Toxic metals and autophagy

Chemical Research in Toxicology

Volumn 27, Issue 11, 2014, Pages 1887-1900

  Chatterjee, Sarmishtha ^a   Sarkar, Shuvasree ^a   Bhattacharya, Shelley ^a  

^a VISVA BHARATI UNIVERSITY   (India)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ADENYLATE KINASE; ARSENIC; CADMIUM; CELL PROTEIN; CHROMIUM; IRON; MAMMALIAN TARGET OF RAPAMYCIN; MERCURY; METAL NANOPARTICLE; PHOSPHATIDYLINOSITOL 3 KINASE; PROTEIN KINASE; PROTEIN KINASE B; MEMBRANE PROTEIN; METAL;

APOPTOSIS; AUTOPHAGOSOME; AUTOPHAGY; CELL DEATH; CELL SURVIVAL; HUMAN; NECROPTOSIS; NONHUMAN; REVIEW; TOXICOLOGY; ANIMAL; CELL LINE; CHEMISTRY; DRUG EFFECTS; METABOLISM; PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY;

ANIMALS; APOPTOSIS; AUTOPHAGY; CELL LINE; HUMANS; MEMBRANE PROTEINS; METAL NANOPARTICLES; METALS; PHYSICOCHEMICAL PHENOMENA;

EID: 84910680383     PISSN: 0893228X     EISSN: 15205010     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1021/tx500264s     Document Type: Review

References (174)

1. (1997) Statement on the toxicity of dental amalgam, Committee on Toxicity of Chemicals in Food Consumer Products and the Environment, London, UK, http://cot.food.gov.uk/sites/default/files/cot/amalgam.pdf.
2. Jaafar, R., Omar, I., Jidon, A. J., Wan-Khamizar, B. W., Siti-Aishah, B. M., and Sharifah-Noor-Akmal, S. H. (1993) Skin cancer caused by chronic arsenical poisoning-a report of three cases Med. J. Malays. 48, 86-92
3. Meltem, C., Cavit, C., Soran, A., Sayli, B. S., and Ozturk, S. (1999) Arsenic-related Bowens disease, palmar keratosis, and skin cancer Environ. Health Perspect. 107, 687-689
4. Zhou, J., Wang, W., Wei, Q. F., Feng, T. M., Tan, L. J., and Yang, B. F. (2007) Effects of arsenic trioxide on voltage-dependent potassium channels and on cell proliferation of human multiple myeloma cells Chin. Med. J. 120, 1266-1269
5. Murcott, S. (2012) Arsenic Contamination in the World: An International Sourcebook, IWA Publishing, London, UK.
6. Yoshida, S. (2001) Re-evaluation of acute neurotoxic effects of Cd2+ on mesencephalic trigeminal neurons of the adult rat Brain Res. 892, 102-110
7. Bushnell, P. J., Oshiro, W. M., Samsam, T. E., Benignus, V. A., Krantz, Q. T., and Kenyon, E. M. (2007) A dosimetric analysis of the acute behavioral effects of inhaled toluene in rats Toxicol. Sci. 99, 181-189
8. Bondier, J. R., Miche, G., and Propper, A. (2008) Harmful effects of cadmium on olfactory system in mice Inhalation Toxicol. 20, 1169-1177
9. Costello, S., Cockburn, M., Bronstein, J., Zhang, X., and Ritz, B. (2009) Parkinsons disease and residential exposure to maneb and paraquat from agricultural applications in the central valley of California Am. J. Epidemiol. 169, 919-926
10. Krumschnabel, G., Ebner, H. L., Hess, M. W., and Villunger, A. (2010) Apoptosis and necroptosis are induced in rainbow trout cell lines exposed to cadmium Aquat. Toxicol. 99, 73-85
11. Hartwig, A. (2013) Cadmium and cancer Met. Ions Life Sci. 11, 491-507
12. Germain, M. A., Hatton, A., Williams, S., Matthews, J. B., Stone, M. H., Fisher, J., and Ingham, E. (2003) Comparison of the cytotoxicity of clinically relevant cobalt-chromium and alumina ceramic wear particles in vitro Biomaterials 24, 469-479
13. Cefalu, W. T. and Hu, F. B. (2004) Role of chromium in human health and in diabetes Diabetes Care 27, 2741-2751
14. Gioacchino, M. D., Petrarca, C., Perrone, A., Martino, S., Esposito, D. L., Lotti, L. V., and Mariani-Costantini, R. (2008) Autophagy in hematopoietic stem/progenitor cells exposed to heavy metals: biological implications and toxicological relevance Sci. Total Environ. 392, 50-58
15. Chiu, A., Shi, X. L., Lee, W. K., Hill, R., Wakeman, T. P., Katz, A., Xu, B., Dalal, N. S., Robertson, J. D., Chen, C., Chiu, N., and Donehower, L. (2010) Review of chromium (VI) apoptosis, cell-cycle-arrest, and carcinogenesis J. Environ. Sci. Health, Part C: Environ. Carcinog. Ecotoxicol. Rev. 28, 188-230
16. Harada, M. (1995) Minamata disease: methylmercury poisoning in Japan caused by environmental pollution Crit. Rev. Toxicol. 25, 1-24
17. Echeverria, D., Woods, J. S., Heyer, N. J., Rohlman, D., Farin, F. M., Li, T., and Garabedian, C. E. (2006) The association between a genetic polymorphism of coproporphyrinogen oxidase, dental mercury exposure and neurobehavioral response in humans Neurotoxicol. Teratol. 28, 39-48
18. Basu, N., Scheuhammer, A. M., Rouvinen-Watt, K., Evans, R. D., Grochowina, N., and Chan, L. H. (2008) The effects of mercury on muscarinic cholinergic receptor subtypes (M1 and M2) in captive mink Neurotoxicology 29, 328-334
19. Ceccatelli, S., Daré, E., and Moors, M. (2010) Methylmercury-induced neurotoxicity and apoptosis Chem.-Biol. Interact. 188, 301-308
20. Washam, C. (2011) Beastly beauty products: exposure to inorganic mercury in skin-lightening creams Environ. Health Perspect. 119, A80-A81
21. Olivieri, N. F., Nathan, D. G., MacMillan, J. H., Wayne, A. S., Liu, P. P., McGee, A., Martin, M., Koren, G., and Cohen, A. R. (1994) Survival in medically treated patients with homozygous beta-thalassemia N. Engl. J. Med. 331, 574-578
22. Milosevic, R., Antonijevic, N., Jankovic, G., Babic, D., and Colovic, M. (1998) Aplastic anemia clinical characteristics and survival analysis (Serbian) Srp. Arh. Celok. Lek. 126, 234-238
23. Huang, Y. C., Chang, J. S., Wu, K. H., and Peng, C. T. (2006) Regression of myocardial dysfunction after switching from desferrioxamine to deferiprone therapy in beta-thalassemia major patients Hemoglobin 30, 229-238
24. Karimi, M., Jamalian, N., Rasekhi, A., and Kashef, S. (2007) Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) findings of joints in young beta-thalassemia major patients: fluid surrounding the scaphoid bone: a novel finding, as the possible effect of secondary hemochromatosis J. Pediatr. Hematol./Oncol. 29, 393-398
25. Govorov, A. O. and Richardson, H. H. (2007) Generating heat with metal nanoparticles Nano Today 2, 30-38
26. Verma, N. K., Conroy, J., Lyons, P. E., Coleman, J., OSullivan, M. P., Kornfeld, H., Kelleher, D., and Volkov, Y. (2012) Autophagy induction by silver nanowires: a new aspect in the biocompatibility assessment of nanocomposite thin films Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 264, 451-461
27. Laha, D., Pramanik, A., Maity, J., Mukherjee, A., Pramanik, P., Laskar, A., and Karmakar, P. (2014) Interplay between autophagy and apoptosis mediated by copper oxide nanoparticles in human breast cancer cells MCF7 Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1840, 1-9
28. Chiarelli, R. and Roccheri, M. C. (2012) Heavy metals and metalloids as autophagy inducing agents: focus on cadmium and arsenic Cells 1, 597-616
29. Galluzzi, L., Vitale, I., Abrams, J. M., Alnemri, E. S., Baehrecke, E. H., Blagosklonny, M. V., Dawson, T. M., Dawson, V. L., El-Deiry, W. S., Fulda, S., Gottlieb, E., Green, D. R., Hengartner, M. O., Kepp, O., Knight, R. A., Kumar, S., Lipton, S. A., Lu, X., Madeo, F., Malorni, W., Mehlen, P., Nuñez, G., Peter, M. E., Piacentini, M., Rubinsztein, D. C., Shi, Y., Simon, H. U., Vandenabeele, P., White, E., Yuan, J., Zhivotovsky, B., Melino, G., and Kroemer, G. (2012) Molecular definitions of cell death subroutines: recommendations of the nomenclature committee on cell death 2012 Cell Death Differ. 19, 107-120
30. Chipuk, J. E. and Green, D. R. (2006) Dissecting p53-dependent apoptosis Cell Death Differ. 13, 994-1002
31. Huang, J. and Brumell, J. H. (2014) Bacteria-autophagy interplay: a battle for survival Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 12, 101-114
32. Bantel, H. and Schulze-Osthoff, K. (2012) Mechanisms of cell death in acute liver failure Front. Physiol. 3, 1-9
33. MacFarlane, M. and Williams, A. C. (2004) Apoptosis and disease: a life or death decision EMBO Rep. 5, 674-678
34. Feng, Z., Zhang, H., Levine, A. J., and Jin, S. (2005) The coordinate regulation of the p53 and mTOR pathways in cells Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 102, 8204-8209
35. Hitomi, J., Christofferson, D. E., Ng, A., Yao, J., Degterev, A., Xavier, R. J., and Yaun, J. (2008) Identification of a molecular signaling network that regulates a cellular necrotic cell death pathway Cell 135, 1311-1323
36. Mizushima, N., Levine, B., Cuervo, A. M., and Klionsky, D. J. (2008) Autophagy fights disease through cellular self digestion Nature 451, 1069-1074
37. Klionsky, D. J., Cuervo, A. M., and Seglen, P. O. (2007) Methods for monitoring autophagy from yeast to human Autophagy 3, 181-206
38. Ding, W. X. (2012) Autophagy in toxicology: defenses against xenobiotics J. Drug Metab. Toxicol. 3, 1-4
39. Yin, X. M., Ding, W. X., and Gao, W. (2008) Autophagy in the liver Hepatol. 47, 1773-1785
40. Arias, E. and Cuervo, A. M. (2011) Chaperone-mediated autophagy in protein quality control Curr. Opin. Cell Biol. 23, 184-189
41. Levine, B. and Klionsky, D. J. (2004) Development by self digestion: molecular mechanisms and biological functions of autophagy Dev. Cell 6, 463-477
42. Meléndez, A. and Levine, B. (2009) Autophagy in C. elegans, in WormBook (Kramer, J. M. and Moerman, D. C., Eds.) The C. elegans Research Community, http://www.wormbook.org.
43. Chan, E. Y., Longatti, A., McKnight, N. C., and Tooze, S. A. (2009) Kinase-inactivated ULK proteins inhibit autophagy via their conserved C-terminal domains using an Atg13-independent mechanism Mol. Cell. Biol. 29, 157-171
44. Ravikumar, B., Sarkar, S., Davies, J. E., Futter, M., Garcia-Arencibia, M., Green-Thompson, Z. W., Jimenez-Sanchez, M., Korolchuk, V. I., Lichtenberg, M., LUO, S., Massey, D. C. O., Menzies, F. M., Moreau, K., Narayanan, U., Renna, M., Siddiqi, F. H., Underwood, B. R., Winslow, A. R., and Rubinsztein, D. C. (2010) Regulation of mammalian autophagy in physiology and pathophysiology Physiol. Rev. 90, 1383-1435
45. Yoshimori, T. and Noda, T. (2008) Toward unraveling membrane biogenesis in mammalian autophagy Curr. Opin. Cell Biol. 20, 401-407
46. Martinet, W., De-Meyer, G. R., Andries, L., Herman, A. G., and Kockx, M. M. (2006) In situ detection of starvation induced autophagy J. Histochem. Cytochem. 54, 85-96
47. Kirkin, V., McEwan, D. G., Novak, I., and Dikic, I. (2009) A role for ubiquitin in selective autophagy Mol. Cell 34, 259-269
48. Reggiori, F. and Klinosky, D. J. (2012) Autophagy in the eukaryotic cell Eukaryotic Cell 1, 11-21
49. Ogata, T., Oishi, Y., Higuchi, M., and Muraoka, I. (2010) Fasting-related autophagic response in slow- and fast-twitch skeletal muscle Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 394, 136-140
50. Hanada, T., Noda, N. N., Satomi, Y., Ichimura, Y., Fujioka, Y., Takao, T., Inagaki, F., and Ohsumi, Y. (2007) The Atg12-Atg5 conjugation has a novel E3-like activity for protein lipidation in autophagy J. Biol. Chem. 282, 37298-37302
51. Tanida, I., Tanida-Miyake, E., Ueno, T., and Kominami, E. (2001) The human homolog of Saccharomyces cerevisiae Apg7p is a protein-activating enzyme for multiple substrates including human Apg12p, GATE-16, GABARAP, and MAP-LC3 J. Biol. Chem. 276, 1701-1706
52. Reggiori, F., Tucker, K. A., Stromhaug, P. E., and Klinosky, D. J. (2004) The Atg1-Atg13 complex regulates Atg9 and Atg23 retrieval transport from the preautophagosomal structure Dev. Cell 6, 79-90
53. Krick, R., Tolstrup, J., Appelles, A., Henke, S., and Thumm, M. (2006) The relevance of the phosphatidylinositolphosphate-binding motif FRRGT of Atg18 and Atg21 for the Cvt pathway and autophagy FEBS Lett. 580, 4632-4638
54. Sridharan, S., Jain, K., and Basu, A. (2011) Regulation of autophagy by kinases Cancers 3, 2630-2654
55. He, C. and Klionsky, D. J. (2009) Regulation mechanisms and signaling pathways of autophagy Annu. Rev. Genet. 43, 67-93
56. Chang, Y. Y. and Neufeld, T. P. (2009) An Atg1/Atg13 complex with multiple roles in TOR-mediated autophagy regulation Mol. Biol. Cell 20, 2004-2014
57. Adastra, K. L., Chi, M. M., Riley, J. K., and Moley, K. H. (2011) A differential autophagic response to hyperglycemia in the developing murine embryo Reproduction 141, 607-615
58. Rubinsztein, D. C., Mariño, G., and Kroemer, G. (2011) Autophagy and aging Cell 146, 682-695
59. Kroemer, G. and Levine, B. (2008) Autophagic cell death: the story of a misnomer Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol. 9, 1004-1010
60. Galluzzi, L., Aaronson, S. A., Abrams, J. M., Alnemri, E. S., Andrews, D. W., Behrecke, E. H., Bazan, N. G., Blagosklonny, M. V., Blomgren, K., Borner, C., Bredesen, D. E., Brenner, C., Castedo, M., Cidlowski, J. A., Ciechanover, A., Cohen, G. M., De Laurenzi, V., De Maria, R., Deshmukh, M., Dynlacht, B. D., El-Deiry, W. S., Flavell, R. A., Fulda, S., Garrido, C., Golstein, P., Gougeon, M. L., Green, D. R., Gronemeyer, H., Hajnóczky, G., Hardwick, J. M., Hengartner, M. O., Ichijo, H., Jäättelä, M., Kepp, O., Kimchi, A., Klionsky, D. J., Knight, R. A., Kornbluth, S., Kumar, S., Levine, B., Lipton, S. A., Lugli, E., Madeo, F., Malomi, W., Marine, J. C., Martin, S. J., Medema, J. P., Mehlen, P., Melino, G., Moll, U. M., Morselli, E., Nagata, S., Nicholson, D. W., Nicotera, P., Nuñez, G., Oren, M., Penninger, J., Pervaiz, S., Peter, M. E., Piacentini, M., Prehn, J. H., Puthalakath, H., Rabinovich, G. A., Rizzuto, R., Rodrigues, C. M., Rubinsztein, D. C., Rudel, T., Scorrano, L., Simon, H. U., Steller, H., Tschopp, J., Tsujimoto, Y., Vandenabeele, P., Vitale, I., Vousden, K. H., Youle, R. J., Yuan, J., Zhivotovsky, B., and Kroemer, G. (2009) Guidelines for the use and interpretation of assays for monitoring cell death in higher eukaryotes Cell Death Differ. 16, 1093-1107
61. Tsujimoto, Y. and Shimizu, S. (2005) Another way to die: autophagic programmed cell death Cell Death Differ. 12, 1528-1534
62. Maiuri, M. C., Zalckvar, E., Kimchi, A., and Kroemer, G. (2007) Self-eating and self-killing: crosstalk between autophagy and apoptosis Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol. 8, 741-752
63. González-Polo, R. A., Boya, P., Pauleau, A. L., Jalil, A., Larochette, N., Souquère, S., Eskelinen, E. L., Pierron, G., Saftig, P., and Kroemer, G. (2005) The apoptosis/autophagy paradox: autophagic vacuolization before apoptotic death J. Cell Sci. 118, 3091-3102
64. Keil, D. E., Ritchie, J. B., and McMillin, G. A. (2011) Testing for toxic elements: a focus on arsenic, cadmium, lead, and mercury Lab. Med. 42, 735-742
65. Violante, A., Cozzolino, V., Perelomov, L., Caporale, A. G., and Pigna, M. (2010) Mobility and bioavailability of heavy metals and metalloids in soil environments J. Soil Sci. Plant Nutr. 10, 268-292
66. (2011) Hazardous metals and minerals pollution in India: sources, toxicity and management, pp 1-24, Angkor Publishers (P) Ltd., Noida, India.
67. Wilson, L. (2012) Nutritional balancing and hair mineral analysis, Minerals for Life, a Basic Introduction, 4 th ed.
68. (1991) Human exposure assessment for airborne pollutants. Advances and opportunities, National Research Council, National Academy Press, Washington, DC.
69. Christopher, E. (2013) Human exposure to aluminium Environ. Sci.: Processes Impacts 15, 1807-1816
70. Zappavigna, S., Luce1, A., Vitale, G., Merola, N., Facchini, S., and Caraglia, M. (2013) Autophagic cell death: a new frontier in cancer research Adv. Biosci. Biotechnol. 4, 250-262
71. Rahman, M. A., Hasegawa, H., and Lim, R. P. (2012) Bioaccumulation, biotransformation and trophic transfer of arsenic in the aquatic food chain Environ. Res. 116, 118-135
72. Mukherjee, A., Sengupta, M. K., Hossain, M. A., Ahamed, S., Das, B., Nayak, B., Lodh, D., Rahman, M. M., and Chakraborti, D. (2006) Arsenic contamination in groundwater: a global perspective with emphasis on the Asian scenario J. Health Popul. Nutr. 24, 142-163
73. Chowdhury, U. K., Biswas, B. K., Chowdhury, T. R., Samanta, G., Mandal, B. K., Basu, G. C., Chanda, C. R., Lodh, D., Saha, K. C., Mukherjee, S. K., Roy, S., Kabir, S., Quamruzzaman, Q., and Chakraborti, D. (2000) Groundwater arsenic contamination in Bangladesh and West Bengal, India Environ. Health Perspect. 108, 393-397
74. Smith, A. H., Lingas, E. O., and Rahman, M. (2000) Contamination of drinking water by arsenic in Bangladesh: a public health emergency Bull. WHO 78, 1093-1103
75. (2001) National primary drinking water regulations: arsenic and clarifications to compliance and new source contaminants monitoring, final rule, Vol. 66, p 6975, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
76. Grantham, D. A. and Jones, J. F. (1977) Arsenic contamination of water wells in Nova Scotia J.-Am. Water Works Assoc. 69, 653-657
77. Bowell, R. J. (1992) Supergene gold mineralogy at Ashanti, Ghana: implication for the supergene behavior of gold Mineral. Mag. 56, 545-560
78. Nilsson, R., Jha, A. N., Zaprianov, Z., and Natarajan, A. T. (1993) Chromosomal aberrations in humans exposed to arsenic in the Srednogorie area, Bulgaria Fresenius Environ. Bull. 2, 59-64
79. Matschullat, J., Borba, R. P., Deschamps, E., Figueiredo, B. R., Gabrio, T., and Schwenk, M. (2000) Human and environmental contamination in Iron Quadrangle, Brazil Appl. Geochem. 15, 181-190
80. Saad, A. and Hassanien, M. A. (2001) Assessment of arsenic level in the hair of the nonoccupational Egyptian population: pilot study Environ. Int. 27, 471-478
81. Putila, J. J. and Guo, N. L. (2011) Association of arsenic exposure with lung cancer incidence rates in the United States PLoS One 6, e25886
82. Smedley, P. L., Kinniburgh, D. G., Macdonald, D. M. J., Nicolli, H. B., Barros, A. J., Tullio, J. O., Pearce, J. M., and Alonso, M. S. (2005) Arsenic associations in sediments from the loess aquifer of La Pampa, Argentina Appl. Geochem. 20, 989-1016
83. Ueki, K., Kondo, T., Tseng, Y. H., and Kahn, C. R. (2004) Central role of suppressors of cytokine signaling proteins in hepatic steatosis, insulin resistance, and the metabolic syndrome in the mouse Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 101, 10422-10427
84. Vigo, J. B. and Ellzey, J. T. (2006) Effects of arsenic toxicity at the cellular level: a review Tex. J. Microsc. 37, 45-49
85. Liu, S. X., Athar, M., Lippai, I., Waldren, C., and Hei, T. K. (2001) Induction of oxyradicals by arsenic: implication for mechanism of genotoxicity Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 98, 1643-1648
86. Kann, S., Estes, C., Reichard, J. F., Huang, M. Y., Sartor, M. A., Schwemberger, S. A., Chen, Y., Dalton, T. P., Shertzer, H. G., Xia, Y., and Puga, A. (2005) Butylhydroquinone protects cells genetically deficient in glutathione biosynthesis from arsenite-induced apoptosis without significantly changing their prooxidant status Toxicol. Sci. 87, 365-384
87. Warner, M. L., Moore, L. E., Smith, M. T., Kalman, D. A., Fanning, E., and Smith, A. H. (1994) Increased micronuclei in exfoliated bladder cells of individuals who chronically ingest arsenic-contaminated water in Nevada Cancer Epidemiol., Biomarkers Prev. 3, 583-590
88. Gonsebatt, M. E., Vega, L., Salazar, A. M., Monteroa, R., Guzmána, P., Blasa, J., Del Razob, L. M., García-Vargasb, G., Alboresb, A., Cebriánb, M. E., Kelshc, M., and Ostrosky-Wegman, P. (1997) Cytogenetic effects in human exposure to arsenic Mut. Res. 386, 219-228
89. Hartwig, A. and Schwerdtle, T. (2002) Interactions by carcinogenic metal compounds with DNA repair processes: toxicological implications Toxicol. Lett. 127, 47-54
90. Mass, M. J., Tennant, A., Roop, B. C., Cullen, W. R., Styblo, M., Thomas, D. J., and Kligerman, A. D. (2001) Methylated trivalent arsenic species are genotoxic Chem. Res. Toxicol. 14, 355-361
91. Ray, A., Roy, S., Agarwal, S., and Bhattacharya, S. (2008) As2O3 toxicity in rat hepatocytes: manifestation of caspase mediated apoptosis Toxicol. Ind. Health 24, 643-653
92. Kanzawa, T., Kondo, Y., Ito, H., Kondo, S., and Germano, I. (2003) Induction of autophagic cell death in malignant glioma cells by arsenic trioxide Cancer Res. 63, 2103-2108
93. Qian, W., Liu, J., Jin, J., Ni, W., and Xu, W. (2007) Arsenic trioxide induces not only apoptosis but also autophagic cell death in leukemia cell lines via up-regulation of Beclin-1 Leuk. Res. 31, 329-339
94. Yang, Y. P., Liang, Z. Q., Gao, B., Jia, Y. L., and Qin, Z. H. (2008) Dynamic effects of autophagy on arsenic trioxide-induced death of human leukemia cell line HL60 cells Acta Pharmacol. Sin. 29, 123-134
95. Huang, Y. C., Hung, W. C., Chen, W. T., Yu, H. S., and Chai, C. Y. (2009) Sodium arsenite-induced DAPK promoter hypermethylation and autophagy via ERK1/2 phosphorylation in human uroepithelial cells Chem.-Biol. Interact. 181, 254-262
96. Goussetis, D. J., Altman, J. K., Glaser, H., McNeer, J. L., Tallman, M. S., and Platanias, L. C. (2010) Autophagy is a critical mechanism for the induction of the antileukemic effects of arsenic trioxide J. Biol. Chem. 285, 29989-29997
97. Bolt, A. M., Douglas, R. M., and Klimecki, W. T. (2010) Arsenite exposure in human lymphoblastoid cell lines induces autophagy and coordinated induction of lysosomal genes Toxicol. Lett. 199, 153-159
98. Bolt, A. M., Zhao, F., Pacheco, S., and Klimecki, W. T. (2012) Arsenite-induced autophagy is associated with proteotoxicity in human lymphoblastoid cells Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 264, 255-261
99. Han, M. H., Lee, W. S., Lu, J. N., Yun, J. W., Kim, G., Jung, J. M., Kim, G. Y., Lee, S. J., Kim, W. J., and Choi, Y. H. (2012) Tetra arsenic hexoxide induces Beclin-1-induced autophagic cell death as well as caspase-dependent apoptosis in u937 human leukemic cells J. Evidence-Based Complementary Altern. Med. 2012, 201414
100. Zhang, T., Qi, Y., Liao, M., Xu, M., Bower, K. A., Frank, J. A., Shen, H. M., Luo, J., Shi, X., and Chen, G. (2012) Autophagy is a cell self-protective mechanism against arsenic-induced cell transformation Toxicol. Sci. 130, 298-308
101. Järup, L. (2003) Hazards of heavy metal contamination Br. Med. Bull. 68, 167-182
102. Cotton, F. A. (1999) Survey of transition-metal chemistry, in Advanced Inorganic Chemistry, 6 th ed., p 633, John Wiley and Sons, New York.
103. (2012) Toxicological Profile for Cadmium, Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registrys, Atlanta, GA.
104. Templeton, D. M. and Liu, Y. (2010) Multiple roles of cadmium in cell death and survival Chem.-Biol. Interact. 188, 267-275
105. (1992) Cadmium: Environmental Health Criteria 134, International Programme on Chemical Safety, WHO, Geneva, Switzerland, http://www.inchem.org/documents/ehc/ehc/ehc134.htm.
106. Wang, S. H., Shih, Y. L., Ko, W. C., Wei, Y. H., and Shih, C. M. (2008) Cadmium-induced autophagy and apoptosis are mediated by a calcium signaling pathway Cell. Mol. Life Sci. 65, 3640-3652
107. Chiarelli, R., Agnello, M., and Roccheri, M. C. (2011) Sea urchin embryos as a model system for studying autophagy induced by cadmium stress Autophagy 7, 1028-1034
108. Dong, Z., Wang, L., Xu, J., Li, Y., Zhang, Y., Zhang, S., and Miao, J. (2009) Promotion of autophagy and inhibition of apoptosis by low concentrations of cadmium in vascular endothelial cells Toxicol. In Vitro 23, 105-110
109. Lim, S. C., Hahm, K. S., Lee, S. H., and Oh, S. H. (2010) Autophagy involvement in cadmium resistance through induction of multidrug resistance-associated protein and counterbalance of endoplasmic reticulum stress WI38 lung epithelial fibroblast cells Toxicology 276, 18-26
110. Son, Y. O., Wang, X., Hitron, J. A., Zhang, Z., Cheng, S., Budhraja, A., Ding, S., Lee, J. C., and Shi, X. (2011) Cadmium induces autophagy through ROS-dependent activation of the LKB1-AMPK signaling in skin epidermal cells Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 255, 287-296
111. Chargui, A., Zerki, S., Jacquillet, G., Rubera, I., Ilie, M., Belaid, A., Duranton, C., Tauc, M., Hofman, P., Poujeol, P., El May, M. V., and Mograbi, B. (2011) Cadmium-induced autophagy in rat kidney: an early biomarker of subtoxic exposure Toxicol. Sci. 121, 31-42
112. Barceloux, D. G. and Barceloux, D. (1999) Chromium Clin. Toxicol. 37, 173-194
113. (1996) Guidelines on drinking water quality: chromium, WHO, Geneva, Switzerland.
114. Eastmond, D. A., MacGregor, J. T., and Slesinski, R. S. (2008) Trivalent chromium: assessing the genotoxic risk of an essential trace element and widely used human and animal nutritional supplement Crit. Rev. Toxicol. 38, 173-190
115. Kotas̈, J. and Stasicka, Z. (2000) Chromium occurrence in the environment and methods of its speciation Environ. Pollut. 107, 263-283
116. Shadreck, M. and Mugadza, T. (2013) Chromium, an essential nutrient and pollutant: a review Afr. J. Pure Appl. Chem. 7, 310-317
117. Fendorf, S., La Force, M. J., and Li, G. (2004) Heavy metals in the environment: temporal changes in soil partitioning of and bioaccessibility of arsenic, chromium and lead J. Environ. Qual. 33, 2049-2055
118. Rai, D., Eary, L. E., and Zachara, J. M. (1989) Environmental chemistry of chromium Sci. Total Environ. 86, 15-23
119. García-Rodríguez, M. D. C., Carvente-Juárez, M. M., and Altamirano-Lozano, M. A. (2013) Antigenotoxic and apoptotic activity of green tea polyphenol extracts on hexavalent chromium-induced DNA damage in peripheral blood of CD-1 mice: analysis with differential acridine orange/ethidium bromide staining Oxid. Med. Cell. Longevity 2013, 486419
120. Ye, J., Wang, S., Leonard, S. S., Sun, Y., Butterworth, L., Antonini, J., Ding, M., Rojanasakul, M., Vallyathan, V., Castranova, V., and Shi, X. (1999) Role of reactive oxygen species and p53 in chromium(VI)-induced apoptosis J. Biol. Chem. 274, 34974-34980
121. Bagchi, D., Bagchi, M., and Stohs, S. J. (2001) Chromium (VI)-induced oxidative stress, apoptotic cell death and modulation of p53 tumor suppressor gene Mol. Cell. Biochem. 222, 149-158
122. Clarkson, T. W. and Magos, L. (2006) The toxicology of mercury and its chemical compounds Crit. Rev. Toxicol. 36, 609-662
123. Beijer, K. and Jernelov, M. (1986) Sources, transport and transformation of metals in the environment, in Handbook on the Toxicoloy of Metals (Friberg, L, Nordberg, G. F., and Vouk, V. B., Eds.) 2 nd ed., pp 68-74, Elsevier, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
124. Harada, M. (1995) Minamata disease: methylmercury poisoning in Japan caused by environmental pollution Crit. Rev. Toxicol. 25, 1-24
125. Bose, S., Ghosh, P., Ghosh, S., Chaudhury, S., and Bhattacharya, S. (1993) Time dependent distribution [203Hg] mercuric nitrate in the subcellular fraction of rat and fish liver Biomed. Env. Sci. 6, 195-206
126. Vinaya, S. K., Maitra, S., and Bhattacharya, S. (2002) In vitro binding of inorganic mercury to the plasma membrane of rat platelet affects Na+-K+- ATPase activity and platelet aggregation BioMetals 15, 51-57
127. Baskin, D. S., Nago, H., and Didenko, V. (2003) Thimerol induces DNA breaks, caspase 3 activation, membrane damage, and cell death in cultured human neurons and fibroblasts Toxicol. Sci. 74, 361-368
128. Rossi, A. D., Viviani, B., Zhivotovsky, B., Manzo, L., Orrenius, S., Vahter, M., and Nicotera, P. (1997) Inorganic mercury modifies Ca2+ signals, triggers apoptosis and potentiates NMDA toxicity in cerebellar granule neurons Cell Death Differ. 4, 317-324
129. Zasukhina, G. D., Vasilyeva, I. M., Sdirkova, N. I., Krasovsky, G. N., Vasyukovich, L. Y., Kenesariev, U. I., and Butenko, P. G. (1983) Mutagenic effect of thallium and mercury salts on rodent cells with different repair activities Mut. Res. 124, 163-173
130. Cantoni, O., Christie, N. T., Robison, S. H., and Costa, M. (1984) Characterization of DNA lesions produced by HgCl2 in cell culture systems Chem.-Biol. Interact. 49, 209-224
131. Patnaik, B. B., Ray, A., Agarwal, S., and Bhattacharya, S. (2010) Induction of oxidative stress by non-lethal dose of mercury in rat liver: possible relationships between apoptosis and necrosis J. Environ. Biol. 31, 413-416
132. Ben-Ozer, E., Rosenspire, A., McCabe, M., Worth, R., Kindzelskii, A., Warra, N., and Petty, H. (2000) Mercuric chloride damages cellular DNA by non-apoptotic mechanism Mutat. Res. 470, 19-27
133. Chatterjee, S., Ray, A., Mukherjee, S., Agarwal, S., Kundu, R., and Bhattacharya, S. (2012) Low concentration of mercury induces autophagic cell death in rat hepatocytes Toxicol. Ind. Health 30, 611-620
134. Chatterjee, S., Nandi, P., Mukherjee, S., Chattopadhyay, A., and Bhattacharya, S. (2013) Regulation of autophagy in rat hepatocytes treated in vitro with low concentration of mercury Toxicol. Environ. Chem. 95, 504-514
135. Lieu, P. T., Heiskala, M., Peterson, P. A., and Yang, Y. (2001) The role of iron in health and disease Mol. Aspects Med. 22, 1-87
136. Chen, J. H., Shahnavas, S., Singh, N. N., Ong, W. Y., and Walczyk, T. (2013) Stable iron isotope tracing reveals significant brain iron uptake in the adult rat Metallomics 5, 167-173
137. Chew, K. C., Ang, E. T., Tai, Y. K., Tsang, F., Lo, S. Q., Ong, E., Ong, W. Y., Shen, H. M., Lim, K. L., Dawson, V. L., Dawson, T. M., and Soong, T. W. (2011) Enhanced autophagy from chronic toxicity of iron and mutant A53T alpha-synuclein: implications for neuronal cell death in Parkinson disease J. Biol. Chem. 286, 33380-33389
138. Scarlatti, F., Granata, R., Meijer, A. J., and Condogno, P. (2009) Does autophagy have a license to kill mammalian cells? Cell Death Differ. 16, 12-20
139. Kurz, T., Gustafsson, B., and Brunk, U. (2011) Cell sensitivity to oxidative stress is influenced by ferritin autophagy Free Radical Biol. Med. 11, 1647-1658
140. Gutteridge, J. M. (1982) The role of superoxide and hydroxyl radicals in phospholipid peroxidation catalysed by iron salts FEBS Lett. 150, 454-458
141. Eaton, J. W. and Qian, M. (2002) Molecular bases of cellular iron toxicity Free Radical Biol. Med. 32, 833-840
142. Hintze, K. J. and Theil, E. C. (2006) Cellular regulation and molecular interactions of the ferritins Cell. Mol. Life Sci. 63, 591-600
143. Koorts, A. M. and Viljoen, M. (2007) Ferritin and ferritin isoforms I: structure-function relationships, synthesis, degradation and secretion Arch. Physiol. Biochem. 113, 30-54
144. Kalinowski, D. S. and Richardson, D. R. (2005) The evolution of iron chelators for the treatment of iron overload disease and cancer Pharmacol. Rev. 57, 547-583
145. Richardson, D. R. and Ponka, P. (1997) The molecular mechanisms of the metabolism and transport of iron in normal and neoplastic cells Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1331, 1-40
146. Mancias, J. D., Wang, X., Gygi, S. P., Harper, J. W., and Kimmelman, A. C. (2014) Quantitative proteomics identifies NCOA4 as the cargo receptor mediating ferritinophagy Nat. 509, 105-109
147. Arora, S., Rajwade, J. M., and Paknikar, K. M. (2012) Nanotoxicology and in vitro studies: the need of the hour Toxicol. Appl. Phram. 258, 151-165
148. Hoyt, V. W. and Mason, E. (2008) Nanotechnology: emerging health issues J. Chem. Health Saf. 15, 10-15
149. De Jong, W. H. and Ja Borm, P. (2008) Drug delivery and nanoparticles: applications and hazards Int. J. Nanomed. 3, 133-149
150. Edetsberger, M., Gaubitzer, E., Valic, E., Waigmann, E., and Köhler, G. (2005) Detection of nanometersized particles in living cells using modern fluorescence fluctuation methods Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 332, 109-116
151. Fadeel, B. and Garcia-Bennett, A. E. (2010) Better safe than sorry: understanding the toxicological properties of inorganic nanoparticles manufactured for biomedical applications Adv. Drug Delivery Rev. 62, 362-374
152. Holsapple, M. P., Farland, W. H., Landry, T. D., Monteiro-Riviere, N. A., Carter, J. M., Walker, N. J., and Thomas, K. V. (2005) Research strategies for safety evaluation of nanomaterials, part II: toxicological and safety evaluation of nanomaterials, current challenges and data needs Toxicol. Sci. 88, 12-17
153. Oberdörster, G., Maynard, A., Donaldson, K., Castranova, V., Fitzpatrick, J., Ausman, K., Carter, J., Karn, B., Kreyling, W., Lai, D., Olin, S., Monteiro-Riviere, N., Warheit, D., and Yang, H. (2005) Principles for characterizing the potential human health effects from exposure to nanomaterials: elements of a screening strategy Part. Fibre Toxicol. 2, 1-35
154. Hoet, P. H. M., Brüske-Hohlfeld, I., and Salata, O. V. (2004) Nanoparticles known and unknown health risks J. Nanobiotechol. 2, 1-15
155. Li, S. D. and Huang, L. (2008) Pharmacokinetics and biodistribution of nanoparticles Mol. Pharmaceutics 5, 496-504
156. De Stefano, D., Carnuccio, R., and Maiuri, M. C. (2012) Nanomaterials toxicity and cell death modalities J. Drug Delivery 2012, 167896
157. Andón, F. T. and Fadeel, B. (2012) Programmed cell death: molecular mechanisms and implications for safety assessment of nanomaterials Acc. Chem. Res. 46, 733-42
158. Stern, S. T. and Johnson, D. N. (2008) Role for nanomaterial autophagy interaction in neurodegenerative disease Autophagy 4, 1097-1100
159. Selverstov, O., Zabirnyk, O., Zscharnack, M., Bulavina, L., Nowicki, M., Heinrich, J. M., Yezhelyev, M., Emmrich, F., ORegan, R., and Bader, A. (2006) Quantum dots for human mesenchymal stem cells labeling. A size-dependent autophagy activation Nano Lett. 6, 2826-2632
160. Luo, Y. H., Wu, S. B., Wei, Y. H., Chen, Y. C., Tsai, M. H., Ho, C. C., Lin, S. Y., Yang, C. S., and Lin, P. (2013) Cadmium-based quantum dot induced autophagy formation for cell survival via oxidative stress Chem. Res. Toxicol. 26, 662-673
161. Li, X., Chen, N., Su, Y., He, Y., Yin, M., Wei, M., Wang, L., Huang, W., Fan, C., and Huang, Q. (2013) Autophagy-sensitized cytotoxicity of quantum dots in PC12 cells Adv. Healthcare Mater. 3, 354-359
162. Ma, Q., Mei, S., Ji, K., Zhang, Y., and Chu, P. K. (2011) Immobilization of Ag nanoparticles/FGF-2 on a modified titanium implant surface and improved human gingival fibroblasts behavior J. Biomed. Mater. Res., Part A 98, 274-286
163. Afeseh, N. H., Kanthasamy, A., Gu, Y., Fang, N., Anantharam, V., and Kanthasamy, A. G. (2011) Manganese nanoparticle activates mitochondrial dependent apoptotic signaling and autophagy in dopaminergic neuronal cells Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 256, 227-240
164. Li, H., Li, Y., Jiao, J., and Hu, H. M. (2011) Alpha-alumina nanoparticles induce efficient autophagy-dependent cross-presentation and potent antitumour response Nat. Nanotechnol. 6, 645-650
165. Khan, M. I., Mohammad, A., Patil, G., Naqvi, S. A., Chauhan, L. K., and Ahmad, I. (2012) Induction of ROS, mitochondrial damage and autophagy in lung epithelial cancer cells by iron oxide nanoparticles Biomaterials 33, 1477-1488
166. Yu, K. N., Yoon, T. J., Minai-Tehrani, A., Kim, J. E., Park, S. J., Jeong, M. S., Ha, S. W., Lee, J. K., Kim, J. S., and Cho, M. H. (2013) Zinc oxide nanoparticle induced autophagic cell death and mitochondrial damage via reactive oxygen species generation Toxicol. In Vitro 27, 1187-1195
167. Sun, T., Yan, Y., Zhao, Y., Guo, F., and Jiang, C. (2012) Copper oxide nanoparticles induce autophagic cell death in A549 cells PLoS One 7, e43442
168. Roy, R., Singh, S. K., Chauhan, L. K., Das, M., Tripathi, A., and Dwivedi, P. D. (2014) Zinc oxide nanoparticles induce apoptosis by enhancement of autophagy via PI3K/Akt/mTOR inhibition Toxicol. Lett. 227, 29-40
169. Yokoyama, T., Tam, J., Kuroda, S., Scott, A. W., Aaron, J., Larson, T., Shanker, M., Correa, A. M., Kondo, S., Roth, J. A., Sokolov, K., and Ramesh, R. (2011) EGFR-targeted hybrid plasmonic magnetic nanoparticles synergistically induce autophagy and apoptosis in non-small cell lung cancer cells PLoS One 6, e25507
170. Orrenius, S., Nicotera, P., and Zhivotovsky, B. (2011) Cell death mechanisms and their implications in toxicology Toxicol. Sci. 119, 3-19
171. Gordy, C. and He, Y. W. (2012) The crosstalk between autophagy and apoptosis: where does this lead? Protein 3, 17-27
172. Chatterjee, S., Banerjee, P. P., Chattopadhyay, A., and Bhattacharya, S. (2013) Low concentration of HgCl2 drives rat hepatocytes to autophagy/apoptosis/necroptosis in a time-dependent manner Toxicol. Environ. Chem. 95, 1192-1207
173. Zeng, K. W., Fu, H., Liu, G. X., and Wang, X. M. (2012) Aluminum maltolate induces primary rat astrocyte apoptosis via over activation of the class III PI3K/Beclin 1-dependent autophagy signal Toxicol. In Vitro 26, 215-220
174. Dziedzic, S. A. and Caplan, A. B. (2011) Identification of autophagy genes participating in zinc-induced necrotic cell death in Saccharomyces cerevisiae Autophagy 7, 490-500