Representation of climate extreme indices in the ACCESS1.3b coupled atmosphere-land surface model

Geoscientific Model Development

Volumn 7, Issue 2, 2014, Pages 545-567

  Lorenz, R ^a   Pitman, A J ^a   Donat, M G ^a   Hirsch, A L ^a   Kala, J ^a   Kowalczyk, E A ^b   Law, R M ^b   Srbinovsky, J ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF NEW SOUTH WALES   (Australia)

^b Bureau of Meteorology Centre for Australian Weather and Climate Research   (Australia)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CLIMATE CHANGE; CLIMATE MODELING; CLOUD COVER; DATA SET; GLOBAL WARMING; LONGWAVE RADIATION; NUMERICAL MODEL; PRECIPITATION (CLIMATOLOGY); SHORTWAVE RADIATION; SOIL MOISTURE; TEMPERATURE EFFECT;

AUSTRALIA;

EID: 84907388831     PISSN: 1991959X     EISSN: 19919603     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.5194/gmd-7-545-2014     Document Type: Article

References (77)

1. Abramowitz, G., Leuning, R., Clark, M., and Pitman, A.: Evaluating the Performance of Land Surface Models, J. Climate, 21, 5468-5481, doi:10.1029/2005JD006290, 2008.
2. Adler, R., Huffmann, G., Chang, A., Ferraro, R., Xie, P.-P., Janowiak, J., Rudolf, B., Schneider, U., Curtis, S., Bolvin, D., Gruber, A., Susskind, J., Arkin, P., and Nelkin, E.: The Version-2 Global Precipitation Climatology Project (GPCP) Monthly Precipitation Analysis (1979-Present), J. Hydrometeorol., 4, 1147-1167, 2003.
3. Alexander, L. V., Zhang, X., Peterson, T. C., Caesar, J., Gleason, B., Klein Tank, A. M. G., Haylock, M., Collins, D., Trewin, B., Rahimzadeh, F., Tagipour, A., Rupa Kumar, K., Revadekar, J., Griffiths, G., Vincent, L., Stephenson, D. B., Burn, J., Aguilar, E., Brunet, M., Taylor, M., New, M., Zhai, P., Rusticucci, M., and Vazquez-Aguirre, J. L.: Global observed changes in daily climate extremes of temperature and precipitation, J. Geophys. Res., 111, D05109, doi:10.1029/2005JD006290, 2006.
4. Arblaster, J. M. and Alexander, L. V.: The impact of the El Niño-Southern Oscillation on maximum temperature extremes, Geo-phys. Res. Lett., 39, L20702, doi:10.1029/2012GL053409, 2012.
5. Bi, D., Dix, M., Marsland, S. J., Farrell, S. O., Rashid, H. A., Uotila, P., Hirst, A. C., Kowalczyk, E., Golebiewski, M., Sullivan, A., Yan, H., Hannah, N., Franklin, C., Sun, Z., Vohralik, P., Watter-son, I., Zhou, X., Fiedler, R., Collier, M., Ma, Y., Noonan, J., Stevens, L., Uhe, P., Zhu, H., Griffies, S. M., Hill, R., Harris, C., and Puri, K.: The ACCESS coupled model: Description, control climate and evaluation, Aust. Meteorol. Oceanogr. J., 63, 9-32, 2013.
6. Caesar, J., Alexander, L., and Vose, R.: Large-scale changes in observed daily maximum and minimum temperatures: Creation and analysis of a new gridded data set, J. Geophys. Res., 111, D05101, doi:10.1029/2005JD006280, 2006.
7. Ciais, P., Reichstein, M., Viovy, N., Granier, A., Ogée, J., Allard, V., Aubinet, M., Buchmann, N., Bernhofer, C., Carrara, A., Chevallier, F., De Noblet, N., Friend, A. D., Friedlingstein, P., Grünwald, T., Heinesch, B., Keronen, P., Knohl, A., Krinner, G., Lous-tau, D., Manca, G., Matteucci, G., Miglietta, F., Ourcival, J. M., Papale, D., Pilegaard, K., Rambal, S., Seufert, G., Soussana, J. F., Sanz, M. J., Schulze, E. D., Vesala, T., and Valentini, R.: Europe-wide reduction in primary productivity caused by the heat and drought in 2003, Nature, 437, 529-533, 2005.
8. Coumou, D. and Rahmstorf, S.: A decade of weather extremes, Nat. Clim. Chang., 2, 491-496, doi:10.1038/nclimate1452, 2012.
9. Dai, A.: Precipitation Characteristics in Eighteen Coupled Climate Models, J. Climate, 19, 4605-4630, doi:10.1175/JCLI3884.1, 2006.
10. Davies, T., Cullen, M. J. P., Malcolm, A. J., Mawson, M. H., Staniforth, A., White, A. A., and Wood, N.: A new dynamical core for the Met Office's global and regional modelling of the atmosphere, Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc., 131, 1759-1782, doi:10.1256/qj.04.101, 2005.
11. de Noblet-Ducoudré, N., Boisier, J.-P., Pitman, A., Bonan, G. B., Brovkin, V., Cruz, F., Delire, C., Gayler, V., van den Hurk, B. J. J. M., Lawrence, P. J., van der Molen, M. K., Müller, C., Reick, C. H., Strengers, B. J., and Voldoire, A.: Determining Robust Impacts of Land-Use-Induced Land Cover Changes on Surface Climate over North America and Eurasia: Results from the First Set of LUCID Experiments, J. Climate, 25, 3261-3281, doi:10.1175/JCLI-D-11-00338.1, 2012.
12. Donat, M. G. and Alexander, L. V.: The shifting probability distribution of global daytime and night-time temperatures, Geophys. Res. Lett., 39, L14707, doi:10.1029/2012GL052459, 2012.
13. Donat, M., Alexander, L., Yang, H., Durre, I., Vose, R., and Caesar, J.: Global land-based datasets for monitoring climatic extremes, Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 94, 997-1006, doi:10.1175/BAMS-D-12-00109, 2013a.
14. Donat, M. G., Alexander, L. V., Yang, H., Durre, I., Vose, R., Dunn, R. J. H., Willett, K. M., Aguilar, E., Brunet, M., Caesar, J., Hewit-son, B., Jack, C., Klein Tank, A. M. G., Kruger, A. C., Marengo, J., Peterson, T. C., Renom, M., Oria Rojas, C., Rusticucci, M., Salinger, J., Elrayah, A. S., Sekele, S. S., Srivastava, A. K., Trewin, B., Villarroel, C., Vincent, L. A., Zhai, P., Zhang, X., and Kitching, S.: Updated analyses of temperature and precipitation extreme indices since the beginning of the twentieth century: The HadEX2 dataset, J. Geophys. Res. Atmos., 118, 2098-2118, doi:10.1002/jgrd.50150, 2013b.
15. Donat, M. G., Sillmann, J., Wild, S., Alexander, L., Lippmann, T., and Zwiers, F. W.: Consistency of temperature and precipitation extremes across various global gridded in situ and reanalysis datasets, J. Climate, doi:10.1175/JCLI-D-13-00405.1, in press, 2014.
16. Easterling, D. R.: Climate Extremes: Observations, Modeling, and Impacts, Science, 289, 2068-2074, 2000.
17. Edwards, J. and Slingo, A.: Studies with a flexible new radiation code. I: Choosing a configuration for a large-scale model, Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc., 122, 689-719, 1996.
18. Ek, M. B. and Holtslag, A. A. M.: Influence of Soil Moisture on Boundary Layer Cloud Development, J. Hydrometeorol., 5, 86-99, 2004.
19. Findell, K. L. and Eltahir, E. A. B.: Atmospheric Controls on Soil Moisture-Boundary Layer Interactions, Part II: Feedbacks within the Continental United States, J. Hydrometeorol., 4, 570-583, 2003.
20. Fischer, E. M., Seneviratne, S. I., Lüthi, D., and Schär, C.: Contribution of land-atmosphere coupling to recent European summer heat waves, Geophys. Res. Lett., 34, L06707, doi:10.1029/2006GL029068, 2007.
21. Franklin, C. N., Sun, Z., Bi, D., Dix, M., Yan, H., and Bodas-Salcedo, A.: Evaluation of clouds in ACCESS using the satellite simulator package COSP: Regime-sorted tropical cloud properties, J. Geophys. Res. Atmos., 118, 6663-6679, doi:10.1002/jgrd.50496, 2013a.
22. Franklin, C. N., Sun, Z., Bi, D., Dix, M., Yan, H., and Bodas-Salcedo, A.: Evaluation of clouds in ACCESS using the satellite simulator package COSP: Global, seasonal, and regional cloud properties, J. Geophys. Res. Atmos., 118, 732-748, doi:10.1029/2012JD018469, 2013b.
23. Gates, W. L.: AMIP: The Atmospheric Model Intercomparison Project, Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 73, 1962-1970, 1992.
24. GLOBE Task Team and others: The Global Land One-kilometer Base Elevation (GLOBE) Digital Elevation Model, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Geophysical Data Center, 325 Broadway, Boulder, COlorado 80305-3328, U.S.A., version 1. edn., available at: http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/mgg/topo/globe.html, 1999.
25. Gregory, D. and Rowntree, P.: A Mass Flux Convection Scheme with Representation of Cloud Ensemble Characteristics and Stability-Dependent Closure, Mon. Weather Rev., 118, 1483-1506, 1990.
26. Hewitt, H. T., Copsey, D., Culverwell, I. D., Harris, C. M., Hill, R. S. R., Keen, A. B., McLaren, A. J., and Hunke, E. C.: Design and implementation of the infrastructure of HadGEM3: the next-generation Met Office climate modelling system, Geosci. Model Dev., 4, 223-253, doi:10.doi:10.5194/gmd-4-223-2011, 2011.
27. Hilton, R. D., Featherstone, W. E., Berry, P. A. M., Johnson, C. P. D., and Kirby, J. F.: Comparison of digital elevation models over Australia and external validation using ERS'1 satellite radar altimetry, Aust. J. Earth Sci., 50, 157-168, 2003.
28. Hirsch, A. L., Kala, J., Pitman, A. J., Carouge, C., Evans, J. P., Haverd, V., and Mocko, D.: Impact of Land Surface Initialisation Approach on Sub-seasonal Forecast Skill: A Regional Analysis in the Southern Hemisphere, J. Hydrometeorol., 15, 300-319, doi:10.1175/JHM-D-13-05.1, 2014.
29. Hirschi, M., Seneviratne, S. I., Alexandrov, V., Boberg, F., Boroneant, C., Christensen, O. B., Formayer, H., Orlowsky, B., and Stepanek, P.: Observational evidence for soil-moisture impact on hot extremes in southeastern Europe, Nat. Geosci., 4, 17-21, doi:10.1038/ngeo1032, 2010.
30. IPCC: Managing the Risks of Extreme Events and Disasters to Advance Climate Change Adaptation, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, doi:10.1017/CBO9781139177245, 2012.
31. Jaeger, E. B. and Seneviratne, S. I.: Impact of soil moisture-atmosphere coupling on European climate extremes and trends in a regional climate model, Clim. Dyn., 36, 1919-1939, 2010.
32. Jung, M., Reichstein, M., Ciais, P., Seneviratne, S. I., Sheffield, J., Goulden, M. L., Bonan, G., Cescatti, A., Chen, J., de Jeu, R., Dolman, A. J., Eugster, W., Gerten, D., Gianelle, D., Go-bron, N., Heinke, J., Kimball, J., Law, B. E., Montagnani, L., Mu, Q., Mueller, B., Oleson, K., Papale, D., Richardson, A. D., Roupsard, O., Running, S., Tomelleri, E., Viovy, N., Weber, U., Williams, C., Wood, E., Zaehle, S., and Zhang, K.: Recent decline in the global land evapotranspiration trend due to limited moisture supply, Nature, 467, 951-4, doi:10.1038/nature09396, 2010.
33. Kato, S., Loeb, N. G., Rose, F. G., Doelling, D. R., Rutan, D. A., Caldwell, T. E., Yu, L., and Weller, R. A.: Surface Ir-radiances Consistent with CERES-Derived Top-of-Atmosphere Shortwave and Longwave Irradiances, J. Climate, 26, 2719-2740, doi:10.1175/JCLI-D-12-00436.1, 2013.
34. Kharin, V. V., Zwiers, F. W., Zhang, X., and Wehner, M.: Changes in temperature and precipitation extremes in the CMIP5 ensemble, Clim. Change, 119, 345-357, 2013.
35. Kiktev, D., Sexton, D. M. H., Alexander, L., and Folland, C. K.: Comparison of Modeled and Observed Trends in Indices of Daily Climate Extremes, J. Climate, 16, 3560-3571, 2003.
36. Koster, R. D., Sud, Y. C., Guo, Z., Dirmeyer, P. A., Bonan, G., Oleson, K. W., Chan, E., Verseghy, D., Cox, P., Davies, H., Kowalczyk, E., Gordon, C. T., Kanae, S., Lawrence, D., Liu, P., Mocko, D., Lu, C.-H., Mitchell, K., Malyshev, S., McAvaney, B., Oki, T., Yamada, T., Pitman, A., Taylor, C. M., Vasic, R., and Xue, Y.: GLACE: The Global Land-Atmosphere Coupling Experiment. Part I: Overview, J. Hydrometeorol., 7, 590-610, doi:10.1175/JHM510.10.1, 2006.
37. Koster, R. D., Schubert, S. D., and Suarez, M. J.: Analyzing the Concurrence of Meteorological Droughts and Warm Periods, with Implications for the Determination of Evaporative Regime, J. Climate, 22, 3331-3341, doi:10.1175/2008JCLI2718.1, 2009.
38. Kowalczyk, E. A., Stevens, L., Law, R. M., Dix, M., Wang, Y. P., Harman, I. N., Haynes, K., Srbinovsky, J., Pak, B., and Ziehn, T.: The land surface model component of ACCESS: description and impact on the simulated surface climatology, Aust. Meteorol. Oceanogr. J., 63, 65-82, 2013.
39. Lewis, S. C. and Karoly, D. J.: Evaluation of historical diurnal temperature range trends in CMIP5 models, J. Climate, 26, 9077-9089, doi:10.1175/JCLI-D-13-00032.1, 2013.
40. Lock, A. P., Brown, A. R., Bush, M. R., Martin, G. M., and Smith, R. N. B.: A New Boundary Layer Mixing Scheme. Part I: Scheme Description and Single-Column Model Tests, Mon. Weather Rev., 128, 3187-3199, 2000.
41. Lorenz, R., Jaeger, E. B., and Seneviratne, S. I.: Persistence of heat waves and its link to soil moisture memory, Geophys. Res. Lett., 37, L09703, doi:10.1029/2010GL042764, 2010.
42. Lorenz, R., Davin, E. L., Lawrence, D. M., Stöckli, R., and Senevi-ratne, S. I.: How important is vegetation phenology for European climate and heatwaves?, J. Climate, 26, 10077-10100, doi:10.1175/JCLI-D-13-00040.1, 2013.
43. Ma, L., Zhang, T., Frauenfeld, O. W., Ye, B., Yang, D., and Qin, D.: Evaluation of precipitation from the ERA-40, NCEP-1, and NCEP-2 Reanalyses and CMAP-1, CMAP-2, and GPCP-2 with ground-based measurements in China, J. Geophys. Res., 114, D09105, doi:10.1029/2008JD011178, 2009.
44. Mao, J., Phipps, S. J., Pitman, A. J., Wang, Y. P., Abramowitz, G., and Pak, B.: The CSIRO Mk3L climate system model v1.0 coupled to the CABLE land surface scheme v1.4b: evaluation of the control climatology, Geosci. Model Dev., 4, 1115-1131, doi:10.doi:10.5194/gmd-4-1115-2011, 2011.
45. Martin, G. M., Ringer, M. A., Pope, V. D., Jones, A., Dearden, C., and Hinton, T. J.: The Physical Properties of the Atmosphere in the New Hadley Centre Global Environmental Model (HadGEM1). Part I: Model Description and Global Climatology, J. Climate, 19, 1274-1301, doi:10.1175/JCLI3636.1, 2006.
46. Miralles, D. G., Holmes, T. R. H., De Jeu, R. A. M., Gash, J. H., Meesters, A. G. C. A., and Dolman, A. J.: Global land-surface evaporation estimated from satellite-based observations, Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 15, 453-469, doi:10.doi:10.5194/hess-15-453-2011, 2011.
47. Mueller, B. and Seneviratne, S. I.: Hot days induced by precipitation deficits at the global scale, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 109, 12398-12403, doi:10.1073/pnas.1204330109, 2012.
48. Mueller, B. and Seneviratne, S. I.: Systematic land climate and evapotranspiration biases in CMIP5 simulations, Geophys. Res. Lett., 41, doi:10.1002/2013GL058055, online first, 2014.
49. Mueller, B., Hirschi, M., Jimenez, C., Ciais, P., Dirmeyer, P. A., Dolman, A. J., Fisher, J. B., Jung, M., Ludwig, F., Maignan, F., Miralles, D. G., McCabe, M. F., Reichstein, M., Sheffield, J., Wang, K., Wood, E. F., Zhang, Y., and Seneviratne, S. I.: Benchmark products for land evapotranspiration: LandFlux-EVAL multi-data set synthesis, Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 17, 3707-3720, doi:10.doi:10.5194/hess-17-3707-2013, 2013.
50. NCL: The NCAR Command Language, doi:10.5065/D6WD3XH5, 2013.
51. Pall, P., Aina, T., Stone, D. A., Stott, P. A., Nozawa, T., Hilberts, A. G. J., Lohmann, D., and Allen, M. R.: Anthropogenic greenhouse gas contribution to flood risk in England and Wales in autumn 2000, Nature, 470, 382-385, doi:10.1038/nature09762, 2011.
52. Perkins, S. E., Pitman, A. J., Holbrook, N. J., and McAneney, J.: Evaluation of the AR4 Climate Models' Simulated Daily Maximum Temperature, Minimum Temperature, and Precipitation over Australia Using Probability Density Functions, J. Clim., 20, 4356-4376, doi:10.1175/JCLI4253.1, 2007.
53. Perkins, S. E., Alexander, L. V., and Nairn, J. R.: Increasing frequency, intensity and duration of observed global heatwaves and warm spells, Geophys. Res. Lett., 39, L20714, doi:10.1029/2012GL053361, 2012.
54. Pfeifroth, U., Mueller, R., and Ahrens, B.: Evaluation of Satellite-Based and Reanalysis Precipitation Data in the Tropical Pacific, J. Appl. Meteorol. Climatol., 52, 634-644, doi:10.1175/JAMC-D-12-049.1, 2013.
55. Pitman, A. J., de Noblet-Ducoudré, N., Cruz, F. T., Davin, E. L., Bonan, G. B., Brovkin, V., Claussen, M., Delire, C., Ganzeveld, L., Gayler, V., van den Hurk, B. J. J. M., Lawrence, P. J., van der Molen, M. K., Müller, C., Reick, C. H., Seneviratne, S. I., Strengers, B. J., and Voldoire, A.: Uncertainties in climate responses to past land cover change: First results from the LUCID intercomparison study, Geophys. Res. Lett., 36, L14 814, doi:10.1029/2009GL039076, 2009.
56. Pitman, A. J., de Noblet-Ducoudré, N., Avila, F. B., Alexander, L. V., Boisier, J.-P., Brovkin, V., Delire, C., Cruz, F., Donat, M. G., Gayler, V., van den Hurk, B., Reick, C., and Voldoire, A.: Effects of land cover change on temperature and rainfall extremes in multi-model ensemble simulations, Earth Syst. Dynam., 3, 213-231, doi:10.doi:10.5194/esd-3-213-2012, 2012.
57. Priestley, C. H. B. and Taylor, R. J.: On the Assessment of Surface Heat Flux and Evaporation Using Large-Scale Parameters, Mon. Weather Rev., 100, 81-92, 1972.
58. Puri, K., Dietachmayer, G., Steinle, P., Dix, M., Rikus, L., Logan, L., Naughton, M., Tingwell, C., Xiao, Y., Barras, V., Bermous, I., Bowen, R., Deschamps, L., Franklin, C., Fraser, J., Glowacki, T., Harris, B., Lee, J., Le, T., Roff, G., Sulaiman, A., Sims, H., Sun, X., Sun, Z., Zhu, H., Chattopadhyay, M., and Engel, C.: Implementation of the initial ACCESS numerical weather prediction system, Aust. Meteorol. Oceanogr. J., 63, 265-284, 2013.
59. R core Team: R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing, available at: http://www.r-project.org, 2013.
60. Seneviratne, S. I., Lüthi, D., Litschi, M., and Schär, C.: Land-atmosphere coupling and climate change in Europe, Nature, 443, 205-209, 2006.
61. Seneviratne, S. I., Corti, T., Davin, E. L., Hirschi, M., Jaeger, E. B., Lehner, I., Orlowsky, B., and Teuling, A. J.: Investigating soil moisture-climate interactions in a changing climate: A review, Earth-Science Rev., 99, 125-161, doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2010.02.004, 2010.
62. Seneviratne, S. I., Nicholls, N., Easterling, D. R., Goodess, C. M., Kanae, S., Kossin, J., Luo, Y., Marengo, J., McInnes, K., Rahimi, M., Reichstein, M., Sorteberg, A., Vera, C., and Zhang, X.: Changes in Climate Extremes and their Impacts on the Natural Physical Environment, in: Manag. Risks Extrem. Events Disasters to Adv. Clim. Chang. Adapt, edited by: Field, C. B., Barros, V., Stock, T. F., Qin, D., Dokken, D. J., Ebi, K. L., Mastran-drea, M. D., Mach, K. J., Plattner, G.-K., Allen, S. K., Tignor, M., and Midgley, P. M., 109-230, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, and New York, NY, USA, 2012.
63. Shonk, J. K. P. and Hogan, R. J.: Tripleclouds: An Efficient Method for Representing Horizontal Cloud Inhomogeneity in 1D Radiation Schemes by Using Three Regions at Each Height, J. Climate, 21, 2352-2370, doi:10.1175/2007JCLI1940.1, 2008.
64. Sillmann, J., Kharin, V. V., Zhang, X., Zwiers, F. W., and Bronaugh, D.: Climate extremes indices in the CMIP5 multimodel ensemble: Part 1. Model evaluation in the present climate, J. Geophys. Res. Atmos., 118, 1716-1733, doi:10.1002/jgrd.50203, 2013.
65. Stéfanon, M., Drobinski, P., D'Andrea, F., and de Noblet-Ducoudré, N.: Effects of interactive vegetation phenology on the 2003 summer heat waves, J. Geophys. Res., 117, D24103, doi:10.1029/2012JD018187, 2012.
66. Taylor, C. M. and Ellis, R. J.: Satellite detection of soil moisture impacts on convection at the mesoscale, Geophys. Res. Lett., 33, 11-14, doi:10.1029/2005GL025252, 2006.
67. Taylor, K. E., Williamson, D., and Zwiers, F.: The Sea Surface Temperature and Sea-Ice Cconcentration Boundary Conditions For AMIP II Simulations, Tech. rep., PCMDI Rep. No. 60, 2000.
68. Tebaldi, C., Hayhoe, K., Arblaster, J. M., and Meehl, G. A.: Going to the Extremes, Clim. Change, 79, 185-211, doi:10.1007/s10584-006-9051-4, 2006.
69. Wang, K. and Dickinson, R. E.: A Review of Global Terrestrial Evapotranspiration: Observation, Modeling, Climatology, and Climatic Variability, Rev. Geophys., 50, RG2005, doi:10.1029/2011RG000373.1, 2012.
70. Wang, Y. and Leuning, R.: A two-leaf model for canopy conductance, photosynthesis and partitioning of available energy I: Model description and comparison with a multi-layered model, Agric. For. Meteorol., 91, 89-111, doi:10.1016/S0168-1923(98)00061-6, 1998.
71. Wang, Y. P., Kowalczyk, E., Leuning, R., Abramowitz, G., Raupach, M. R., Pak, B., van Gorsel, E., and Luhar, A.: Diagnosing errors in a land surface model (CABLE) in the time and frequency domains, J. Geophys. Res., 116, G01034, doi:10.1029/2010JG001385, 2011.
72. Watterson, I. G.: The diurnal cycle of surface air temperature in simulated present and doubled CO 2 climates, Clim. Dynam., 13, 533-545, doi:10.1007/s003820050181, 1997.
73. Wilson, D. R., Bushell, A. C., Kerr-Munslow, A. M., Price, J. D., and Morcrette, C. J.: PC2: A prognostic cloud fraction and condensation scheme. I: Scheme description, Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc., 134, 2093-2107, doi:10.1002/qj.333, 2008.
74. Zaitchik, B. F., Macalady, A. K., Bonneau, L. R., and Smith, R. B.: Europe's 2003 heat wave: a satellite view of impacts and land-atmosphere feedbacks, Int. J. Climatol., 26, 743-769, doi:10.1002/joc.1280, 2006.
75. Zhang, H., Pak, B., Wang, Y. P., Zhou, X., Zhang, Y., and Zhang, L.: Evaluating Surface Water Cycle Simulated by the Australian Community Land Surface Model (CABLE) across Different Spatial and Temporal Domains, J. Hydrometeorol., 14, 1119-1138, doi:10.1175/JHM-D-12-0123.1, 2013.
76. Zhang, X., Alexander, L., Hegerl, G. C., Jones, P., Tank, A. K., Peterson, T. C., Trewin, B., and Zwiers, F. W.: Indices for monitoring changes in extremes based on daily temperature and precipitation data, Wiley Interdiscip. Rev. Clim. Chang., 2, 851-870, doi:10.1002/wcc.147, 2011.
77. Zwiers, F. W. and von Storch, H.: Taking Serial Correlation into Account in Tests of the Mean, J. Climate, 8, 336-351, 1995.