Perception politics and security in South Asia: The compound crisis of 1990

Perception Politics and Security in South Asia: The Compound Crisis of 1990

Volumn , Issue , 2003, Pages 1-173

  Chari, P R ^a   Cheema, Pervaiz Iqbal ^b   Cohen, Stephen Philip ^c  

^a Institute of Peace and Conflict Studies   (India)

^b Islamabad Peace Research Institute   (Pakistan)

^c BROOKINGS INSTITUTION   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84909379913     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.4324/9780203475188     Document Type: Book

References (263)

1. The following is drawn from the summary of crisis and conflict in Richard N. Lebow, Between Peace and War: The Nature of International Crisis (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1981), pp. 7-12.
2. These writings include Seymour M. Hersh, "On the Nuclear Edge," New Yorker, March 29, 1993;
3. William E. Burrows and Robert Windrem, Critical Mass: The Dangerous Race for Superweapons in a Fragmenting World (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1994);
4. Shirin Tahir-Kheli, Lessons for the Future: The Gates Mission to India and Pakistan (unpublished manuscript, 1994);
5. Devin T. Hagerty, "Nuclear Deterrence in South Asia: The 1990 Indo-Pakistani Crisis," International Security, 20 (Winter 1995-6);
6. Devin T. Hagerty, The Consequences of Nuclear Proliferation: Lessons from South Asia (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1998);
7. Stephen P. Cohen, "1990: South Asia's Useful Nuclear Crisis," paper presented to the 1992 Annual Meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Chicago, February 6-7, 1992.
8. Hearing of the Senate Government Affairs Committee. Testimony by James Woolsey, director, Central Intelligence Agency, February 24, 1993, p. 2. Woolsey spoke long after the crisis, but his remarks, presumably prepared by his service, reflect the dominant opinion within the American intelligence community at the time.
9. B.C. Chakravorty, History of the Indo-Pak War, 1965 (New Delhi: Historical Division, Ministry of Defence, Government of India, 1992), and the Hamoodur-Rahman Commission Report (1974 and other dates), available at http://www.bangla2000.com/bangladesh/Independence-War/Report-Hamoodur-Rahman/press-release.shtm
10. Kanti Bajpai, P. R. Chari, Pervaiz Iqbal Cheema, Stephen P. Cohen, and Sumit Ganguly, Brasstacks and Beyond: Crisis Perception and Management in South Asia (New Delhi: Manohar, 1995; Lahore: Vanguard Publishers, 1996; Columbia, MO: South Asia Books, 1996).
11. For contemporaneous accounts see Rodney Jones on the end of the Cold War and South Asia ("Old Quarrels and New Realities: Security in Southern Asia After the Cold War," Washington Quarterly 15 (Winter 1992), pp. 105-28);
12. also a piece by Sumit Ganguly ("South Asia After the Cold War," The Washington Quarterly 15 (Fall 1992), p. 173);
13. Ross Munro ("The Loser: India in the 1990s," The National Interest 32 (Summer 1993), p. 62);
14. Sandy Gordon ("South Asia After the Cold War: Winners and Losers," Asian Survey 35 (1995), p. 879) on different estimates of the region and the impact on the region of the end of the Cold War;
15. Chris Smith, India's Ad Hoc Arsenal: Direction or Drift in Defense Policy? (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994);
16. Thomas P. Thornton, U.S.-Pak, U.S.-Indian Relations after the Cold War;
17. Peter Rodman, More Precious Than Peace: The Cold War and the Struggle for the Third World (New York: C. Scribner and Sons, 1994).
18. See "The End of History?" in The National Interest 16 (Summer 1989): pp. 3-18.
19. For an expanded version see Fukuyama's subsequent book, The End of History and the Last Man (New York: Free Press, 1992).
20. Paul Kennedy, Preparing for the Twenty-First Century (New York: Random House, 1993), p. 324.
21. This was a crude effort by the Soviets to line up support for their invasion of Afghanistan. The Indian government and the Indian press, while strongly pro-Soviet, were unwilling to link India with the Soviet Asian initiative. See G. K. Reddy, "Brezhnev Unfolds New Asian Security Plan," The Hindu, December 20, 1980, for an account of a difficult meeting between Brezhnev and Indira Gandhi, then prime minister.
22. Richard Nations, "Moscow's New Tack," in Far Eastern Economic Review, August 14, 1986, pp. 30-4.
23. Mikhail Gorbachev's speech in Vladivostok, July 28, 1986, Foreign Broadcast Information Service (FBIS), USSR National Affairs, translated by Moscow Television Service, July 28, 1986.
24. I. K. Gujral, "India and the New Soviet World Outlook," reprinted in India Today, April 7, 1989.
25. For analyses of the changing nature of Washington's links with Islamabad at the turn of the decade, see Thomas P. Thornton, "The New Phase in U.S.-Pakistani Relations," Foreign Affairs 89 (Summer 1989): 142-159;
26. Rodney W. Jones, "Pakistan and the United States: Partners After Afghanistan," Washington Quarterly 12 (Summer 1989): pp. 65-87.
27. For an analysis of this rapidly changing regional security environment, see Rodney W. Jones, "Old Quarrels and New Realities."
28. For an overview of India's entanglement in Sri Lanka see Dilemmas of Indo-Sri Lankan Relations (Colombo: Bandaranaike Centre for International Studies, SWRD, 1991);
29. Rajesh Kadian, India's Sri Lanka Fiasco: Peace Keepers at War (New Delhi: Vision Books, 1990);
30. P. R. Chari, "The IPKF Experience in Sri Lanka," ACDIS Occasional Paper (Urbana, IL: Program in Arms Control, Disarmament, and International Security, 1994)
31. Depinder Singh, The IPKF in Sri Lanka (Noida, UP, India: Trishul Publications, 1991).
32. J. N. Dixit, Anatomy of a Flawed Inheritance: Indo-Pak Relations, 1970-1994 (Delhi: Konarak, 1995), p. 122.
33. Stephen P. Cohen, The Pakistan Army (Karachi: Oxford University Press, 1992), p. 146.
34. For a comprehensive Indian and Pakistani account of Simla, based upon interviews with many of the participants, see P. R. Chari and Pervaiz Iqbal Cheema, The Simla Agreement 1972: Its Wasted Promise (New Delhi: Manohar, 2001).
35. IISS, Strategic Survey, 1989-1990 (London: Brassey's for the International Institute for Strategic Studies, 1990), p. 166.
36. For a review of the "democratic peace" literature, see Steve Chan, "In Search of Democratic Peace: Problems and Promise," Mershon International Studies Review 41 (May 1997), pp. 59-91; and for an excellent summary
37. see Bruce Russett, Grasping the Democratic Peace: Principles for a Post-Cold War World (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993), pp. 30-5.
38. For the physical divisions of Kashmir, see S. M. Huda, "Economic Background of Kashmir," in Pakistan Horizon, 2 June, 1949;
39. Robert Wirsing, India, Pakistan, and the Kashmir Dispute: On Regional Conflict and Its Resolution (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1994);
40. Sumit Ganguly, The Crisis in Kashmir: Portents of War and Hopes of Peace (New York: Woodrow Wilson Center Press and Cambridge University Press, 1997).
41. For the text of the agreement, see Dorothy Woodman, Himalayan Frontiers: A Political Review of British, Chinese, Indian, and Russian Rivalries (New York: Praeger, 1969).
42. For the Pakistani perspective, see Pervaiz Iqbal Cheema, "Pakistan, India, and Kashmir: A Historical Review," in Perspectives on Kashmir: The Roots of Conflict in South Asia, ed. Raju G. C. Thomas (Boulder: Westview Press, 1992).
43. For a less-than-sympathetic discussion of the plight of the Pandits, see Sumanta Bose, The Challenge in Kashmir (New Delhi: Sage, 1997).
44. Sumit Ganguly, Origins of War in South Asia: The Indo-Pakistani Conflict Since 1947, second edition (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1994)
45. "Wars Without End? The Indo-Pakistani Conflict," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 541 (September 1995), pp. 167-78.
46. Ganguly, Origins of War in South Asia.
47. Also see Raju Thomas, Perspectives on Kashmir, for varying perspectives on what happened in 1947-8.
48. See the original letters of both the Maharaja of Kashmir and the acceptance letter of Lord Mountbatten in Josef Korbel, Danger in Kashmir (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1966), pp. 80-4.
49. G. W. Choudhury, Pakistan's Relations with India 1947-1966 (London: Pall Mall Press, 1968), pp. 106-7.
50. Choudhri, Muhammad Ali, The Emergence of Pakistan (New York: Columbia University Press, 1967), pp. 300-1.
51. See S. M. Burke, Pakistan's Foreign Policy: An Historical Analysis (Karachi: Oxford University Press, 1973), p. 29.
52. Choudhury, pp. 112-13.
53. See details of the ceasefire line in Robert Wirsing, India, Pakistan, and the Kashmir Dispute: On Regional Conflict and Its Resolution (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1994), pp. 61-8, 75-6.
54. Damodar R. Sardesai, "The Origins of Kashmir's International and Legal Status," in Raju G. C. Thomas, ed. Perspectives on Kashmir: The Roots of Conflict in South Asia (Boulder: Westview Press, 1992).
55. Stephen P. Cohen, "U.S.-Soviet Cooperation in South Asia," in Roger Kanet and Edward Kolodziej, eds., The Cold War as Cooperation (London: Macmillan, 1990, and Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991).
56. Brig A. Haroon, Kashmir Battles of 1948-1965-1971 and Ongoing Freedom Struggle (Lahore: 1995), p. 116.
57. For detailed analyses of the Simla agreement by the two co-authors of this book, see P. R. Chari and Pervaiz Iqbal Cheema, The Simla Agreement, 1972 (New Delhi: Manohar, 2001).
58. For the texts of various documents and statements associated with the Simla summit, see Chari and Cheema, The Simla Agreement, pp. 191ff.
59. Pervaiz Iqbal Cheema "The Kashmir Dispute and Peace of South Asia," Regional Studies XV (Winter 1996-7), pp. 170-88.
60. National Conference leaders G. M. Sadiq and Bakshi Ghulam Mohammed, for instance, preferred to remain with India. See Pran Chopra, MAG, October 19-25, 1989.
61. Khurshid Ahmed Mir, "Held Kashmir: Resistance and Liberation from India," Nation, November 3, 1989.
62. Ashutosh Varshney, "India, Pakistan, and Kashmir: Antinomies of Nationalism," Asian Survey 31 (November 1991), p. 1014.
63. M. J. Akbar, Kashmir: Behind the Vale (New Delhi: Viking, 1991), pp. 202-4.
64. W. H. Morris-Jones, "India After Indira: A Tale of Two Legacies," Third World Quarterly 7 (April 1985), p. 248.
65. Akbar, Behind the Vale, p. 207.
66. For an outside characterization of conditions in Kashmir during this period, see Asia Watch, Kashmir Under Siege: Human Rights in India (New York: Human Rights Watch, 1991).
67. Inderjit Badhwar, "A Tarnished Triumph," India Today, April 15, 1987, pp 76-8;
68. "Farooq Under Fire," India Today, September 15, 1987, pp. 42-7.
69. Akbar, Behind the Vale, p. 213.
70. The Kashmiri elites were always believed to be corrupt and nepotistic. Some observers estimate that more than 90 percent of the wealth in the state is in the hands of fewer than 200 families. For instance, see Rajesh Kadian, The Kashmir Tangle: Issues and Options (Boulder: Westview Press, 1993)
71. Tavleen Singh, Kashmir: A Tragedy of Errors (New Delhi: Viking, 1995). Given Farooq's lack of mandate, however, the corruption and inefficiency became politically significant. It allowed extremist opposition groups to come together against Farooq.
72. See Sumit Ganguly, The Crisis in Kashmir: Portents of War, Hopes for Peace (New York: Woodrow Wilson Center Press and Cambridge University Press, 1997).
73. Sumit Ganguly, "Avoiding War in Kashmir," Foreign Affairs 74 (Winter 1990-1), p. 64.
74. Wirsing, India, Pakistan and the Kashmir Dispute pp. 128-9.
75. This description is from Inderjit Badhwar, "Kashmir: Valley of Tears" in India Today, May 31, 1989, pp. 34-43.
76. Ved Marwah, Uncivil Wars: Pathology of Terrorism in India (New Delhi: HarperCollins Publishers, 1997), p. 60.
77. "Indianise Kashmir," India Today, September 30, 1989, p. 11.
78. Asia Watch (New York);
79. Kashmir Under Siege: Human Rights in India (New York: Human Rights Watch, May 1991), p. 13.
80. About the same time, on January 21, 1990, Pakistani Foreign Minister Sahibzada Yaqub Khan left for New Delhi ostensibly to convince India that the rebellion in Kashmir was truly indigenous. This important visit will be discussed later in Chapter 4. See Sikander Hayat, "Pakistan's Diplomatic Offensive on Kashmir," Frontier Post, January 22, 1990. New Delhi was also making statements about the "grave miscalculation" of aiding and abetting the uprising in Kashmir.
81. India Today, June 30, 1990, p. 71.
82. Marwah, pp. 78-9.
83. Ganguly, The Crisis in Kashmir, p. 108.
84. The Indian general responsible for creating the Siachen problem in the first place has discussed his actions publicly, and with some sense of regret. He apparently acted without full authority. See Lieutenant General M. L. Chibber, "Siachen - The Untold Story (A Personal Account)," Indian Defence Review, January 1990, pp. 89-95.
85. Robert G. Wirsing "The Kashmir Conflict," Current History 95 (April 1996), pp. 171-6.
86. Quoted in A. G. Noorani, "CBMs for the Siachen Glacier, Sir Creek and the Wular Barrage," in Crisis Prevention, Confidence Building, and Reconciliation in South Asia, eds. Michael Krepon and Amit Sevak (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1995), p. 81.
87. Asian Recorder, January 1-7, 1973, 11159, citing the Times of India, the Hindustan Times, and Radio Pakistan.
88. Robert G. Wirsing, Strategic Studies (Islamabad: The Institute of Strategic Studies) 41 (Autumn 1988).
89. Also see Robert G. Wirsing, Pakistan's Security Under Zia 1977-88: The Policy Imperatives of a Peripheral Asian State (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1991), pp. 143-94.
90. Lieutenant General M. L. Chibber, "Siachen - The Untold Story," pp. 89-95.
91. Noorani, "CBMs for the Siachen Glacier, Sir Creek and the Wular Barrage," p. 81.
92. Chibber, "Siachen - The Untold Story," pp. 87-88.
93. See Robert Wirsing, India, Pakistan and the Kashmir Dispute, pp. 204-6.
94. Sumit Ganguly, The Crisis in Kashmir, pp. 36-7.
95. The works of the fine Kashmiri anthropologist, T. N. Madan, who has devoted his life to the study of Kashmiri society, are uniquely valuable. See T. N. Madan, Family and Kinship: A Study of the Pandits of Rural Kashmir (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989);
96. Muslim Communities of South Asia: Culture, Society, and Power (New Delhi: Manohar, 1995);
97. Culture and Development (New York: Oxford University Press, 1983).
98. The classic expression of this position is by Jagmohan, who served (twice) as governor of Jammu and Kashmir. His memoir-analysis, My Frozen Turbulence in Kashmir (New Delhi: Allied, 1991) is a monumental defense of his own role in these events, but also contains much useful information and some misinformation about events in New Delhi, Kashmir, and Pakistan.
99. India Today, June 30, 1990, p. 71.
100. Inderjit Badhwar, "Asserting Authority," India Today, February 28, 1990, p. 31.
101. Marwah, pp. 76-7.
102. See Pankaj Pachauri and Zafar Meraj, "Drifting Dangerously," India Today, January 15, 1990, pp. 8-13;
103. Shekhar Gupta, "Militant Siege," India Today (international edition) January 31, 1990, pp. 30-7.
104. "Kashmir: Echoes of War," The Economist, January 27, 1990, p. 33;
105. "Kashmir: Fighting Words," The Economist, February 3, 1990, p. 32.
106. Gupta, "Militant Siege," p. 34.
107. For a U.S. account of the damage to the Third World caused by the Cold War - written by one of the leading U.S. strategists of the Cold War - see Peter Rodman, More Precious than Peace: The Cold War and the Struggle for the Third World (New York: C. Scribner and Sons, 1994).
108. For a detailed and systematic analysis of steps undertaken by India to erode the special status of Kashmir, see Pervaiz Iqbal Cheema, "India's Kashmir Policy" in Perspectives on Kashmir, ed. Dr. K. F. Yusuf (Islamabad: Pakistan Forum, 1994), pp. 97-108.
109. Michael Krepon and Mishi Faruqee, eds., "Conflict Prevention and Confidence-Building Measures in South Asia: The 1990 Crisis," Occasional Paper No. 17 (Washington, D.C.: The Henry L. Stimson Center, April 1994), p. 5. This is the transcript of a meeting convened by the Stimson Center to discuss the 1990 crisis. Participants included the U.S. ambassadors to New Delhi and Islamabad in 1990 and several South Asian diplomats and military officers.
110. See, for example, "The Enemy Within," India Today (editorial), March 31, 1990, p. 11;
111. Sumit Ganguly, "Avoiding War in Kashmir," Foreign
112. M. J. Akbar, Kashmir: Behind the Vale (New Delhi: Viking, 1991), p. 215;
113. "Crossfire: Kashmir," India Today, August 31, 1991, pp. 77-87;
114. George Fernandes, "India's Policies in Kashmir: An Assessment and Discourse,"
115. Jagat Mehta, "Resolving Kashmir in the International Context of the 1990s," in Perspectives on Kashmir: The Roots of Conflict in South Asia, ed. Raju G. C. Thomas (Boulder: Westview, 1992), pp. 286, 394-5;
116. Alastair Lamb, Kashmir:A Disputed Legacy, 1846-1990 (Karachi: Oxford University Press, 1993), pp. 332, 340.
117. Krepon and Faruqee, "The 1990 Crisis," p. 6.
118. J. N. Dixit, Anatomy of a Flawed Inheritance: Indo-Pak Relations, 1970-1994 (Delhi: Konarak, 1995), p. 125.
119. India Today, January 31, 1990.
120. B. G. Deshmukh, "The Inside Story," India Today, February 28, 1994, p. 62.
121. Shirin Tahir-Kheli, "Lessons for the Future: The Gates Mission to India and Pakistan" (unpublished manuscript), p. 6.
122. Krepon and Faruqee, "The 1990 Crisis," p. 6.
123. India Today, February 28, 1990.
124. India Today, January 31, 1990.
125. Malcolm Davidson, "Bhutto Says Pakistan Does Not Want War With India Over Kashmir," Reuters Library Report, February 10, 1990.
126. The Muslim, January 11, 1990.
127. Quoted in Tariq Butt, "Comment," The Muslim, January 25, 1990.
128. Hussain, Frontier Post, January 29, 1990.
129. See The Muslim, "Policy on Kashmir," February 1, 1990.
130. Sikander Hayat, "Vigilant Eyes on Kashmir Control Line," Frontier Post, January 29, 1990.
131. Far Eastern Economic Review, May 17, 1990, p. 11.
132. S. Viswam and Salamat Ali, "Vale of Tears," Far Eastern Economic Review, February 8, 1990, pp. 19-21.
133. Raja Asghar, "Bhutto Predicts Victory for Kashmir Independence Campaign," Reuters Library Report, March 13, 1990.
134. Moses Manoharan, "Indian Leader Tells Pakistan to Stay Out of Kashmir Uprising," Reuters Library Report, March 13, 1990.
135. "Crush Pak Camps: BJP," Times of India, April 8, 1990.
136. David Housego, "India Urged to Attack Camps in Pakistan Over Strife in Kashmir," Financial Times, April 9, 1990.
137. See Far Eastern Economic Review, April 26, 1990, 10-11;
138. David Housego and Zafar Meraj, "Indian Premier Warns of Danger of Kashmir War," Financial Times, April 11, 1990;
139. Coomi Kapoor, "Indian Threat of Armed Reprisals," The Times (London), April 11, 1990;
140. Tony Allen-Mills, "India Ready for War After Hostages Are Executed," The Independent (London), April 12, 1990;
141. Mark Fineman, "India's Leader Warns of an Attack by Pakistan," Los Angeles Times, April 15, 1990;
142. "VP Urges Nation to Be Ready as Pak Troops Move to Border," Times of India, April 11, 1990.
143. "Unwarranted Bellicosity," Dawn (Karachi), April 12, 1990.
144. See "Conflict Prevention," Krepon and Faruqee, pp. 17-22.
145. "Indian Threats Demand Vigilance," Dawn (Karachi), April 12, 1990;
146. James Clad and Salamat Ali, "Will Words Lead to War?" Far Eastern Economic Review, April 26, 1990, pp. 10-11;
147. Malcolm Davidson, "Pakistan Condemns Indian Premier's Talk of War Over Kashmir," Reuters Library Report, April 11, 1990;
148. Malcolm Davidson, "Kashmir Row Sparks Dangerous Period for India and Pakistan," Reuters Library Report, April 13, 1990;
149. "Pakistan Ready to Meet Indian Invasion, Minister Says," Reuters Library Report, April 14, 1990.
150. Comment by Inder Malhotra, Times of India, June 14, 1990.
151. Economic Times, May 18, 1993.
152. Gen. (ret.) V. N. Sharma, "It's All Bluff and Bluster," Economic Times (Bombay), May 18, 1993.
153. Devin Hagerty's chapter on "Nuclear Weapons and the Kashmir Crisis" in The Theory and Practice of Nuclear Deterrence in South Asia (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, 1995), pp. 217-80.
154. Mushahid Hussain, "Pakistan 'Responding to Change'," Jane's Defense Weekly, October 14, 1989, 779;
155. Malcolm Davidson, "Pakistani Army Chief Vows to Stay Out of Politics," Reuters Library Report, December 10, 1989.
156. For a full account of the Brasstacks exercise see Bajpai et al. Beyond Brasstacks: Perception and Management of Crisis in South Asia (New Delhi: Manohar, 1995).
157. For a hawkish Indian interpretation, see Ravi Rikhye, The War that Never Was (New Delhi: Chanakya Publications, 1988).
158. Salamat Ali, "The Counter-Punch," Far Eastern Economic Review, October 26, 1989, pp. 25.
159. Pakistan Times, November 30, 1989.
160. Frontier Post, December 25, 1989.
161. B. G. Deshmukh, "The Inside Story," India Today, February 28, 1994, p. 63.
162. K. Subrahmanyam in Kashmir in India and Pakistan: Crisis of Relationship, ed. Air Commodore Jasjit Singh (New Delhi: Lancer Publishers, 1990), p. 123.
163. Deshmukh, "The Inside Story," p. 63.
164. The Nation, October 21, 1989.
165. Washington Post, April 14, 1990.
166. "Indian Troops Reinforced Near Kashmir Border With Pakistan," Reuters Library Report, April 12, 1990.
167. Steve Coll, "Indian Troops, Separatist Violence Aggravate Kashmir Crisis," Washington Post, April 13, 1990.
168. Los Angeles Times, April 15, 1990, p. 47.
169. Mark Fineman, "The Makings of a Bloody, Old-Fashioned War," The Economist, April 21, 1990, p. 35.
170. Steve Coll, "Assault on Pakistan Gains Favor in India," Washington Post, April 15, 1990.
171. Mark Fineman, "India's Leader Warns of an Attack by Pakistan," Los Angeles Times, April 15, 1990, A7;
172. "Indian Forces Battle Moslems in Kashmir," Chicago Tribune, April 16, 1990.
173. "If Pushed Beyond a Point By Pakistan, We Will Retaliate," India Today, April 30, 1990, p. 76.
174. Subhash Chakravarti and Amit Roy, "Militants Fan War Fever Over Kashmir," Sunday Times (London), April 15, 1990;
175. Clad and Ali, "Will Words Lead to War?"
176. James Clad, "Valley of Violence," Far Eastern Economic Review, May 24, 1990, 22;
177. Zahid Hussain, "Protest Flag Becomes Focus of Kashmir Border Strife," The Times (London), April 24, 1990;
178. Ahmed Rashid, "Kashmir Talks Too Far Off to Ease Rising Tensions," The Independent (London), April 16, 1990;
179. Jose Katigbak, "Indo-Pakistan Border Violations on the Rise, Says UN." Reuters Library Report, April 23, 1990.
180. Rashid, "Rising Tensions;"
181. Christopher Lockwood, Daily Telegraph (London), April 20, 1990;
182. Salamat Ali, "Avoiding Action," Far Eastern Economic Review, May 3, 1990, p. 26.
183. Lockwood, Daily Telegraph;
184. Mark Fineman, "Nervous Pakistanis Watch 'the Wall' and Indian Troops," Los Angeles Times, 20 April 1990;
185. Ali, "Avoiding Action," p. 26.
186. Ali, "Avoiding Action," p. 26.
187. Malcolm Davidson, "Pakistani General Says More Indian Troops Deployed Near Border," Reuters Library Report, 19 April 1990.
188. Krepon and Faruqee, "The 1990 Crisis," p. v.
189. Deshmukh, "The Inside Story," p. 63.
190. Krepon and Faruqee, "The 1990 Crisis," pp. 13-19.
191. Yojana Sharma "China: Fears of Separatism Sharpen," Inter Press Service, February 21, 1990;
192. Shekhar Gupta, "Turning Down the Heat," India Today, May 15, 1990;
193. Deshmukh, "The Inside Story."
194. UPI, April 18, 1990.
195. Times of India, April 8, 1990;
196. Chicago Tribune, April 16, 1990;
197. Washington Post, April 18, 1990.
198. Daily Telegraph, April 17, 1990.
199. Reuters Library Report, April 19, 1990.
200. Daily Telegraph, April 19, 1990.
201. The Times (London), April 24, 1990.
202. India Today, May 15, 1990.
203. Reuters Library Report, April 26, 1990.
204. Also see Al Kamen, "U.S. Voices Concern Over Kashmir," Washington Post, April 19, 1990.
205. The Muslim, January 7, 1990.
206. Indian Express, May 20, 1990.
207. See, for example, the story by a well-informed Pakistani academic, Syed Riffat Hussain, "Benazir's Downfall: The International Dimension," The News, August 10, 1991.
208. Devin Hagerty, "Nuclear Weapons and the Kashmir Crisis," in Theory and Practice of Nuclear Deterrence in South Asia (University of Pennsylvania, 1995), pp. 261-2.
209. The Muslim, May 17, 1990.
210. See also, Chicago Tribune, May 17, 1990.
211. The Hindu, May 17, 1990.
212. M. Ziauddin, "U.S. Envoy Holds Talks on Kashmir," United Press International, May 20, 1990.
213. Seymour M. Hersh, "On the Nuclear Edge," New Yorker, March 29, 1993, 67-8;
214. comments of Oakley and the U.S. ambassador to New Delhi, William Clark, in "Conflict Prevention and Confidence Building Measures in South Asia: The 1990 Crisis," Occasional Paper 17 ed. Michael Krepon and Mishi Faruqee (Washington, D.C.: The Henry Stimson Center, 1994), pp. 4, 8-9;
215. John F. Burns, "U.S. Urges Pakistan to Settle Feud With India Over Kashmir," New York Times, May 21, 1990. Pakistani officials later denied that they agreed to shut down any training camps.
216. Krepon and Faruqee, "The 1990 Crisis," p. 8.
217. The Hindu, May 21, 1990.
218. UPI, May 16, 1990.
219. B. G. Deshmukh, "The Inside Story," India Today, February 28, 1994, p. 62.
220. Daily Telegraph, May 22, 1997.
221. India Today, June 15, 1990.
222. Xinhua General News Service, June 3, 1990.
223. Times of India, June 8, 1990.
224. Devin Hagerty, Theory and Practice of Nuclear Deterrence in South Asia, p. 15.
225. Robert M. Gates, "The CIA's Little-Known Resume," New York Times, October 29, 1998.
226. Burrows and Windrem, Critical Mass, pp. 16-17.
227. "Regional Issues in the Upcoming U.S.-Soviet Summit," White House Background Briefing, Federal News Service, May 24, 1990.
228. Krepon and Faruqee, "The 1990 Crisis," p. 4.
229. Krepon and Faruqee, "The 1990 Crisis."
230. The Muslim, May 17, 1990.
231. Japan Times, May 1, 1990.
232. Dawn, May 3, 1990.
233. Josef Korbel, Danger in Kashmir (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1966).
234. For a Pakistani journalist's account of the program, based on interviews with many key participants, see Shahid-ur-Rahman, Long Road to Chagai (Islamabad: Print-Wise Publications, 1999).
235. For a survey of the Pakistani program, see Stephen P. Cohen, The Pakistan Army (revised edition:Karachi: Oxford University Press, 1998).
236. Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto, "Deterrence against Aggression," Chapter 16 in The Myth of Independence (New York: Oxford University Press, 1969).
237. See Stephen P. Cohen, The Pakistan Army, pp. 153, 155.
238. For two comprehensive studies of poll data, especially commissioned for the purpose, see David Cortright and Amitabh Mattoo, eds., India and the Bomb: Public Opinion and Nuclear Options (Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1996)
239. David Cortright and Samina Ahmed, eds., Pakistan and the Bomb: Public Opinion and Nuclear Options (Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1998).
240. Raj Chengappa, Weapons of Peace (New Delhi: HarperCollins, 2000), p. 357.
241. K. Subrahmanyam, "Indian Nuclear Policy - 1964-98 (A Personal Recollection)," in Jasjit Singh, ed., Nuclear India (New Delhi: Knowledge World and the Institute for Defence Studies and Analysis, 1998), p. 44.
242. The term strategic enclave was coined by Itty Abraham and further developed by George Perkovich. See Abraham, The Making of the Indian Atomic Bomb: Science, Secrecy and the Postcolonial State (New York: Zed Books, 1998)
243. George Perkovich, India's Nuclear Bomb: The Impact on Global Proliferation (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999).
244. Cohen, The Pakistan Army, p. 154.
245. Kuldip Nayar interview with Pakistani nuclear scientist A. Q. Khan, The Observer, March 1, 1987;
246. President Mohammad Zia-ul-Haq in "Knocking at the Nuclear Door," Time, March 30, 1987.
247. K. Subrahmanyam, "Capping, Managing, or Eliminating Nuclear Weapons?" In South Asia After the Cold War, ed. Kanti P. Bajpai and Stephen P. Cohen (Boulder: Westview, 1993), p. 184.
248. The Consequences of Nuclear Proliferation: Lessons from South Asia (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press), pp. 167-8.
249. Abdul Sattar, "Reducing Nuclear Dangers in South Asia," Regional Studies (Islamabad) 8 (Winter 1994-5), p. 9.
250. See "Ex-President Discusses Nuclear Program, Politics," Foreign Broadcast Information Service Daily Report, Near East and South Asia, July 26, 1993, pp. 69-71;
251. "General Beg Claims Country Conducted 'Cold' Nuclear Test," Foreign Broadcast Information Service, Daily Report, Near East and South Asia, August 3, 1993, p. 56.
252. "General Mirza Aslam Beg's Major Presentations," Defense Journal (June-July 1991), p. 41.
253. Hersh, "On the Nuclear Edge," pp. 56, 62-4, 66, 67, 57.
254. James Adams, "Pakistan 'Nuclear War Threat'," Sunday Times, May 27, 1990.
255. Hamish McDonald, "Destroyer of Worlds," Far Eastern Economic Review, April 30, 1992, p. 24.
256. Burrows and Windrem, pp. 61-2, 82.
257. Michael Krepon and Mishi Faruqee, eds., "Conflict Prevention and Confidence Building Measures in South Asia: The 1990 Crisis," Occasional Paper 17 (Washington, D.C.: The Stimson Center, 1994), pp. 21-2.
258. Gen. (ret.) V. N. Sharma, "It's All Bluff and Bluster," Economic Times (Bombay), May 18, 1993.
259. Lessons for the real world 1 Shekhar Gupta, "Benazir Bhutto: Playing with Fire," India Today, May 31, 1990.
260. Devin Hagerty's chapter "Nuclear Weapons and the Kashmir Crisis," in The Theory and Practice of Nuclear Deterrence in South Asia" (University of Pennsylvania, 1995).
261. See Ved Marwah, Uncivil War: Pathology of Terrorism in India (New Delhi: HarperCollins, 1997), 367 Annexures.
262. For an overview of the many India-Pakistan conflicts, see Sumit Ganguly, Conflicts Unending (New York: Columbia University Press, 2002)
263. A study of the 2001-2 crisis, see Stephen Philip Cohen, "South Asia Amid Crisis," in Richard Ellings and Aaron L. Friedberg, eds., Strategic Asia, 2002-03 (Seattle: National Bureau of Asian Research, 2002).