Thou shalt not take the name of the lord thy god in vain: Use and abuse of religious exemptions from School immunization requirements

Hastings Law Journal

Volumn 65, Issue 6, 2014, Pages 1551-1602

  Reiss, Dorit Rubinstein ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

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EID: 84906852793     PISSN: 00178322     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (223)

1. Department of Health Announces Results of Vaccine Exemption Survey, N. M. DEP'T OF HEALTH (Nov. 18, 2013), http://archive.nmhealth.org/ CommunicationsOffice/2013%20News%20Releases/NMDOH-PressRelease-20131118- VaccineExemptionSurvey-EN.pdf.
2. see N. M. STAT. ANN. § 24-5-3 (West 2014).
3. Jemima Kiss, Facebook's 10th Birthday: From College Dorm to 1.2 3 Billion Users, The Guardian (Feb. 3, 2014), http://www.theguardian.com/technology/2014/ feb/04/facebook-10-yearsmark-zuckerberg.
4. For the development and history of vaccines and their many benefits, see Steve P. Calandrillo, Vanishing Vaccinations: Why Are So Many Americans Opting Out of Vaccinating Their Children?, 37 U. MICH. J. L. REFORM 353, 363-81 (2004).
5. See generally PAUL A. OFFIT, VACCINATED: ONE MAN'S QUEST TO DEFEAT THE WORLD'S DEADLIEST DISEASES (2007) [hereinafter Offit, Vaccinated] (providing a detaild history of the diseases we vaccinate against, their harms, why and how each vaccine was created, and how each vaccine led to a dramatic decline in the disease).
6. Sandra W. Roush & Trudy V. Murphy, Historical Comparisons of Morbidity and Mortality for Vaccine-Preventable Diseases in the United States, 298 JAMA 2155, 2156 tbl.1 (2007).
7. PAUL A. OFFIT, DEADLY CHOICES: HOW THE ANTI-VACCINE MOVEMENT THREATENS US ALL xii (2011) [hereinafter Offit, Deadly Choices].
8. CTRS. FOR DISEASE CONTROL & PREVENTION, Pertussis Epidemic - Washington, 2012, 61 MORBIDITY & MORTALITY WKLY. REP. 517, 517-18 (2012).
9. For more on the decline in disease rate and the life-saving properties of vaccines, see Willem G. Van Panhuis et al., Contagious Diseases in the United States from 1888 to the Present, 369 NEW ENG. J. MED. 2152, 2154-56 (2013).
10. Calandrillo, supra note 7, at 420; Douglas S. Diekema, Commentary, Choices Should Have Consequences: Failure to Vaccinate, Harm to Others, and Civil Liability, 107 MICH. L. REV. FIRST IMPRESSIONS 90, 91 (2009).
11. Calandrillo, supra note 7, at 381 n. 199. See generally Walter A. Orenstein & Alan R. Hinman, The Immunization System in the United States - The Role of School Immunization Laws, 17 VACCINE S 19 (1999) (providing an overview of school immunization requirements and exemptions).
12. Zucht V. King, 260 U. S. 174, 177 (1922).
13. Most recently in Workman V. Mingo Cnty. Bd. of Educ., 419 F. App'x 348, 357 (4th Cir. 2011).
14. See Bruesewitz V. Wyeth, LLC, 131 S. Ct. 1068, 1072 (2011);
15. see also Daniel B. Rubin & Sophie Kasimow, Comment, The Problem of Vaccination Noncompliance: Public Health Goals and the Limitations of Tort Law, 107 MICH. L. REV. FIRST IMPRESSIONS 114, 118 (2009).
16. For comparisons of the risks of diseases to the risks of vaccines in Australia, see THE AUSTRALIAN IMMUNISATION HANDBOOK, INFORMATION SHEET - COMPARISON OF THE EFFECTS OF DISEASES AND THE SIDE EFFECTS OF NIP VACCINES 527 (Austl. Gov't Dep't of Health ed., 10th ed. 2014), available at http://www.immunise.health.gov. au/internet/immunise/publishing.nsf/Content/ EE1905BC65D40BCFCA257 B26007FC8CA/$File/handbook-Jan2014v2.pdf [hereinafter The Australian Immunisation Handbook].
17. For Canada, see Comparison of Effects of Diseases and Vaccines, PUB. HEALTH AGENCY OF CAN. (July 17, 2012), http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/publicat/cig- gci/cedv-cemv-tab-eng.php.
18. For the United States, see Diseases & the Vaccines That Prevent Them, CTRS. FOR DISEASE CONTROL & PREVENTION (Mar. 12, 2012), http://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/vpd-vac/fact-sheet-parents.html; see also Calandrillo, supra note 7, at 391-93.
19. CTRS. FOR DISEASE CONTROL & PREVENTION, EPIDEMIOLOGY AND PREVENTION OF VACCINE-PREVENTABLE DISEASES 174 (William Atkinson et al. eds., 12th ed. 2012).
20. For an example of mumps causing encephalitis, see Dorit Reiss, The Aftermath of Phil's Mumps, BEFORE VACCINES (Sept. 29, 2013, 5:58 PM), http://beforevaccines.blogspot.com/2013/09/the-aftermath-of-phils-mumps.html.
21. Measles, Mumps, Rube la and Varice la Virus Vaccine Live, U. S. FOOD & DRUG ADMIN. (Jan. 11, 2010), http://www.fda.gov/BiologicsBloodVaccines/ Vaccines/QuestionsaboutVaccines/ucm070425.htm.
22. Bruesewitz, 131 S. Ct. at 1074.
23. Statistical Abstract of the United States: 2012, U. S. CENSUS BUREAU, http://www.census.gov/prod/2011pubs/12statab/vitstat.pdf (last visited Aug. 1, 2014).
24. CTRS. FOR DISEASE CONTROL & PREVENTION, National and State Vaccination Coverage Among Children Aged 19-3 5 Months, 60 MORBIDITY & MORTALITY WKLY. REP. 1157, 1158 (2011).
25. HEALTH RES. & SERVS. ADMIN., U. S. DEP'T OF HEALTH & HUMAN SERVS., STATISTICS REPORTS (Mar. 5, 2014), http://www.hrsa.gov/ vaccinecompensation/statisticsreports.html#Stats.
26. See Bruesewitz, 131 S. Ct. at 1073;
27. see also Christine Vara, Congressional Briefing Attempts to Discredit Vaccine Injury Compensation, SHOT OF PREVENTION (Nov. 8, 2013), http://shotofprevention.com/2013/11/08/congressional-briefing-attempts-to- discredit-vaccine-injurycompensation.
28. NAT'L SAFETY COUNCIL, INJURY FACTS 2(2011), available at http://www.nsc.org/Documents/Injury-Facts/Injury-Facts-2011-w.pdf.
29. Allison Hagood, A Look at the Numbers in Vaccine Reactions, RED WINE & APPLE SAUCE (Mar. 5, 2013), http://www.redwineandapplesauce.com/2013/03/ 05/a-look-at-the-numbers-in-vaccine-reactions/.
30. Jennifer L. Richards et al., Nonmedical Exemptions to Immunization Requirements in California: A 16-Year Longitudinal Analysis of Trends and Associated Community Factors, 31 VACCINE 3009, 3010 (2013).
31. Daniel R. Feikin et al., Individual and Community Risks of Measles and Pertussis Associated with Personal Exemptions to Immunization, 284 JAMA 3145, 3149 (2000).
32. Aamer Imdad et al., Religious Exemptions for Immunization and Risk of Pertussis in New York State, 2000-2011, 132 PEDIATRICS 37, 40 (2013);
33. Saad B. Omer et al., Geographic Clustering of Nonmedical Exemptions to School Immunization Requirements and Associations with Geographic Clustering of Pertussis, 168 AM. J. EPIDEMIOLOGY 1389, 1389 (2008) [hereinafter Omer et al., Geographic Clustering].
34. Nina R. Blank et al., Exempting Schoolchildren from Immunizations: States with Few Barriers Had Highest Rates of Nonmedical Exemptions, 32 HEALTH AFFAIRS 1282, 1287 (2013);
35. Omer et al., Geographic Clustering, supra note 31, at 1389;
36. Stephanie Stadlin et al., Medical Exemptions to School Immunization Requirements in the United States-Association of State Policies with Medical Exemption Rates (2004-2011), 206 J. INFECTIOUS DISEASES 989, 991 (2012).
37. See OFFIT, DEADLY CHOICES, supra note 11, at 140.
38. Welsh V. United States, 398 U. S. 333, 337-40 (1970) (discussing what religious means in the context of conscientious objectors to the draft).
39. Saad B. Omer et al., Legislative Challenges to School Immunization Mandates, 2009-2012, 311 JAMA 620, 621 (2014) [hereinafter Omer et al., Legislative Challenges].
40. Duffield V. Sch. Dist. of Williamsport, 29 A. 742 (Pa. 1894).
41. Zucht V. King, 260 U. S. 174, 176 (1922).
42. 197 U. S. 11, 25-27 (1905).
43. See Zucht, 260 U. S. 174.
44. JAMES COLGROVE, STATE OF IMMUNITY: THE POLITICS OF VACCINATION IN TWENTIETH-CENTURY AMERICA 180-81 (2006).
45. Hope Lu, Note, Giving Families Their Best Shot: A Law-Medicine Perspective on the Right to Religious Exmptions from Mandatory Vaccination, 63 CASE W. RES. L. REV. 869, 885-86, 914-15 (2013).
46. Illegally, in my view. See Dorit Reiss, Viewpoint: Signing Statement on Vaccines Is Not Law, RECORDER (Oct. 9, 2013), http://www.therecorder.com/id= 1202622728667?slreturn=20140014230826.
47. Prince V. Massachusetts, 321 U. S. 158 (1944).
48. For example, the Court relied on Jacobson V. Massachusetts, 197 U. S. 11 (1905)
49. and Zucht V. King, 260 U. S. 174 (1922).
50. Prince, 321 U. S. at 166-67.
51. See, e.g., Brown V. Stone, 378 So. 2d 218, 223 (Miss. 1979);
52. Boone V. Boozman, 217 F. Supp. 2d 938, 946-51, 954 (E. D. Ark. 2002).
53. 385 S. W.2d 644, 648 (Ark. 1965).
54. ARK. CODE. ANN. § 6-18-702 (d) (4) (A) (West 2014).
55. Workman V. Mingo Cnty. Bd. of Educ., 419 F. App'x 348, 353-54 (4th Cir. 2011) (per curiam).
56. See, e.g., Dalli V. Bd. of Educ., 267 N. E.2d 219, 222-23 (Mass. 1971);
57. Brown, 378 So. 2d at 223
58. cert. denied, 449 U. S. 887 (1980).
59. Brown, 378 So. 2d at 223.
60. Alicia Novak, Note, The Religious and Philosophical Exemptions to State-Compelled Vaccination: Constitutional and Other Challenges, 7 U. PA. J. CONST. L. 1101, 1115-16 (2005). See infra notes 58-69 for a discussion of other constitutional objections.
61. Dr. Paul Offit expressed that view in his lectures in a course about vaccines. See Paul A. Offit, 'Vaccine Exemptions'? Call Them What They Really Are, MEDSCAPE (Aug. 10, 2012), http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/768746.
62. See Lemon V. Kurtzman, 403 U. S. 602 (1971).
63. Sherr V. Northport-East Northport Union Free Sch. Dist, 672 F. Supp. 81, 89 (E. D. N. Y. 1987).
64. PEW RESEARCH CENTER, PEW FORUM ON RELIGION & PUB. LIFE, "NONES" ON THE RISE: ONE-INFIVE ADULTS HAVE NO RELIGIOUS AFFILIATION 14, 16-17 (2012) (the number of Americans who say religion is important in their lives is 58%, as compared to Britain at 17%, France at 13%, Germany at 21% and Spain at 22%
65. KENNETH D. WALD & ALLISON CALHOUN-BROWN, RELIGION AND POLITICS IN THE UNITED STATES 11-16 (2007).
66. Wisconsin V. Yoder, 406 U. S. 205, 234 (1972).
67. Emp't Div., Dep't of Human Res. of Oregon V. Smith, 494 U. S. 872, 890 (1990).
68. Yoder, 406 U. S. at 220.
69. SHAWN FRANCIS PETERS, THE YODER CASE: RELIGIOUS FREEDOM, EDUCATION, AND PARENTAL RIGHTS 153-54 (2003).
70. City of Boerne V. Flores, 521 U. S. 507, 536 (1997).
71. Cutter V. Wilkinson, 544 U. S. 709, 714 (2005).
72. *7 (U. S. June 30, 2014).
73. See THE AUSTRALIAN IMMUNISATION HANDBOOK, supra note 18;
74. Risk from Disease Versus Risk from Vaccines, CTRS. FOR DISEASE CONTROL & PREVENTION (Feb. 18, 2011), http://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/vac-gen/6mishome. htm#risk [hereinafter CDC, Risk from Disease].
75. For a similar discussion of the set of interests involved, see Ross D. Silverman, No More Kidding Around: Restructuring Non-Medical Childhood Immunization Exemptions to Ensure Public Health Protection, 12 ANNALS HEALTH L. 277, 278 (2003).
76. See Omer et al., Geographic Clustering supra note 31, at 1394-95;
77. Saad B. Omer et al., Nonmedical Exemptions to School Immunization Requirements: Secular Trends and Association of State Policies with Pertussis Incidence, 296 JAMA 1757, 1758 (2006).
78. For a similar problem in other contexts, see Paul Sabatier, Social Movements and Regulatory Agencies: Toward a More Adequate- and Less Pessimistic-Theory of "Clientele Capture ", 6 POL'Y SCIS. 301, 303-05 (1975). Diffuse majorities may not be able to make changes when those changes are opposed by concentrated minorities that benefit from them.
79. Calandrillo, supra note 7, at 395, 428; Alexandra M. Stewart, Commentary, Challenging Personal Belief Immunization Exemptions: Considering Legal Responses, 107 MICH. L. REV. FIRST IMPRESSIONS 105, 105 (2009).
80. CDC, Risk from Disease, supra note 79.
81. Feikin et al., supra note 30, at 3147; Jason M. Glanz et al., Parental Refusal of Pertussis Vaccination Is Associated with an Increased Risk of Pertussis Infection in Children, 123 PEDIATRICS 1446, 1449 (2009);
82. Stephen P. Teret & Jon S. Vernick, Commentary, Gambling with the Health of Others, 107 MICH. L. REV. FIRST IMPRESSIONS 110, 110-113 (2009). To illustrate this, imagine a population of 1000 children, maybe in a school, 950 (or ninety-five percent) of whom are vaccinated against measles and fifty (or five percent) of whom are not vaccinated. In a measles outbreak, fifty percent of the unvaccinated children contract measles-twenty-five children. Five percent of the vaccinated children contract it, or forty-eight children (rounding up). More vaccinated children caught the disease, but the child would be less likely to contract measles if she were vaccinated than if she were not. Additionally, the rates would be much higher among the unvaccinated.
83. See, e.g., FCTRS. FOR DISEASE CONTROL & PREVENTION, Notes from the Field: Measles Outbreak Among Members of a Religious Community-Brooklyn, New York, 62 MORBIDITY & MORTALITY WKLY. REP. 752 (2013);
84. CTRS. FOR DISEASE CONTROL & PREVENTION, Notes from the Field: Measles Outbreak Associated with a Traveler Returning from India-North Carolina, April-May 2013, 62 MORBIDITY & MORTALITY WKLY. REP. 753. These communities may have sincere religious opposition to vaccination; they are, however, mentioned as an example of the danger of concentrating unvaccinated individuals in one area.
85. David E. Sugerman et al., Measles Outbreak in a Highly Vaccinated Population, San Diego, 2008: Role of the Intentionally Undervaccinated, 125 PEDIATRICS 747, 747-48 (2010).
86. Medical Care for Unvaccinated Children, JUST THE VAX (Apr. 23, 2009), http://justthevax.blogspot.com/2009/04/medical-care-for-unvaccinated-children. html.
87. Subacute Sclerosing Panencephalitis, PUBMED HEALTH (Aug. 1, 2012), http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0002392.
88. So Predicable-So Sad, Natalie Dies of SSPE, JUST THE VAX (Oct. 20, 2011), http://justthevax.blogspot.co.uk/2011/10/so-predictable-so-sad-natalie-dies-of. html. The video in the post shows the suffering Natalie and her family went through with the SSPE (the video is in German).
89. Micha is Dead, JUST THE VAX (June 13, 2013), http://justthevax.blogspot. co.uk/2013/06/michais-dead.html.
90. CTRS. FOR DISEASE CONTROL & PREVENTION, Measles-United States, 2011, 61 MORBIDITY & MORTALITY WKLY. REP. 253 (2012) [hereinafter CDC, Measles 2011].
91. CDC, Measles 2011, supra note 97.
92. Measles Outbreaks, CTRS. FOR DISEASE CONTROL & PREVENTION, http://www.cdc.gov/measles/outbreaks.html (last visited Aug. 1, 2014).
93. Omer et al., Geographic Clustering, supra note 31, at 1390-94;
94. Omer et al., Legislative Challenges, supra note 37, at 620-21.
95. See, e.g., In re Elwell, 284 N. Y. S.2d 924, 932 (N. Y. Fam. Ct. 1967) (noting the objection was not because of religion but because of "personal opinions, fears unsupported by any competent medical proof, and a purported exercise of their own consciences which would not interfere with their free exercise of the tenets of the Methodist Church");
96. see also McCartney V. Austin, 293 N. Y. S.2d 188, 199 (N. Y. App. Div. 1968) (finding that the plaintiff's beliefs were actually based on a "personal moral code or philosophy not based on or by reason of religious training, belief or conviction").
97. Dalli V. Bd. of Educ., 267 N. E.2d 219, 220 (Mass. 1971).
98. See, e.g., Sherr V. Northport-East Northport Union Free Sch. Dist., 672 F. Supp. 81, 87-88 (E. D. N. Y. 1987);
99. Bowden V. Iona Grammar Sch., 726 N. Y. S.2d 685, 686-87 (N. Y. App. Div. 2001);
100. In re LePage, 18 P.3d 1177, 1180 (Wyo. 2001).
101. Kleid V. Bd. of Educ. of Fulton, 406 F. Supp. 902, 904 (W. D. Ky. 1976)
102. (citing and quoting FKY. REV. STAT. ANN. § 214.036 as enacted at the time).
103. KY. REV. STAT. ANN. § 214.036 (2014).
104. CONGREGATION OF UNIVERSAL WISDOM, http://www.cuwisdom.org (last visited Aug. 1, 2014).
105. Berg V. Glen Cove City Sch. Dist., 853 F. Supp. 651 (E. D. N. Y. 1994);
106. cf. McCartney V. Austin, 293 N. Y. S.2d 188, 200 (N. Y. App. Div. 1968) (denying exemption to Roman Catholic parents because the religion did not oppose immunization).
107. Berg, 853 F. Supp. at 655. For a discussion of Judaism and immunization, see infra Part II. B.
108. Berg, 853 F. Supp. at 655.
109. 800 N. Y. S.2d 357 (N. Y. Fam. Ct. 2005).
110. Other such states include North Carolina and Maryland. See ALAN G. PHILLIPS, THE AUTHORITATIVE GUIDE TO VACCINE LEGAL EXEMPTIONS 41, 50 (2013).
111. In re LePage, 18 P.3d 1177, 1180 (Wyo. 2001) ("[T]he statutory language lacks any mention of an inquiry by the state into the sincerity of religious beliefs. As a result, the Department of Health exceeded its legislative authority when it conducted a further inquiry into the sincerity of Mrs. LePage's religious beliefs.").
112. For a detailed analysis of this, see Silverman, supra note 80, at 289-92; see also Dep't of Health V. Curry, 722 So. 2d 874, 878-79 (Fla. Dist. Ct. App. 1998).
113. Allison Kennedy et al., Vaccine Attitudes, Concerns, and Information Sources Reported by Parents of Young Children: Results from the 2009 HealthStyles Survey, 127 PEDIATRICS S92, S95 (2011) [hereinafter Kennedy et al., Vaccine Attitudes];
114. Allison M. Kennedy et al., Vaccine Beliefs of Parents Who Oppose Compulsory Vaccination, 120 PUB. HEALTH REPS. 252, 252, 256 (2005) [hereinafter Kennedy et al., Vaccine Beliefs of Parents];
115. Katrina F. Brown et al., Factors Underlying Parental Decisions About Combination Childhood Vaccinations Including MMR: A Systematic Review, 28 VACCINE 4235, 4243 (2010).
116. Brown et al., supra note 122, at 4243; Kennedy et al., Vaccine Attitudes, supra note 122, at S95;
117. Kennedy et al., Vaccine Beliefs of Parents, supra note 122, at 255.
118. Brown et al., supra note 122, at 4243; see E. Allison Hagood & Stacy Mintzer Herlihy, Addressing Heterogeneous Parental Concerns About Vaccination With a Multiple-Source Model: A Parent and Educator Perspective, 9 HUMAN VACCINES & IMMUNOTHERAPEUTICS 1790, 1791 (2013).
119. N. M. DEP'T OF HEALTH, supra note 2.
120. John D. Grabenstein, What the World's Religions Teach, Applied to Vaccines and Immune Globulins, 31 VACCINE 2011, 2019 (2013).
121. See generally Richard K. Zimmerman et al., Vaccine Criticism on the World Wide Web, 7 J. MED. INTERNET RESEARCH e17 (2005);
122. Anna Kata, A Postmodern Pandora's Box: Anti-Vaccinaton Misinformation on the Internet, 28 VACCINE 1709, 1711-12 (2010) (also mentions moral reasons, but they figure alongside the other reasons).
123. Meet Mary, SUPPORT MARY'S RIGHTS, http://www.supportmarysrights.com/meet- mary.html (last visited Aug. 1, 2014).
124. The Legislature of the State of New York: Change the Law in NYS Allowing for Exemptions to Vaccines for Any Reasons, CHANGE. ORG, http://www.change.org/ petitions/the-legislature-of-thestate-of-new-york-change-the-law-in-nys- allowing-for-exemptions-to-vaccines-for-any-reasons-2 (last visited Aug. 1, 2014).
125. Letter to the Public, SUPPORT MARY'S RIGHTS, http://www. supportmarysrights.com/letter-tothe-public.html (last visited Aug. 1, 2014).
126. *11 (E. D. N. Y. May 20, 2013).
127. Paul A. Offit & Rita K. Jew, Addressing Parents' Concerns: Do Vaccines Contain Harmful Preservatives, Adjuvants, Additives or Residuals?, 112 PEDIATRICS 1394, 1399 (2003).
128. *7.
129. 116 F. Supp. 2d 503 (S. D. N. Y. 2000).
130. Rabbi Yitzchak Breitowitz, Vaccinations and Halacha, OHR SOMAYACH (Aug. 24, 2013), http://ohr.edu/5503.
131. Halacha is a set of Jewish rules and practices. See What is Halakha?, FJEWFAQ, http://www.jewfaq.org/halakhah.htm (last visited Aug. 1, 2014).
132. (quoting AKIVA TATZ, DANGEROUS DISEASE AND DANGEROUS THERAPY 48 (2013)).
133. Rabbi Dr. Goldie Milgram et al., Regarding Immunizations for Children Who Will Be Attending Day (Jewish or Parochial) Schools: What is the Jewish View on Whether This is Obligatory or Optional? What Jewish Values or Ethics are Involved in This Question?, JEWISH VALUES ONLINE, http://www.jewishvaluesonline. org/566 (last visited Aug. 1, 2014).
134. Vaccines and Gelatin: PHE Response, GOV. UK, https://www.gov. uk/government/news/vaccines-andgelatine-phe-response (last visited Aug. 1, 2014);
135. see Religious Approval for Porcine-Containing Vaccines, INST. FOR VACCINE SAFETY (July 21, 2003), http://www.vaccinesafety.edu/Porcine-vaccineapproval. htm (last visited Aug. 1, 2014);
136. *Facebook (last visited Aug. 1, 2014), https://www.facebook.com/groups/221124927937142/ permalink/516889978360634/?comment-id=524087324307566&offset= 0&total-comments=123 (discussing an Australian point of view by Rabbi Gutnick).
137. Rabbi William Handler, The Measles Scare and CDC Politics, JEWISH PRESS (July 10, 2013), http://www.jewishpress.com/indepth/the-measles-scare-and-cdc- politics/2013/07/10.
138. Stanley Plotkin et al., Vaccines and Autism: A Tale of Shifting Hypotheses, 48 CLINICAL INFECTIOUS DISEASES 456 (2009).
139. Maryam Yahya, Polio Vaccines-Difficult to Swallow, The Story of a Controversy in Northern Nigeria 9-10 (Inst. Dev. Studies, Working Paper No. 261, 2006), available at http://www.ids.ac.uk/files/Wp261.pdf;
140. Haider J. Warraich, Religious Opposition to Polio Vaccination, 15 EMERGING INFECTIOUS DISEASES 978, 978 (2009).
141. Dr. Aisha Hamdan, Immunizations-Harmful to Your Child or Not?, MISSION ISLAM, http://www.missionislam.com/health/immunizationhurtornot.htm (last visited Aug. 1, 2014);
142. Farrakhan Suspicious of H1N1 Vaccine, UNITED PRESS INT'L (Oct. 19, 2009, 11:56 PM), http://www.upi.com/Top-News/US/2009/10/19/Farrakhan-suspicious-of- H1N1-vaccine/UPI-63931256011008.
143. Shayh Bin Baaz, Ruling on Giving Treatment Before Sickness Occurs, ISLAMIC ARTICLES, http://islamicarticles.wordpress.com/medicine (last visited Aug. 1, 2014).
144. Statement from the International Islamic Fiqh Academy to Encourage Vaccination Against Polio, COMMC'N INITIATIVE (Sept. 30, 2009 10:30 AM), http://www.comminit.com/?q=polio/node/303223.
145. Doubts About Vaccination, ONISLAM. NET (Feb. 20, 2011), http://www.onislam.net/english/askthe-scholar/fiqh/451044-vaccines-and-the- dangerous-ingredients-therein.html (emphasis in original).
146. Tahir Khan, Polio Eradication: Muslim Scholars Deny Polio Vaccine Rumours, EXPRESS TRIBUNE (Mar. 10, 2013), http://tribune.com.pk/story/518534/ polio-eradication-muslim-scholars-denypolio-vaccine-rumours.
147. Letter from Dr. Hussein A. Gezairy, Regional Director, Reg'l Office of the World Health Org. for the E. Mediterranean, to Dr. Zaffron, et al. (July 17, 2001), available at http://www.immunize.org/concerns/porcine.pdf.
148. Doubts About Vaccination, supra note 160.
149. Pontifical Academy for Life, Moral Reflections On Vaccines Prepared From Cells Derived from Aborted Human Fetuses, 6 NAT'L CATH. BIOETHICS Q. 541 (2006);
150. see Rev. Tadeusz Pacholczyk, The Morality of Vaccinating Our Children, NAT'L CATH. BIOETHICS CTR. (Aug. 1, 2005), http://www.ncbcenter.org/page.aspx? pid=251.
151. Protecting Children from Mercury-Containing Drugs, UNITED METHODIST CHURCH, http://www.umc.org/what-we-believe/protecting-children-from-mercury- containing-drugs (last visited Aug. 1, 2014).
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153. FLUTHERAN CHURCH IN AM., DEATH AND DYING 1(1982), available at http://download.elca.org/ELCA%20Resource%20Repository/Death-and-DyingLCA82.pdf.
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155. Immunizations, PAC. LUTHERAN UNIV., http://www.plu.edu/health-center/new- students/immunizations/home.php (last visited Aug. 1, 2014).
156. See, e.g., Flu Vaccine FAQ, ROCHESTER CENT. LUTHERAN SCH., http://www.rcls.net/wpweb/fluvaccine-faq (last visited Aug. 1, 2014);
157. Concordia to Offer Flu Vaccine Clinic at Oktoberfest, CONCORDIA LUTHERAN MINISTRIES, http://www.concordialm.org/news/press-room/2-uncategorised/98- clinic-at-oktoberfest (last visited Aug. 1, 2014);
158. Blood Drive and Flu Shot Clinic, LORD OF LIFE CHURCH, http://www.lolchurch.net/blood-drive-and-flu-shot-clinic (last visited Aug. 1, 2014).
159. Immunize Children, Leaders Urge, CHURCH OF JESUS CHRIST OF LATTER-DAY SAINTS, http://www.lds.org/liahona/1978/07/immunize-children-leaders-urge?lang= eng (last visited Aug. 1, 2014).
160. Heather Whittle Wrigley, Church Makes Immunizations an Official Initiative, Provides Social Mobilization, CHURCH OF JESUS CHRIST OF LATTER-DAY SAINTS (June 13, 2012), http://www.lds.org/church/news/church-makes- immunizations-an-official-initiative-provides-socialmobilization (last visited Aug. 1, 2014).
161. Katharine Jefferts Schori, St. Peter's-Confirmation/Eucharist, EPISCOPAL CHURCH (July 23, 2013), http://www.episcopalchurch.org/page/st-peters- confirmationeucharist.
162. Katharine Jefferts Schori, Day of Ascension-Global Episcopal Mission Network, EPISCOPAL CHURCH (May 9, 2013), http://www.episcopalchurch.org/page/ day-ascension-global-episcopal-mission-network.
163. Email from Rev. Christian T. Iosso, Ph. D., Coordinator at the Advisory Committee on Social Witness Policy, to David Coolidge (Nov. 1, 2013)
164. The Golden Age, JEHOVAH'S WITNESSES (Jan. 3, 1923) 214;
165. The Sacredness of Human Blood, GOLDEN AGE, Jan. 3, 1923, at 293, 293 ("Vaccination is a direct violation of the everlasting covenant that God made with Noah after the flood.").
166. The Watchtower (Nov. 1, 1961) 670.
167. Do Jehovah's Witnesses Accept Medical Treatment?, JEHOVAH'S WITNESSES, http://www.jw.org/en/jehovahs-witnesses/faq/jehovahs-witnesses-medical- treatment (last visited Aug. 1, 2014).
168. Science and Health, CHRISTIAN SCIENCE, http://christianscience.com/read- online/science-andhealth/(chapter)/chapter-i-prayer#snchor.1.1 (last visited Aug. 1, 2014).
169. MARY BAKER EDDY, THE FIRST CHURCH OF CHRIST, SCIENTIST, AND MISCELLANY 219-20 (1917);
170. CHRISTIAN SCIENCE SENTINEL, http://sentinel.christianscience.com/ concordapi/view?q=quarrel+vaccination&book=tfccs.main. pw.my&verbatim=1 (last visited Aug. 1, 2014).
171. Ryder Stevens, Worldwide Immunity Through Prayer, CHRISTIAN SCIENCE SENTINEL (May 26, 2003), http://sentinel.christianscience.com/shared/view/ 1l9mvxk1tvc?s=t (citation omitted).
172. Hints for Religious Exemptions to Immunizations, FVACCINEINFO. NET (Apr. 5, 2008), http://www.vaccineinfo.net/exemptions/relexemptlet.shtml;
173. Sample Religious Exemption Letter and Supporting Documentation, PLANET INFOWARS, http://planet.infowars.com/health/vaccine-exemptionexample-letter-2 (last visited Aug. 1, 2014).
174. FAQ: Religious Exemption, K. N. O. W. VACCINES, http://www.know-vaccines. org/?page-id=28 (last visited Aug. 1, 2014) ("Vaccines are made with toxic chemicals that are injected into the bloodstream by vaccination. All vaccines are made with foreign proteins (viruses and bacteria), and some vaccines are made with genetically engineered viral and bacterial materials. A conflict arises if you believe that man is made in God's image and the injection of toxic chemicals and foreign proteins into the bloodstream is a violation of God's directive to keep the body/temple holy and free from impurities. A conflict arises if you accept God's warning not to mix the blood of man with the blood of animals. Many vaccines are produced in animal tissues. A conflict arises if your religious convictions are predicated on the belief that all life is sacred. God's commandment 'Thou Shall Not Kill' applies to the practice of abortion. ");
175. Letter for Religious Exemption to Mandatory Vaccination, GOLDRUST. NET, http://www.goldrust.net/religion.htm (last visited Aug. 1, 2014)
176. (citing various religious scripture references to use in letters); Religious Conviction, K. N. O. W. VACCINES, http://www.knowvaccines.org/?page- id=247 (last visited Aug. 1, 2014)
177. (Sarah-bara84, Comment to Letter Requesting Religious Exemption for Forced Flu Vax⋯ What Do You Think?, BABYCENTER (Aug. 12, 2012), http://community.babycenter.com/post/a35633233/letter-requesting-religious- exemption-for-forced-flu-vax⋯what-do-you-think ("As a practicing Christian, I believe that my body is a gift from God and a temple of the Holy Spirit (see I Corinthians 6:19, 20), and that it must not be polluted (see 2 Corinthians 7:1).");
178. Religious Convictions, VACCINATION LIBERATION, http://www.vaclib.org/ news/religion.htm (last visited Aug. 1, 2014) (citing various religious scripture references to use in letters).
179. See vaFAQ Religious Exemption, K. N. O. W. VACCINES, http://www.know- vaccines.org/?page-id=28 (last visited Aug. 1, 2014)
180. Religious Exemption in New Jersey, VACCINATION LIBERATION (Aug. 13, 2003), http://www.vaclib.org/chapter/exemptnj.htm
181. @ Twoplussixis8, Comment to Immunization Exemption Letter, MOTHERING (May 2, 2008), http://www.mothering.com/community/t/890537/immunization-exemption- letter.
182. Alison Buttenheim et al., Exposure of California Kindergartners to Students With Personal Belief Exemptions From Mandated School Entry Vaccinations, 102 AM. J. PUB. HEALTH e59, e59-e60 (2012);
183. Imdad et al., supra note 31, at 40; Omer et al., Geographic Clustering, supra note 31, at 1389;
184. Amy Parker Fiebelkorn et al., Measles in the United States During the Postelimination Era, 202 J. INFECTIOUS DISEASES 1520, 1525 (2010).
185. Berg V. Glen Cove City Sch. Dist., 853 F. Supp. 651, 655 (E. D. N. Y. 1994).
186. (quoting Sherr V. Northport-East Northport Union Free Sch. Dist., 672 F. Supp. 81, 94 (E. D. N. Y. 1987)).
187. Clint Rainey, Immune to Logic: Some New York City Private Schools Have Dismal Vaccination Rates, DAILY INTELLIGENCER (Mar. 30, 2014, 9:07 PM), http://nymag.com/daily/intelligencer/2014/03/some-nyc-schools-show-dismal- vaccination-rates.html.
188. Paul Offit, PAUL-OFFIT. COM, http://paul-offit.com (last visited Aug. 1, 2014);
189. About Paul Offit, PAUL-OFFIT. COM, http://paul-offit.com/about (last visited Aug. 1, 2014).
190. Paul A. Offit, End Religious Exemption, PHILLY. COM (May 10, 2013), http://articles.philly.com/2013-05-10/news/39144680-1-child-abuse-neglect-first- century-gospel.
191. ROBERT H. MNOOKIN & D. KELLY WEISBERG, CHILD, FAMILY, AND STATE: PROBLEMS AND MATERIALS ON CHILDREN AND THE LAW 131 (6th ed. 2009).
192. See Pierce V. Society of Sisters, 268 U. S. 510, 534-35 (1925);
193. Meyer V. Nebraska, 262 U. S. 390, 399 (1923).
194. Susan Van Den Hof et al., Measles Epidemic in the Netherlands, 1999-2000, 186 J. INFECTIOUS DISEASES 1483, 1483-86 (2002).
195. Wisconsin V. Yoder, 406 U. S. 205, 207 (1972).
196. Diana H. V. Rubin, 171 P.3d 200, 205-206 (Ariz. Ct. App. 2007).
197. But cf. Dep't of Human Servs. V. S. M., 300 P.3d 1254, 1261-62 (Or. Ct. App. 2013).
198. In re Christine M., 595 N. Y. S.2d 606, 617-19 (N. Y. Fam. Ct. 1992).
199. CTRS. FOR DISEASE CONTROL & PREVENTION, Notifiable Diseases and Mortality Tables, 62 MORBIDITY & MORTALITY WKLY. REP. ND-719, ND-719 tbl.1 (Jan. 3, 2014).
200. Diana H., 171 P.3d at 208.
201. It was done in Mississippi, but that was over thirty years ago. Brown V. Stone, 378 So.2d 218, 221-23 (Miss. 1979).
202. ARIZ. REV. STAT. ANN. § 15-873 (2014) (West);
203. ME. REV. STAT. tit. 20-A, § 6355 (2014).
204. Emily K. Brunson, The Impact of Social Networks on Parents' Vaccination Decisions, 131 PEDIATRICS 1397 (2013).
205. Christina England, This Study Reveals Children Are Being Vaccinated With Toxic Levels of Aluminum Causing Neurological Damage and Autism, VACTRUTH (Jan. 28, 2014), http://vactruth.com/2014/01/28/toxic-levels-of-aluminum;
206. Dan Olmsted & Mark Blaxill, The Age of Polio: How an Old Virus and New Toxins Triggered a Man-Made Epidemic-Part 1, The Wrong Narrative, AGE OF AUTISM (Sep. 19, 2011, 5:45 AM), http://www.ageofautism.com/2011/09/the-age- ofpolio-how-an-old-virus-and-new-toxins-triggered-a-man-made-epidemic.html;
207. Jake Crosby, Discovering I Was Toxic, AGE OF AUTISM (Jan. 14, 2009, 5:45 AM), http://www.ageofautism.com/2009/01/discovering-i-was-toxic.html.
208. FRANK P. GRAD, PUB. HEALTH LAW MANUAL 72-73 (2005).
209. See generally Jason L. Schwartz, Commentary, Unintended Consequences: The Primacy of Public Trust in Vaccination, 107 MICH. L. REV. FIRST IMPRESSIONS 100 (2009).
210. WASH. REV. CODE ANN. §§ 28A.210.080-210.090 (West 2014).
211. CAL. HEALTH & SAFETY CODE § 120325 et seq. (West 2014).
212. OR. REV. STAT. § 433.267 (2014).
213. Priya Shetty, Experts Concerned About Vaccination Backlash, 375 LANCET 970, 971 (2010).
214. ARK. CODE ANN. § 6-60-504 (b) (2014).
215. CTRS. FOR DISEASE CONTROL & PREVENTION, Measles-United States, January 1-August 24, 2013, 62 MORBIDITY & MORTALITY WKLY. REP. 741, 741 (2013) [hereinafter Measles, January 1-August 24].
216. CTRS. FOR DISEASE CONTROL & PREVENTION, Update: Measles-United States, January-July 2008, 57 MORBIDITY & MORTALITY WKLY. REP. 893, 893 (2008).
217. CDC, Measles 2011, supra note 97.
218. Measles, January 1-August 24, supra note 246.
219. CTRS. FOR DISEASE CONTROL & PREVENTION, Vaccination Coverage Among Children in Kindergarten-United States, 2011-1 2 School Year, 61 MORBIDITY & MORTALITY WKLY. REP. 647, 647 (2012).
220. Blank et al., supra note 32, at 1282. See generaly Lara K. Misegades et al., Association of Childhood Pertussis with Receipt of 5 doses of Pertussis Vaccine by Time Since Last Vaccine Dose, California, 2010, 308 JAMA 2126 (2012);
221. Omer et al., Geographic Clustering, supra note 31, at 1389-96.
222. OFFIT, DEADLY CHOICES, supra note 11, at xi-xii.
223. Omer et al., Legislative Challenges, supra note 37, at 621.