Source apportionment of atmospheric PM2.5-bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons by a PMF receptor model. Assessment of potential risk for human health

Environmental Pollution

Volumn 195, Issue , 2014, Pages 167-177

  Callén, María Soledad ^a   Iturmendi, Amaia ^a   López, José Manuel ^a  

^a INSTITUTO DE CARBOQUÍMICA   (Spain)

Author keywords

BaP TEQ; PAH; PM2.5; PMF; Risk assessment

Indexed keywords

AIR POLLUTANT; COAL; EXHAUST GAS; PARTICULATE MATTER; POLYCYCLIC AROMATIC HYDROCARBON;

AIR POLLUTANT; AIR POLLUTION; ANALYSIS; CHEMICAL MODEL; ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING; EXHAUST GAS; HEALTH; HUMAN; PARTICULATE MATTER; RISK ASSESSMENT; SEASON; SPAIN;

AIR POLLUTANTS; AIR POLLUTION; COAL; ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING; HEALTH; HUMANS; MODELS, CHEMICAL; PARTICULATE MATTER; POLYCYCLIC HYDROCARBONS, AROMATIC; RISK ASSESSMENT; SEASONS; SPAIN; VEHICLE EMISSIONS;

EID: 84907464512     PISSN: 02697491     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2014.08.025     Document Type: Article

References (94)

1. Akyu¨z, M., C¸abuk, H.C., 2009. Meteorological variations of PM2.5/PM10 concentrations and particle-associated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the atmospheric environment of Zonguldak, Turkey. J. Hazard. Mater. 170, 13-21.
2. Ames, B.N., Sims, P.S., Grover, P.L., 1972. Epoxides of carcinogenic polycyclic hydrocarbons are frame shift mutagens. Science 176, 47.
3. Anastasopoulos, A.T., Wheeler, A.J., Karman, D., Kulka, R.H., 2012. Intraurban concentrations, spatial variability and correlation of ambient polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) and PM2.5. Atmos. Environ. 59, 272-283.
4. ATSDR, Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR), December 1990. Public Health Statement, Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons. U.S. Public Health Service, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Atlanta, GA.
5. Augusto, S., Pereira, M.J., Maguas, C., Branquinho, C., 2013. A step towards the use of biomonitors as estimators of atmospheric PAH for regulatory purposes. Chemosphere 92, 626-632.
6. Barrado, A.I., García, S., Barrado, E., Pérez, R.M., 2012. PM2.5-bound PAHs and hydroxy-PAHs in atmospheric aerosol samples: correlations with season and with physical and chemical factors. Atmos. Environ. 49, 224-232.
7. Beyer, A., Wania, F., Gouin, T., Mackay, D., Matthies, M., 2003. Temperature dependence of the characteristic travel distance. Environ. Sci. Technol. 37 (4), 766-771.
8. Buzcu-Guven, B., Brown, S.G., Frankel, A., Hafner, H.R., Roberts, P.T., 2007. Analysis and apportionment of organic carbon and fine particulate matter sources at multiple sites in the midwestern United States. J. Air Waste Manag. Assoc. 57, 606-619.
9. Callén, M.S., de la Cruz, M.T., López, J.M., Murillo, R., Navarro, M.V., Mastral, A.M., 2008a. Long-range atmospheric transport and local pollution sources on PAH concentrations in a South-European urban area. Fulfilling of the European Directive. Chemosphere 73, 1357-1365.
10. Callén, M.S., de la Cruz, M.T., López, J.M., Murillo, R., Navarro, M.V., Mastral, A.M., 2008b. Some inferences on the mechanism of atmospheric gas-particle partitioning of PAH at Zaragoza (Spain). Chemosphere 73, 1357-1365.
11. Callén, M.S., de la Cruz, M.T., López, J.M., Navarro, M.V., Mastral, A.M., 2009. Comparison of receptor models for source apportionment of the PM10 in Zaragoza (Spain). Chemosphere 76, 1120-1129.
12. Callén, M.S., López, J.M., Mastral, A.M., 2013. Influence of organic and inorganic markers in the source apportionment of airborne PM10 in Zaragoza (Spain) by two receptor models. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 20, 3240-3251.
13. Callén, M.S., Iturmendi, A., López, J.M., Mastral, A.M., 2014. Source apportionment of the carcinogenic potential of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) associated to airborne PM10 by a PMF model. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 21, 2064-2076.
14. Cass, G.R., 1998. Organic molecular tracers for particulate air pollution sources. Trends Anal. Chem. 17 (6), 356-366.
15. Chueinta, W., Hopke, P.K., Paatero, P., 2000. Investigation of sources of atmospheric aerosol urban and suburban residential areas in Thailand by positive matrix factorization. Atmos. Environ. 34 (20), 3319-3329.
16. Contini, D., Gambaro, A., Belosi, F., De Pieri, S., Cairns,W.R.L., Donateo, A., Zanotto, E., Citron, M., 2011. The direct influence of ship traffic on atmospheric PM2.5, PM10 and PAH in Venice. J. Environ. Manag. 92, 2119-2129.
17. DeMarini, D., Brooks, L., Warren, S., Kobayashi, T., Gilmour, M., Singh, P., 2004. Bioassay-directed fractionation and salmonella mutagenicity of automobile and forklift diesel exhaust particles. Environ. Health Perspect. 112, 814-819.
18. Directive 2004/107/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 15 December 2004 relating to arsenic, cadmium, mercury, nickel and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in ambient air.
19. Directive 2008/50/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 21 May 2008 on ambient air quality and cleaner air for Europe.
20. Durant, J.L., Busby, W.F., Lafleur, A.L., Penman, B.W., Crespi, C.L., 1996. Human cell mutagenicity of oxygenated, nitrated and unsubstituted polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons associated with urban aerosols. Mutat. Res Genet. Toxicol. 371, 123-157.
21. Durant, J., Lafleur, A., Busby, W., Donhoffner, L., Penman, B., Crespi, C., 1999. Mutagenicity of C24H14 PAH in human cells expressing CYP1A1. Mutat. Res Genet. Toxicol. En. 446, 1-14.
22. Eberly, S.I., 2005. EPA PMF 1.1 User's Guide. US Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC.
23. Eeftens, M., Tsai, M.-Y., Ampe, C., Anwander, B., Beelen, R., Bellander, T., Cesaroni, G., Cirach, M., Cyrys, J., de Hoogh, K., De Nazelle, A., de Vocht, F., Declercq, C., et al., 2012. Spatial variations of PM2.5, PM10, PM2.5 absorbance and PMcoarse concentrations between and within 20 European study areas and the relationship with NO2. Results of the ESCAPE project. Atmos. Environ. 62, 303-317.
24. EEA Report, 2012. European Environmental Agency Report, Air Quality in Europe-2012 Report. ISSN 1725-9177, Denmark, ISBN 978-92-9213-328-3. http:// dx.doi.org/10.2800/55823.
25. Fang, G.C., Chang, C.N., Wu, Y.S., Fu, P.C., Yang, I.L., Chen, M.H., 2004. Characterization, identification of ambient air and road dust polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in central Taiwan, Taichung. Sci. Total Environ. 327, 135-146.
26. Fang, G.C.,Wu, Y.S., Chen, J.C., Rau, J.Y., Huang, S.H., Lin, C.K., 2006. Concentrations of ambient air particulates (TSP, PM2.5 and PM2.5-10) and ionic species at offshore areas near Taiwan Strait. J. Hazard. Mater. B132, 269-276.
27. Harvey, R.G., 1997. Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons. John Wiley & Sons, New York.
28. HEI, Review Panel on Ultrafine Particles, 2013. Understanding the Health Effects of Ambient Ultrafine Particles. HEI Perspectives 3. Health Effects Institute, Boston, MA.
29. Henry, R.C., 1997. History and fundamentals of multivariate air quality receptor models. Chemom. Intell. Lab. Syst. 37, 37-42.
30. Hopke, P.K., Ito, K., Mar, T., Christensen, W.F., Eatough, D.J., Henry, R.C., Kim, E., Laden, F., Lall, R., Larson, T.V., Liu, H., Neas, L., Pinto, J., Stolzel, M., Suh, H., Paatero, P., Thurston, G.D., 2006. Intercomparison of source apportionment results. J. Expo. Sci. Environ. Epidemiol. 16, 275-286.
31. Hou, X., Zhuang, G., Sun, Y., An, Z., 2006. Characteristics and sources of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and fatty acids in PM2.5 aerosols in dust season in China. Atmos. Environ. 40, 3251-3262.
32. IP/08/570, 14 April 2008. Environment: Commission Welcomes Final Adoption of the Air Quality Directive. Brussels.
33. Kavouras, I.G., Koutrakis, P., Tsapakis, M., Lagoudaki, E., Stephanou, E.G., Von Baer, D., Oyola, P., 2001. Source apportionment of urban particulate aliphatic and polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) using multivariate methods. Environ. Sci. Technol. 35, 2288-2294.
34. Khan, Md.F., Shirasuna, Y., Hirano, K., Masunaga, S., 2010. Characterization of PM2.5, PM2.5-10 and PM>10 in ambient air, Yokohama, Japan. Atmos. Res. 96, 159-172.
35. Kitazawa, A., Amagai, T., Ohura, T., 2006. Temporal trends and relationships of particulate chlorinated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and their parent compounds in urban air. Environ. Sci. Technol. 40, 4592-4598.
36. Kong, S., Ding, X., Bai, Z., Han, B., Chen, L., Shi, J., Li, Z., 2010. A seasonal study of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in PM2.5 and PM2.5-10 in five typical cities of Liaoning Province, China. J. Hazard. Mater. 183 (1-3), 70-80.
37. Kulkarni, P., Venkataraman, C., 2000. Atmospheric polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in Mumbai, India. Atmos. Environ. 34, 2785-2790.
38. Kulshrestha, A., Satsangi, P.G., Masih, J., Taneja, A., 2009. Metal concentration of PM2.5 and PM10 particles and seasonal variations in urban and rural environment of Agra, India. Sci. Total Environ. 407, 6196-6204.
39. Larsen III, R.K., Baker, J.E., 2003. Source apportionment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the urban atmosphere: a comparison of three methods. Environ. Sci. Technol. 37, 1873-1881.
40. Larsen, J.C., Larsen, P.B., 1998. Chemical carcinogens. In: Hester, R.E., Harrison, R.M. (Eds.), Air Pollution and Health. Royal Society of Chemistry, Cambridge, UK, pp. 33-56.
41. Lee, J.H., Gigliotti, C.L., Offenberg, J.H., Eisenreich, S.J., Turpin, B.J., 2004. Sources of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons to the Hudson River Airshed. Atmos. Environ. 38, 5971-5981.
42. Li, C., Kamens, R.M., 1993. The use of PAH as source signatures in receptor modeling. Atmos. Environ. A 27, 523-532.
43. Li, G., Xia, X., Yang, Z., Wang, R., Voulvoulis, N., 2006. Distribution and sources of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River, China. Environ. Pollut. 144, 985-993.
44. Li, Z., Porter, E.N., Sjo¨din, A., Needham, L.L., Lee, S., Russell, A.G., Mulholland, J.A., 2009. Characterization of PM2.5-bounded polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in Atlanta seasonal variations at urban, suburban and rural ambient air monitoring sites. Atmos. Environ. 43, 4187-4193.
45. Liu, W., Hopke, P.K., Han, Y., Yi, S., Holsen, T.M., Cybart, S., Kozlowski, K., Milligan, M., 2003. Application of receptor modeling to atmospheric constituents at Potsdam and Stockton, NY. Atmos. Environ. 37, 4997-5007.
46. Liu, Y., Chen, L., Huang, Q.-H., Li, W.-Y., Tang, Y.-J., Zhao, J.-F., 2009. Source apportionment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in surface sediments of the Huangpu River, Shanghai, China. Sci. Total Environ. 407, 2931-2938.
47. López Cancio, J.A., Castellano, A.V., Trujillo, R.N., Jimenez, J.C., 2002. Particle phase concentrations of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the atmosphere environment of Jinamar, Gran Canaria. Water Air Soil Pollut. 136, 93-103.
48. Luch, A., 2005. The Carcinogenic Effects of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons. Imperial College Press, London, ISBN 1-86094-417-5.
49. Martellini, T., Giannoni, M., Lepri, L., Katsoyiannis, A., Cincinelli, A., 2012. One year intensive PM2.5 bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons monitoring in the area of Tuscany, Italy. Concentrations, source understanding and implications. Environ. Pollut. 164, 252-258.
50. Masiol, M., Hofer, A., Squizzato, S., Piazza, R., Rampazzo, G., Pavoni, B., 2012. Carcinogenic and mutagenic risk associated to airborne particle-phase polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: a source apportionment. Atmos. Environ. 60, 375-382.
51. Mastral, A.M., López, J.M., Callén, M.S., García, T., Murillo, R., Navarro, M.V., 2003. Spatial and temporal PAH concentrations in Zaragoza, Spain. Sci. Total Environ. 307, 111-124.
52. Mugica-Álvarez, V., Figueroa-Lara, J., Romero-Romo, M., Sepúlveda-Sánchez, J., López-Moreno, T., 2012. Concentrations and properties of airborne particles in the Mexico City subway system. Atmos. Environ. 49, 284-293.
53. Ohura, T., Amagai, T., Sugiyama, T., Fusava, M., Matsushita, H., 2004. Characteristics of particle matter and associated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in indoor and outdoor air in two cities in Shizuoka, Japan. Atmos. Environ. 38, 2045-2054.
54. Ostro, B., Feng, W.Y., Broadwin, R., Green, S., Lipsett, M., 2007. The effects of components of fine particulate air pollution on mortality in California: results from CALFINE. Environ. Health Perspect. 115, 13-19.
55. Ozeki, T., Koide, K., Kimoto, T., 1995. Evaluation of sources of acidity in rainwater using a constrained oblique rotational factor analysis. Environ. Sci. Technol. 29, 1638-1645.
56. Paatero, P., 1997. Least squares formulation of robust, nonnegative factor analysis. Chemom. Intell. Lab. Syst. 37, 23-35.
57. Paatero, P., Hopke, P.K., 2002. Utilizing wind direction and wind speed as independent variables in multilinear receptor modeling studies. Chemom. Intell. Lab. Syst. 60, 25-41.
58. Paatero, P., Hopke, P.K., 2003. Discarding or downweighting high-noise variables in factor analytic models. Anal. Chim. Acta 490, 277-289.
59. Paatero, P., Hopke, P.K., Begum, B.A., Biswas, S.K., 2005. A graphical diagnostic method for assessing the rotation in factor analytical models of atmospheric pollution. Atmos. Environ. 39, 193-201.
60. Panther, B.C., Hooper, M.A., Tapper, N.J., 1999. A comparison of air particulate matter and associated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in some tropical and temperate urban environments. Atmos. Environ. 33, 4087-4099.
61. Pateraki, St., Asimakopoulos, D.N., Flocas, H.A., Maggos, Th., Vasilakos, Ch., 2012. The role of meteorology on different sized aerosol fractions (PM10, PM2.5, PM2.5-10). Sci. Total Environ. 419, 124-135.
62. Penttinen, P., Timonen, K.L., Tittanen, P., Mirme, A., Ruuskanen, J., Pekkanen, J., 2001. Number concentration and size of particles in urban air: effects on spirometric lung function in adult asthmatic subjects. Environ. Health Perspect. 109 (4), 319-323.
63. Polissar, A.V., Hopke, P.K., Malm, W.C., Sisler, J.F., 1998. Atmospheric aerosol over Alaska: 2. Elemental composition and sources. J. Geophys. Res. 103, 19,045-19,057.
64. Pope III, C.A., Dockery, D.W., 2006. Health effects of fine particulate air pollution lines that Connect e 2006 critical review. J. Air Waste Manag. Assoc. 6, 709-742.
65. Querol, X., Alastuey, A., Moreno, T., Viana, M.M., Castillo, S., Pey, J., Rodriguez, S., Artiñano, B., Salvador, P., Sánchez, M., García Dos Santos, S., Herce Garraleta, M.D., Fernández-Patier, R., Moreno-Grau, S., Negral, L., Minguillón, M.C., Monforte, E., Sanz, M.J., et al., 2008. Spatial and temporal variations in airborne particulate matter (PM10 and PM2.5) across Spain 1999-2005. Atmos. Environ. 42, 3964-3979.
66. Ramirez, N., Cuadras, A., Rovira, E., Marcé, R.M., Borrull, F., 2011. Risk assessment related to atmospheric polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in gas and particle phases near industrial sites. Environ. Health Perspect. 119 (8), 1110-1116.
67. Ravindra, K., Mittal, A.K., Van Grieken, R., 2001. Health risk assessment of urban suspended particulate matter with special reference to Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons: a review. Rev. Environ. Health 16, 169-189.
68. Ravindra, K., Sokhi, R., Grieken, R.V., 2008. Atmospheric polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: source attribution, emission factors and regulation. Atmos. Environ. 42, 2895-2921.
69. Riddle, S.G., Jakober, C.A., Robert, M.A., Cahill, T.M., Charles, M.J., Kleeman, M.J., 2007. Large PAHs detected in fine particulate matter emitted from light-duty gasoline vehicles. Atmos. Environ. 41, 8658-8668.
70. Sanderson, E.G., Raqbi, A., Vyskocil, A., Farant, J.P., 2004. Comparison of particulate polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon profiles in different regions of Canada. Atmos. Environ. 38, 3417-3429.
71. San José, R., Pérez, J.L., Callén, M.S., López, J.M., Mastral, A., 2013. BaP (PAH) air quality modelling exercise over Zaragoza (Spain) using an adapted version of WRF-CMAQ model. Environ. Pollut. 183, 151-158.
72. Schauer, J.J., Rogge,W.F., Hildemann, L.M., Mazurek, M.A., Cass, G.R., Simoneit, B.R.T., 1996. Source apportionment of airborne particulate matter using organic compounds as tracers. Atmos. Environ. 30 (22), 3837-3855.
73. Seagrave, J., McDonald, J., Gigliotti, A., Nikula, K., Seilkop, S., Gurevich, M., Mauderly, J., 2002. Mutagenicity and in vivo toxicity of combined particulate and semivolatile organic fractions of gasoline and diesel engine emissions. Toxicol. Sci. 70, 212-226.
74. Simcik, M.F., Eisenreich, S.J., Lioy, P.J., 1999. Source apportionment and source/sink relationships of PAH in the coastal atmosphere of Chicago and Lake Michigan. Atmos. Environ. 33, 5071-5079.
75. Sitaras, L.E., Bakeas, E.B., Siskos, P.A., 2004. Gas/particle partitioning of seven volatile polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in a heavy traffic urban area. Sci. Total Environ. 327, 249-264.
76. Slezakova, K., Castro, D., Delerue-Matos, C., Alvim-Ferraz, M.C., Morais, S., Pereira, M.C., 2013. Impact of vehicular traffic emissions on particulate-bound PAHs: levels and associated health risks. Atmos. Res. 127, 141-147.
77. Smith, D.J.T., Harrison, R.M., 1998. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in atmospheric particles. In: Harrison, R.M., Van Grieken, R. (Eds.), Atmospheric Particles. John Wiley & Sons.
78. Teranishi, K., Kokichi, H., Watanabe, H., 1975. Quantitative relationship between carcinogenicity and mutagenicity of polyaromatic hydrocarbons in Salmonella typh. mutant. Mutat. Res. 31, 97.
79. Tham, Y.W.F., Ozaki, N., Sakugawa, H., 2007. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the aerosol of Higashi Hiroshima, Japan: pollution scenario and source identification. Water Air Soil Pollut. 182, 235-243.
80. Tham, Y.W.F., Takeda, K., Sakugawa, H., 2008. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) associated with atmospheric particles in Higashi Hiroshima, Japan: Influence of meteorological conditions and seasonal variations. Atmos. Res. 88, 224-233.
81. Tsapakis, M., Stephanou, E.G., 2005. Occurrence of gaseous and particulate polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the urban atmosphere: study of sources and ambient temperature effect on the gas/particle concentration and distribution. Environ. Pollut. 133 (1), 147-156.
82. Thurston, G.D., Spengler, J.D., 1985. A quantitative assessment of source contributions to inhalable particulate matter pollution in metropolitan Boston. Atmos. Environ. 19, 9-25.
83. US-EPA (United States of Environmental Protection Agency), 2001. Risk Assessment Guidance for Superfund. In: Human Health Evaluation Manual (Part E, Supplemetal Guidance for Dermal Risk Assessment), vol. I. EPA/540/R/99/005, Washington DC, USA Office of Emerage and Remedial Response.
84. US-EPA (United States of Environmental Protection Agency), 2003. Appendix A to 40 CFR. Part 423-126 Priority Pollutants. Available from: http://www.epa.gov/ region01/npdes/permits/generic/prioritypollutants.pdf.
85. Varea, M., Galindo, N., Gil-Moltó, J., Pastor, C., Crespo, J., 2011. Particle-bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in an urban, industrial and rural area in the western Mediterranean. Environ. Monit. 13, 2471-2476.
86. Vendrame, R., Braga, R.S., Takahata, Y., Galvao, D.S., 2001. Structure-carcinogenic activity relationship studies of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) with pattern-recognition methods. J. Mol. Struct. (Theochem) 539, 253-265.
87. Venkataraman, C., Friedlander, S.K., 1994. Source resolution of fine particulate polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons using a receptor model modified for reactivity. J. Air Waste Manag. Assoc. 44, 1103-1108.
88. Villar-Vidal, M., Lertxundi, A., Martinez López de Dicastillo, M.D., Alvarez, J.I., Santa Marina, L., Ayerdi, M., Basterrechea, M., Ibarluzea, J., 2014. Air Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) associated with PM2.5 in a North Cantabric coast urban environment. Chemosphere 99, 233-238.
89. Wang, G., Kawamura, K., Zhao, X., Li, Q., Dai, Z., Niu, H., 2007. Identification, abundance and seasonal variation of anthropogenic aerosols from a mega-city in China. Atmos. Environ. 41, 407-416.
90. Wang, W., Simonich, S.L.M.,Wang, W., Giri, B., Zhao, J., Xue, M., Cao, J., Lu, X., Tao, S., 2011. Atmospheric Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon concentrations and gas/particle partitioning at background, rural village and urban sites in the North China Plain. Atmos. Res. 99, 197-206.
91. WHO, 1987. World Health Organization. Air Quality Guidelines for Europe. WHO Regional Publications, European Series no 23. WHO Regional Office for Europe, Copenhagen.
92. WHO, 2000. World Health Organization. Air Quality Guidelines for Europe, second ed. WHO, Regional Office for Europe (Copenhagen), Copenhagen.
93. Zhang, F., Xua, L., Chen, J., Chen, X., Niu, Z., Lei, T., Li, C., Zhao, J., 2013. Chemical characteristics of PM2.5 during haze episodes in the urban of Fuzhou, China. Particuology 11, 264-272.
94. Zuo, Q., Duan, Y.H., Yang, Y., Wang, X.J., Tao, S., 2007. Source apportionment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in surface soil in Tianjin, China. Environ. Pollut. 147, 303-310.