rise of the Trading State (New York: Basic Books, 1986), 16, 160.
80. Robert O. Keohane and Joseph S. Nye, Jr., Power and Interdependence (Boston: Little, Brown, 1977), chap. 1.
81. See also R. Harrison Wagner, "Economic Interdependence, Bargaining Power and Political Influence," International Organization 41 (Summer 1988): 461-84.
82. Keohane and Nye, Power and Interdependence, 27-29;
83. Robert O. Keohane and Joseph S. Nye, Jr., "Power and Interdependence Revisited," International Organization 41 (Autumn 1987): 725-53.
84. Peter Bachrach and Morton S. Baratz, "Decisions and Nondecisions: An Analytical Framework," American Political Science Review 57 (September 1963): 632-42.
85. See also Richard Mansbach and John Vasquez, In Search of Theory: A NewParadigm for Global Politics (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1981).
86. Robert W. Cox, Production, Power, andWorld Order (New York: Columbia University Press, 1987), chaps. 6, 7.
87. See Stephen D. Krasner, International Regimes (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1983).
88. David Hume, "Of the Balance of Power" in Charles W. Hendel, ed., David Hume's Political Essays (1742; reprint, Indianapolis, Ind.: Bobbs-Merrill, 1953), 142-44.
89. Quoted in Waltz, International Politics, 166.
90. Stephen M.Walt, "Alliance Formation and the Balance of Power," International Security 9 (Spring 985): 3-43.
91. See also by Walt, The Origins of Alliances (Ithaca, N.Y.:Cornell University Press, 1987), 3-26, 263-66.
92. A. F. K. Organski and Jack Kugler, The War Ledger (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980), chap. 1.
93. Stephen R. Rock, Why Peace Breaks Out: Great Power Rapprochement in Historical Perspective (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1989).
94. "New Era Declared as China Visit Ends," International Herald Tribune, 19 May 1989.
95. Charles F. Doran, The Politics of Assimilation: Hegemony and Its Aftermath (Baltimore:Johns Hopkins University Press, 1971), 70;
96. Robert O. Keohane, After Hegemony (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1984), 32;
97. Robert Gilpin, War and Change in World Politics (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1981), 29.
98. Bruce M. Russett, "The Mysterious Case of Vanishing Hegemony; or, Is Mark Twain Really Dead?" International Organization 39 (Spring 1985): 212.
99. Robert C. North and Julie Strickland, "Power Transition and Hegemonic Succession" (Paper delivered at the meeting of the International Studies Association, Anaheim, Calif., March-April 1986), 5.
100. Joshua S. Goldstein, Long Cycles: Prosperity and War in the Modern Age (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1988), 281.
101. James R. Kurth, "Economic Change and State Development" in Jan Triska, ed., Dominant Powers and Subordinate States: The United States in Latin America and the Soviet Union in Eastern Europe (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1986), 88.
102. Doran, Politics of Assimilation, 15.
103. Keohane, After Hegemony, 32;
104. Gilpin, War and Change, 144.
105. Michael Moffitt, "Shocks, Deadlocks and Scorched Earth: Reaganomics and the Decline of U.S. Hegemony," World Policy Journal 4 (Fall 1987): 576.
106. Goldstein, Long Cycles, 357.
107. Immanuel M. Wallerstein, The Politics of the World-Economy: The States, the Movements, and the Civilizations: Essays (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1984), 38, 41.
108. Goldstein, Long Cycles, 317.
109. Halford J. Mackinder, Democratic Ideals and Reality: A Study in the Politics of Reconstruction New York: Henry Holt and Co., 1919), 1-2.
110. George Modelski, "The Long Cycle of Global Politics and the Nation-State," Comparative Studies in Society and History 20 (April 1978): 214-35;
111. George Modelski, Long Cycles in World Politics (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1987).
112. William R. Thompson, On Global War: Historical Structural Approaches to World Politics (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1988), chaps. 3, 8.
113. Richard N. Rosecrance, "Long Cycle Theory and International Relations," International Organization 41 (Spring 1987): 291-95. An interesting but ultimately unconvincing discussion can be found in Goldstein, Long Cycles.
114. Paul Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers: Economic Change and Military Conflict from 1500 to 2000 (New York: Random House, 1987), 99.
115. Jack S. Levy, "Declining Power and the Preventive Motivation for War," World Politics 40 (October 1987): 82-107.
116. See also Jack S. Levy, War in the Modern Great Power System, 1495-1975 (Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1983), 97.
117. Pitirim Aleksandrovich Sorokin, Social and Cultural Dynamics: A Study of Change in Major Systems of Art, Truth, Ethics, Lawand Social Relationships (1957; reprint, Boston: Porter Sargent, 1970), 561.
118. Douglass North, Structure and Change in Economic History (NewYork:W.W. Norton), pp. 163-64.
119. See also Paul A. David, "Understanding Digital Technology's Evolution and the Path of Measured Productivity Growth: Present and Future in the Mirror of the Past," in Erik Brynjolfsson and Brian Kahin, eds., Understanding the Digital Economy (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2000), pp. 50-92.
120. "Productivity: Lost in Cyberspace," The Economist, 13 September 1997, p. 72.
121. US Department of Commerce, "Digital Economy 2000," .
122. Peter F. Drucker, "The Next Information Revolution," Forbes, 24 August 1998, pp. 46-58.
123. Lawrence Lessig, Code and Other Laws of Cyberspace (New York: Basic Books, 2000).
124. Ithiel de Sola Pool, Technologies of Freedom (Cambridge, MA: Belknap, 1983).
125. Pippa Norris, The Digital Divide: Civic Engagement, Information Poverty and, the Internet Worldwide (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001), p. 232.
126. For speculation on how the Internet will affect government, see Elaine Kamarck and Joseph S. Nye Jr., eds., Democracy.com? (Hollis, NH: Hollis Publishing, 1999), Chapter 1.
127. See Alvin Toffler and Heidi Toffler, Creating a NewCivilization: The Politics of the Third Wave (Kansas City, Mo.: Turner Publishing, 1995);
128. Esther Dyson, Release 2.1: ADesign for Living in the Digital Age (NewYork: Broadway Books, 1998).
129. Robert O. Keohane and Joseph S. Nye Jr., Transnational Relations and World Politics (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1997).
130. Peter Spiro, "The New Sovereigntists," Foreign Affairs, Vol. 79, No. 6 (November/December 2000), pp. 9-15.
131. John G. Ruggie, "Territoriality and Beyond: Problematizing Modernity in International Relations," International Organization, Vol. 47, No. 1 (Winter 1993), p. 143 and p. 155.
132. Henry H. Perritt Jr., "The Internet as a Threat to Sovereignty?" Indiana Journal of Global Legal Studies (Spring 1998), p. 426.
133. Saskia Sassen, "On the Internet and Sovereignty," Indiana Journal of Global Legal Studies (Spring 1998), p. 551.
134. Joseph Quinlan and Marc Chandler, "The US Trade Deficit: A Dangerous Illusion," Foreign Affairs, Vol. 80, No. 3 (May/June 2001), p. 92 and p. 95.
135. Ruggie, "Territoriality and Beyond," p. 172.
136. Hendryk Spruyt, The Sovereign State and Its Competitors (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994).
137. Stephen Krasner, "Sovereignty," Foreign Policy (January/February 2001), p. 24;
138. see also Linda Weiss, The Myth of the Powerless State (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1998).
139. See also "Geography and the Net," The Economist, 11 August 2001, pp. 18-20.
140. Stephen E. Flynn, "Beyond Border Control," Foreign Affairs, Vol. 79, No. 6 (November/December 2000), pp. 57-68.
141. U.S. Commission on National Security in the Twenty-first Century, Road Map for National Security: Imperative for Change (http://www.nssg.gov/PhaseIIIFR.pdf), Chapter 1.
142. James Adams, "Virtual Defense," Foreign Affairs, Vol. 80, No. 3 (May/June 2001), pp. 98-112.
143. Adam Roberts, "The So-called 'Right' of Humanitarian Intervention," Yearbook of International Humanitarian Law (Summer 2001).
144. Harold Guetzkow, Multiple Loyalties: Theoretical Approach to a Problem in International Organization (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1955).
145. Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (New York: Verso, 1991).
146. Norris, The Digital Divide, p. 191.
147. Ann Florini ed., The Third Force: The Rise of Transnational Civil Society (Washington, D. C.: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 2000), Chapter 1;
148. Margaret E. Keck and Kathryn Sikkink, Activists Beyond Borders: Advocacy Networks in International Politics (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1998), Chapter 2;
149. James N. Rosenau, Turbulence in World Politics (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990), p. 409;
150. "The Non-Governmental Order," The Economist, 11 December 1999.
151. Peter M. Haas, "Introduction: Epistemic Communities and International Policy Coordination," International Organization, Vol. 46, No. 1 (Winter 1992).
152. I owe these distinctions to Robert O. Keohane. See Robert O. Keohane and Joseph S. Nye Jr., "Power and Interdependence in the Information Age," Foreign Affairs, Vol. 77, No. 5 (September/October 1998), pp. 81-94.
153. Herbert A. Simon, "Information 101: It's Not What You Know, It's How You Know It," The Journal for Quality and Participation (July/August 1998), pp. 30-33.
154. Richard Pells, Not Like Us (New York: Basic Books, 1997), pp. 31-32.
155. Jerome C. Glenn, "Japan: Cultural Power of the Future," Nikkei Weekly, 7 December 1992, p. 7.
156. "Multinational Movies: Questions on Politics," NewY ork Times, 27 November 1990, D7.
157. "Japanese News Media Join Export Drive," International Herald Tribune, 10 May 1991;
158. David Sanger, "NHK of Japan Ends Plan for Global News Service," NewY ork Times, 9 December 1991.
159. Calvin Sims, "Japan Beckons and East Asia's Youth Fall in Love," NewYork Times, 5 December 1999, A3;
160. "Advance of the Amazonesu," The Economist, 22 July 2000, p. 61.
161. Mark Huband, "Egypt Tries to Tempt Back Broadcasters," Financial Times (London), 7 March 2000, p. 14.
162. John Kifner, "Tale of Two Uprisings," NewYork Times, 18 November 2000, A6.
163. Chris Hedges, "Iran Is Unable to Stem the West's Cultural Invasion," NewYork Times, 28 March 1992, A11.
164. Josef Joffe, "America the Inescapable," NewY ork Times [Sunday] Magazine, 8 June 1997, p. 38.
165. Dominique Moisi, "America the Triumphant," Financial Times (London), 9 February 1998, p. 12;
166. Moisi, "The Right Argument at the Wrong Time," Financial Times (London), 22 November 1999, p. 13.
167. Quoted in Todd Gitlin, "World Leaders: Mickey, et al.," NewYork Times, 3 May 1992, Arts and Leisure section, p. 1.
168. Neal M. Rosendorf, "Social and Cultural Globalization: Concepts, History, and America's Role," in Nye and Donahue, eds., Governance in a Globalizing World (Washington, D. C.: Brookings Institution Press, 2000).
169. Todd Gitlin, "Taking the World by (Cultural) Force," The Straits Times (Singapore), 11 January 1999, p. 2.
170. Elisabeth Rosenthal, "Chinese Test New Weapon From West: Lawsuits," NewY ork Times, 16 June 2001.
171. Walter LaFeber, Michael Jordan and the NewGlobal Capitalism (New York: Norton, 1999), p. 157.
172. Sidney Dell, Trade Blocs and Common Markets (London, Oxford University Press, 1963).
173. On neglected possibilities, see Raymond Vernon, "Prospects and Problems in the Export of Manufactured Products from Less-Developed Countries," Contributed Paper No. 2 (Geneva, UNCTAD, 1964).
174. Russell Fitzgibbon and Kenneth Johnson, "Measurement of Latin American Political Change," in John Martz, ed., The Dynamics of Change in Latin American Politics (Englewood Cliffs. Prentice-Hall, 1965), pp. 113-129.
175. Kuznets, "Economic Growth," pp. 28-31.
176. Herbert Spiro, "Political Stability in the New African States," The Annals, 354 (July 1964), 106-107;
177. Norman Padelford, "The Organization of African Unity," International Organization, 18 (Summer 1964), 546.
178. See I. William Zartman, International Relations in the NewAfrica (Englewood Cliffs, Prentice-Hall, 1966), p. 127.
179. J. S. Nye, Pan-Africanism and East African Integration (Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 1965), chap. 5.
180. West Africa, January 1, 1966;
181. Zartman, International Relations in the NewAfrica, p. 158.
182. NewYork Times, October 25, 1965;
183. West Africa, October 16, 1965.
184. Nationalism in Colonial Africa (New York, New York University Press, 1957);
185. An African Survey: Revised 1956 (London, Oxford University Press, 1957).
186. I. M. Lewis, "Pan-Africanism and Pan-Somalism," Journal of Modern African Studies, 1.2 (1963), 159, 148.
187. "General Record of the First Assembly of Heads of State and Government: Resolution 16" (mimeo, July 1964).
188. Jeane Contini, "The Somali Republic: Politics with a Difference," Africa Report (November 1964), p. 8.
189. For the wider context, see Rupert Emerson, Self-Determination Revisited in the Era of Decolonization (Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 1964).
190. Even the analogy of the monarch may not be too farfetched in some cases. See David Apter, "Ghana," in James Coleman and Carl Rosberg, eds., Political Parties and National Integration in Tropical Africa (Berkeley, University of California Press, 1964), p. 311;
191. Immanuel Wallerstein, Africa: The Politics of Independence (New York, Random House, 1961).
192. See Martin Kilson, "African Political Change and the Modernization Process," Journal of Modern African Studies, 1 (December 1963), 427.
193. Compare Immanuel Wallerstein, "Ethnicity and National Integration in West Africa," Cahiers d'Études Africaines, no. 3 (1960), 129-139;
194. Lloyd and Susanne Rudolph, "The Political Role of India's Case Associations," Pacific Affairs, 33 (March 1960), 5-22.
195. Ruth Schachter, "Single-Party Systems in West Africa," American Political Science Review, 55 (June 1961);
196. Martin Kilson, "Authoritarian and Single Party Tendencies in African Politics," World Politics, 15 (January 1964);
197. Zolberg, One-Party Government in the Ivory Coast, p. 194;
198. Robert Good, "Changing Patterns of African International Relations," American Political Science Review, 58 (September 1964), 637;
199. The Economist, London, April 27, 1963.
200. Samuel Huntington, "Political Development and Political Decay," World Politics, 17 (April 1965), 419. In waggish form this becomes "African democracy: one man, one vote-once." Tanzania which held meaningful elections in 1965, is an exception.
201. "Communication Theory and Political Integration," in Philip Jacob and James Toscano, eds., The Integration of Political Communities (Philadelphia, Lippincott, 1964), p. 71.
202. See W. H. Friedland and Carl Rosberg, eds., African Socialism (Stanford, Stanford University Press, 1964);
203. Elliot Berg, "Socialism and Economic Development in Tropical Africa," Quarterly Journal of Economics, 78 (November 1964), 549-573.
204. Jacob and Toscano, Integration of Political Communities, pp. 9, 72.
205. R.M. Hare, Moral Thinking (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1981), Ch. 10;
206. see also J.L. Mackie, Ethics (Harmondsworth, Penguin, 1977), p. 192.
207. Paul Ramsey, "Force and Political Responsibility," in Ernest W. Lefever (ed.), Ethics and World Politics (Baltimore, Johns Hopkins, 1972), p. 72.
208. Arnold Wolfers, "Statesmanship and Moral Choice," in Discord and Collaboration (Baltimore, Johns Hopkins, 1962), Ch. 4.
209. See Reinhold Niebuhr, Moral Man and Immoral Society (New York, Scribner, 1932)
210. J.E. Hare and Carey B. Joynt, Ethics and International Affairs (N.Y., Saint Martins, 1982), pp. 27-33.
211. See W.D. Hudson, A Century of Moral Philosophy (London, Lutterworth, 1980)
212. Bernard Williams, Morality (N.Y., Harper & Row), and R.M. Hare, cited, for discussion of these issues.
213. See William Frankena, Ethics (Englewood Cliffs, Prentice Hall, 1973), pp. 63 ff.
214. J.J.C. Smart and Bernard Williams, Utilitarianism: For and Against (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1973), pp. 98 ff.
215. See Jonathan Glover, Causing Death and Saving Lives (Harmondsworth, Penguin, 1977), Ch. 6 and 7.
216. Norman Podhoretz, Why We Were in Vietnam (N.Y., Simon and Schuster, 1982).
217. Peter A. French, "Morally Blaming Whole Populations," in Virginia Held et al., Philosophy, Morality and International Affairs (N.Y., Oxford, 1974).
218. See also Dennis Thompson, "Moral Responsibility of Public Officials," American Political Science Review, 74 (December 1980), pp. 905-915.
219. Arthur Schlesinger, Jr., "National Interests and Moral Absolutes," in Ernest Lefever, ed., cited p. 22.
220. Reinhold Niebuhr, cited. See also Robert Osgood and Robert Tucker, Force, Order and Justice (baltimore, Johns Hopkins, 1967), p. 281.
221. Stanley Hoffmann, Duties Beyond Borders (Syracuse, Syracuse University Press, 1981), p. 17 ff.;
222. see also Michael Walzer, "Political Action: The Problem of Dirty Hands," Philosophy and Public Affairs, Winter 1973, 2:2.
223. See James Bamford, The Puzzle Palace (New York, Penguin, 1982), pp. 34-35.
224. See Charles Beitz, "Bounded Morality," International Organization 33, Summer 1979, pp. 405-424.
225. Hans J. Morgenthau, Politics Among Nations (N.Y., Knopf, 1955), p. 9.
226. John Rawls, A Theory of Justice (Cambridge, Harvard, 1971), p. 378.
227. Michael Walzer, "The Moral Standing of States," Philosophy and Public Affairs, 9 (Spring 1980), p. 211.
228. Gerald Doppelt, "Statism Without Foundations," Philosophy and Public Affairs, 9 (Summer 1980), pp. 401-403.
229. David Luban, "The Romance of the Nation State," Philosophy and Public Affairs, 9 (Summer 1980), p. 392;
230. see also Robert Amdur, "Rawls Theory of Justice: Domestic and International Perspectives," World Politics (April 1977), pp. 438-461.
231. For a challenge of this distinction see Peter Singer, Practical Ethics (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1979).
232. Michael Walzer, "The Distribution of Membership," in Peter G. Brown and Henry Shue, eds., Boundaries (Totowa, N.J., Rowman and Littlefield, 1981), p. 1.
233. See the critique of Rawls in Michael J. Sandel, Liberalism and the Limits of Justice (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1982).
234. Gerard Elfstrom, "On Dilemmas of Intervention," Ethics, Volume 93, No. 4 (July 1983), p. 711.
235. For examples see Robert O. Keohane and J.S. Nye, "Transgovernmental Relation and International Organization," World Politics XXVII (October 1974).
236. See Richard Cooper, "A New International Economic Order for Mutual Gain," Foreign Policy 26, Spring 1977, pp. 81 ff.
237. Walzer, "The Distribution of Membership," cited, p. 3.
238. Causing Death and Saving Lives, cited, p. 74.
239. R.J.Vincent, Nonintervention and International Order (Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1974), p. 13.
240. Hans J. Morgenthau, "The New Diplomacy of Movement," Encounter, August 1974.
241. Lester Brown, World Without Borders (New York: Random House, 1972), p. 194.
242. Walter Sullivan, "World Aid Urged for Environment," NewY ork Times, November 1, 1975.
243. William H. Read, "The U.S. and International Communication Policymaking," Harvard Program in Information Technologies and Public Policy, Working Paper 75-11.
244. Robert Tucker, "A New International Order?" Commentary, February 1975, pp. 49-50.
245. Norman Macrae, "America's Third Century: A Survey," The Economist, October 25, 1975.
246. For a general discussion, see Robert O. Keohane and Joseph S. Nye, Jr., eds., Transnational Relations and World Politics (Cambridge, Mass. 1972).
247. For documentation of the point based on a survey of the literature, see John R. Handelman, John A. Vasquez, Michael K. O'Leary, and William D. Coplin, "Color it Morgenthau: A Data-Based Assessment of Quantitative International Relations Research," paper delivered to the International Studies Association, March 1973.
248. Samuel P. Huntington, "Transnational Organizations inWorld Politics," World Politics, xxv (April 1973), 333-68; quotations from pp. 338, 339, and 368 respectively.
249. See John F. Campbell, The Foriegn Affairs Fudge Factory (New York 1971), 204 ff., for figures on the United States.
250. On Britain, see Anthony Sampson, "The Institutions of British Foreign Policy," in Karl Kaiser and Roger Morgan, eds., Britain and West Germany: Changing Societies and the Future of Foreign Policy (London 1971).
251. Raymond Bauer, "The Study of Policy Formation," in Raymond Bauer and Kenneth Gergen, eds., The Study of Policy Formation (New York 1968), 2.
252. Stephen Krasner, "Are Bureaucracies Important?" Foreign Policy, vii (Summer 1972).
253. NewYork Times, October 1, 1972.
254. Richard E. Neustadt, Alliance Politics (New York 1970), 37.
255. Gardner Patterson, Discrimination in International Trade: The Policy Issues (Princeton 1966), 36.
256. See K. J. Holsti, "The United States and Canada," in Steven Spiegel and KennethWaltz, eds., Conflict in World Politics (Cambridge, Mass. 1971).
257. NewYork Times, December 4, 6, and 16, 1971.
258. James Coleman, "Political Money," American Political Science Review, lxiv (December 1970), 1074-87.
259. See Leon Lindberg and Stuart Scheingold, Europe'sWould-Be Polity (Englewood Cliffs, N.J. 1970);
260. Lawrence Sheinman, "Some Preliminary Notes on Bureaucratic Relationships in the EEC," International Organization, xx (Autumn 1966);
261. Joseph S. Nye, Jr., "Central American Regional Integration," International Conciliation, No. 2 (March 1967).
262. Theodore Geiger and Roger Hansen, "The Role of Information in Decision Making on Foreign Aid," in Bauer and Gergen (fn. 9).
263. NewYork Times, December 9, 1972.
264. J. David Singer and Michael Wallace, "Intergovernmental Organization in the Global System, 1815-1964," International Organization, xxiv (Spring 1970);
265. Robert C. Angell, Peace on the March: Transnational Participation (New York 1969).
266. Arnold Beichman, The "Other" State Department (New York 1967), 92.
267. Robert W. Cox, "The Executive Head," International Organization, xxiii (Spring 1969), 225.
268. See, for example, J. S. Nye, "UNCTAD: Poor Nations' Pressure Group," in Robert W. Cox and Harold K. Jacobson, eds., The Anatomy of Influence: Decision Making in International Organization (New Haven 1973).
269. See Albert Hirschman, Journeys Toward Progress (New York 1965), 291 ff.
270. Harold K. Jacobson, "WHO: Medicine, Regionalism, and Managed Politics," in Cox and Jacobson (fn. 32), 214.
271. John G. Ruggie, "The World Weather Watch," unpub., 1972.
272. Raymond Bauer, Ithiel de Sola Pool, and Lewis Dexter, American Business and Foreign Policy (New York 1963), chap. 35, esp. pp. 472-75.
273. See Harold K. Jacobson, "WHO: Medicine, Regionalism, and Managed Politics," pp. 194-205;
274. Robert W. Cox, "ILO: Limited Monarchy," pp. 114-27, in Cox and Jacobson (fn. 32).
275. Eugene B. Skolnikoff, "Science and Technology: The Implications for International Institutions," International Organization, xxv (Autumn 1971), 772.
276. James N. Rosenau, "Pre-Theories and Theories of Foreign Policy," in R. Barry Farrell, ed., Approaches to Comparative and International Politics (Evanston, Ill. 1966), 73-74.
277. For another suggestive discussion of world politics in terms of networks of systems, see John Burton, Systems, States, Diplomacy and Rules (Cambridge 1968), esp. pp. 6-10.
278. This situation was described to us by two government officials. See also Ann Hollick, "Seabeds make Strange Politics," Foreign Policy, ix (Winter 1972-73).
279. Robert W. Russell, "Transgovernmental Interaction in the International Monetary System, 1960-1972," International Organization, xxvii (Autumn 1973).
280. John G. Ruggie, "The Structure of International Organization: Contingency, Complexity, and Post-Modern Form," Peace Research Society, Papers, xviii, 1971, 73-91.
281. Therese Delpech, International Terrorism and Europe (Paris, Institute for Security Studies, 2002), p. 31.
282. National Research Council, Making the Nation Safer (Washington, National Academies Press, 2002), p. 25.
283. See Nye, The Paradox of American Power, Chapter 2, for details. Oxford University Press, 2002.
284. Walter Laquer, "Left, Right and Beyond: The Changing Face of Terror," in James Hoge and Gideon Rose, HowDid This Happen? (New York, Public Affairs Press, 2001) p. 74.
285. Raymond Bonner, "Radical Islamists a Threat to Southeast Asia Even if al Qaeda is Eliminated, Singapore Says," NewYork Times, Jan 10, 2003, p. 11.
286. Council on Foreign Relations, Report of the Task Force on Public Diplomacy (New York, 2002).