Photic retinal injuries: Mechanisms, hazards, and prevention

Retina Fifth Edition

Volumn , Issue , 2012, Pages 1555-1563

  Mainster, Martin A ^b   Turner, Patricia L ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^b NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84906799340     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1016/B978-1-4557-0737-9.00090-4     Document Type: Chapter

References (156)

1. Mainster MA., White TJ., Allen RG Spectral dependence of retinal damage produced by intense light sources J Opt Soc Am 60 6 1970 848-855.
2. Mainster MA Wavelength selection in macular photocoagulation. Tissue optics, thermal effects, and laser systems Ophthalmology 93 7 1986 952-958.
3. Mainster MA Decreasing retinal photocoagulation damage: principles and techniques Semin Ophthalmol 14 4 1999 200-209.
4. Mainster MA Violet and blue light blocking intraocular lenses: photoprotection versus photoreception Br J Ophthalmol 90 6 2006 784-792.
5. Mainster MA., Boulton M Retinal phototoxicity In: Albert DM., Miller JW., Blodi BA., et al. Principles and practice of ophthalmology 3rd ed 2008 Elsevier London ch. 174.
6. Boettner EA., Wolter JR Transmission of the ocular media Invest Ophthalmol 1 6 1962 776-783.
7. Barker FM., Brainard GC The direct spectral transmittance of the excised human lens as a function of age, (FDA 785345 0090 RA) 1991 US Food and Drug Administration Washington, DC.
8. Mainster MA., Turner PL Ultraviolet-B phototoxicity and hypothetical photomelanomagenesis: intraocular and crystalline lens photoprotection Am J Ophthalmol 149 4 2010 543-549.
9. Sliney DH Eye protective techniques for bright light Ophthalmology 90 8 1983 937-944.
10. Mainster MA Light and macular degeneration: a biophysical and clinical perspective Eye 1 Pt 2 1987 304-310.
11. Stamper DA., Lund DJ., Molchany JW., et al. Human pupil and eyelid response to intense laser light: implications for protection Percept Mot Skills 95 3 Pt 1 2002 775-782.
12. Mainster MA., Ham WT Jr., Delori FC Potential retinal hazards. Instrument and environmental light sources Ophthalmology 90 8 1983 927-932.
13. Mainster MA Finding your way in the photoforest: laser effects for clinicians Ophthalmology 91 7 1984 886-888.
14. Marshall J Structural aspects of laser-induced damage and their functional implications Health Phys 56 5 1989 617-624.
15. Mainster MA Photic retinal injury In: Ryan SJ Retina 1989 Mosby-Year Book St Louis.
16. Mainster MA Classification of ophthalmic photosurgery Lasers Light Ophthalmol 6 2 1994 65-67.
17. Mainster MA., Ho PC., Mainster KJ Nd: YAG laser photodisruptors Ophthalmology Suppl 1983 45-47.
18. Gabel VP., Birngruber R., Lorenz B., et al. Clinical observations of six cases of laser injury to the eye Health Phys 56 5 1989 705-710.
19. Thach AB., Lopez PF., Snady-McCoy LC., et al. Accidental Nd:YAG laser injuries to the macula Am J Ophthalmol 119 6 1995 767-773.
20. Barkana Y., Belkin M Laser eye injuries Surv Ophthalmol 44 6 2000 459-478.
21. Mainster MA Retinal laser accidents: mechanisms, managment and rehabilitation J Laser Appl 12 1 2000 3-9.
22. Harris MD., Lincoln AE., Amoroso PJ., et al. Laser eye injuries in military occupations Aviat Space Environ Med 74 9 2003 947-952.
23. Brown J Jr., Hacker H., Schuschereba ST., et al. Steroidal and nonsteroidal antiinflammatory medications can improve photoreceptor survival after laser retinal photocoagulation Ophthalmology 114 10 2007 1876-1883.
24. Shulman S., Belokopytov M., Dubinsky G., et al. Ameliorative effect of PN-277 on laser-induced retinal damage Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol 247 3 2009 343-348.
25. Ciulla TA., Topping TM Surgical treatment of a macular hole secondary to accidental laser burn Arch Ophthalmol. 115 7 1997 929-930.
26. Newman DK., Flanagan DW Spontaneous closure of a macular hole secondary to an accidental laser injury Br J Ophthalmol. 84 9 2000 1075.
27. Sasahara M., Noami S., Takahashi M., et al. Optical coherence tomographic observations before and after macular hole formation secondary to laser injury Am J Ophthalmol 136 6 2003 1167-1170.
28. Nehemy M., Torqueti-Costa L., Magalhaes EP., et al. Choroidal neovascularization after accidental macular damage by laser Clin Experiment Ophthalmol 33 3 2005 298-300.
29. Ying HS., Symons RC., Lin KL., et al. Accidental Nd:YAG laser-induced choroidal neovascularization Lasers Surg Med 40 4 2008 240-242.
30. Mainster MA., Stuck BE., Brown J Jr., Assessment of alleged retinal laser injuries Arch Ophthalmol 122 8 2004 1210-1217.
31. Mainster MA., Timberlake GT., Warren KA., et al. Pointers on laser pointers Ophthalmology 104 8 1997 1213-1214.
32. Mainster MA Blinded by the light - not! Arch Ophthalmol 117 11 1999 1547-1548.
33. Mainster MA., Sliney DH., Marshall J., et al. But is it really light damage? Ophthalmology 104 2 1997 179-180.
34. Mainster MA., White TJ., Tips JH., et al. Retinal-temperature increases produced by intense light sources J Opt Soc Am 60 2 1970 264-270.
35. Luttrull JK., Musch DC., Mainster MA Subthreshold diode micropulse photocoagulation for the treatment of clinically significant diabetic macular oedema Br J Ophthalmol 89 1 2005 74-80.
36. Bernstein PS., Steffensmeier A Optical coherence tomography before and after repair of a macular hole induced by an unintentional argon laser burn Arch Ophthalmol 123 3 2005 404-405.
37. Mainster MA., Turner PL Retinal injuries from light: mechanisms, hazards and prevention In: Ryan SJ., Hinton DR., Schachat AP., et al. Retina 4th ed 2006 Elsevier London vol. 2, ch. 109.
38. Mainster MA Ophthalmic laser surgery: principles, technology, and technique Trans New Orleans Acad Ophthalmol 33 1985 81-101.
39. Jenkins DL Hazard evaluation of the coherent model 900 photocoagulator laser system, non-ionizing radiation protection specialty study no. 25-42-0310-79 (NTIS no. ADA 068713) 1979 US Army Environment Hygiene Agency Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD.
40. Sliney DH., Dennis JE Safety concerns about laser pointers J. Laser Applications 6 1994 159-164.
41. Sell CH., Bryan JS Maculopathy from handheld diode laser pointer Arch Ophthalmol 117 11 1999 1557-1558.
42. Ziahosseini K., Doris JP., Turner GS Laser eye injuries. Maculopathy from handheld green diode laser pointer BMJ 340 2010 c2982.
43. Fujinami K., Yokoi T., Hiraoka M., et al. Choroidal neovascularization in a child following laser pointer-induced macular injury Jpn J Ophthalmol 54 6 2010 631-633.
44. Wyrsch S., Baenninger PB., Schmid MK Retinal injuries from a handheld laser pointer N Engl J Med 363 11 2010 1089-1091.
45. Ueda T., Kurihara I., Koide R A case of retinal light damage by green laser pointer (Class 3b) Jpn J Ophthalmol 55 4 2011 428-430.
46. Boosten K., Van Ginderdeuren R., Spileers W., et al. Laser-induced retinal injury following a recreational laser show: two case reports and a clinicopathological study Bull Soc Belge Ophtalmol 317 2011 11-16.
47. Ham WT Jr., Mueller HA., Sliney DH Retinal sensitivity to damage from short wavelength light Nature 260 1976 153-155.
48. Lawwill T Three major pathologic processes caused by light in the primate retina: a search for mechanisms Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc 80 1982 517-579.
49. Sliney DH., Mellerio J., Gabel VP., et al. What is the meaning of threshold in laser injury experiments? Implications for human exposure limits Health Phys 82 3 2002 335-347.
50. Gallin PF., Terman M., Reme CE., et al. Ophthalmologic examination of patients with seasonal affective disorder, before and after bright light therapy Am J Ophthalmol 119 2 1995 202-210.
51. Sliney DH How light reaches the eye and its components Int J Toxicol 21 6 2002 501-509.
52. van Norren D., Gorgels TG The action spectrum of photochemical damage to the retina: a review of monochromatic threshold data Photochem Photobiol 87 4 2011 747-753.
53. Rozanowska M., Jarvis-Evans J., Korytowski W., et al. Blue light-induced reactivity of retinal age pigment. In vitro generation of oxygen-reactive species J Biol Chem 70 32 1995 18825-18830.
54. Boulton M., Rozanowska M., Rozanowski B Retinal photodamage J Photochem Photobiol B 64 2-3 2001 144-161.
55. Mainster MA., Turner PL Blue-blocking IOLs decrease photoreception without providing significant photoprotection Surv Ophthalmol 55 3 2010 272-289.
56. Mainster MA Blue-blocking intraocular lenses and pseudophakic scotopic sensitivity J Cataract Refract Surg 32 9 2006 1403-1404.
57. ACGIH Threshold Limit Values for chemical substances and physical agents: Biological Exposure Indices 1997 American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists Cincinnati.
58. Noell WK., Walker VS., Kang BS., et al. Retinal damage by light in rats Invest Ophthalmol 5 5 1966 450-473.
59. Griswold MS., Stark WS Scotopic spectral sensitivity of phakic and aphakic observers extending into the near ultraviolet Vision Res 32 9 1992 1739-1743.
60. Kremers JJ., van Norren D Two classes of photochemical damage of the retina Lasers Light Ophthalmol 2 1988 41-52.
61. Mellerio J Light effects on the retina In: Albert DM., Jakobiec FA Principles and practice of ophthalmology 1994 W.B. Saunders Philadelphia vol. 1.
62. Gass JDM Stereoscopic atlas of macular diseases 3rd ed 1987 Mosby-Year Book St Louis.
63. Tso MO., La Piana FG The human fovea after sungazing Trans Am Acad Ophthalmol Otolaryngol 79 6 1975 OP788-OP795.
64. Naidoff MA., Slinkey DH Retinal injury from a welding arc Am J Ophthalmol 77 5 1974 663-668.
65. Lucas RS., Harper CA., McCombe MF., et al. Optical coherence tomography findings in welder’s maculopathy Retinal Cases Brief Reports 1 2007 169-171.
66. Magnavita N Photoretinitis: an underestimated occupational injury? Occup Med (Lond) 52 4 2002 223-225.
67. Kaushik S., Gupta V., Gupta A Optical coherence tomography findings in solar retinopathy Ophthalmic Surg Lasers Imaging 35 1 2004 52-55.
68. Steinkamp PN., Watzke RC., Solomon JD An unusual case of solar retinopathy Arch Ophthalmol 121 12 2003 1798-1799.
69. Charbel Issa P., Fleckenstein M., Scholl HP., et al. Confocal scanning laser ophthalmoscopy findings in chronic solar retinopathy Ophthalmic Surg Lasers Imaging 39 6 2008 497-499.
70. Chen RW., Gorczynska I., Srinivasan VJ., et al. High-speed ultrahigh-resolution optical coherence tomography findings in chronic solar retinopathy Retin Cases Brief Rep 2 2 2008 103-105.
71. Jain A., Desai RU., Charalel RA., et al. Solar retinopathy: comparison of optical coherence tomography (OCT) and fluorescein angiography (FA) Retina 29 9 2009 1340-1345.
72. Symons RC., Mainster MA., Goldberg MF Solar maculopathy in a young child Br J Ophthalmol 94 9 2010 1258-1259.
73. Pilli S., Ogoti M., Kalluri V Fourier-domain optical coherence tomography findings in welder’s maculopathy Ophthalmic Surg Lasers Imaging 2010 1-5 Epub ahead of print, doi: 10.3928/15428877-20100215-93.
74. Hope-Ross MW., Mahon GJ., Gardiner TA., et al. Ultrastructural findings in solar retinopathy Eye 7 Pt 1 1993 29-33.
75. Grey RH Foveo-macular retinitis, solar retinopathy, and trauma Br J Ophthalmol 62 8 1978 543-546.
76. Kelley JS., Hoover RE., George T Whiplash maculopathy Arch Ophthalmol 96 5 1978 834-835.
77. Abebe MT., De Laey JJ Foveomacular retinitis as a result of ocular contusion Bull Soc Belge Ophtalmol 243 1992 171-175.
78. Kuming BS Foveomacular retinitis Br J Ophthalmol 70 11 1986 816-818.
79. Jacobs NA Foveomacular retinitis Br J Ophthalmol 71 7 1987 563.
80. Cordes FC A type of foveomacular retinitis observed in the U.S. Navy Am J Ophthalmol 27 1944 803-816.
81. Kerr LM., Little HL Foveomacular retinitis Arch Ophthalmol 76 4 1966 498-504.
82. Ritchey CL., Ewald RA Sun gazing as the cause of foveomacular retinitis Am J Ophthalmol 70 4 1970 491-497.
83. Marlor RL., Blais BR., Preston FR., et al. Foveomacular retinitis, an important problem in military medicine: epidemiology Invest Ophthalmol 12 1 1973 5-16.
84. Wergel FLJ., Brenner EH Solar retinopathy foveomacular retinitis Ann Ophthalmol 7 1975 495-503.
85. Gladstone GJ., Tasman W Solar retinitis after minimal exposure Arch Ophthalmol 96 8 1978 1368-1369.
86. Yannuzzi LA., Fisher YL., Krueger A., et al. Solar retinopathy: a photobiological and geophysical analysis Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc 85 1987 120-158.
87. White TJ., Mainster MA., Wilson PW., et al. Chorioretinal temperature increases from solar observation Bull Math Biophys 33 1 1971 1-17.
88. Sliney DH., Wolbarsht ML Safety with lasers and other optical sources: a comprehensive handbook 1980 Plenum Press New York p. 1035.
89. Mainster MA Solar eclipse safety Ophthalmology 105 1 1998 9-10.
90. Yang X., Jiang F., Song Y., et al. Accidental macular injury from prolonged viewing of a plasma flash produced by a femtosecond laser Ophthalmology 117 5 2010 972-975.
91. Gardner TW., Ai E., Chrobak M., et al. Photic maculopathy secondary to short-circuiting of a high-tension electric current Ophthalmology 89 7 1982 865-868.
92. Friedman E., Kuwabara T The retinal pigment epithelium. IV. The damaging effects of radiant energy Arch Ophthalmol 80 2 1968 265-279.
93. Rinkoff J., Machemer R., Hida T., et al. Temperature-dependent light damage to the retina Am J Ophthalmol 102 4 1986 452-462.
94. Mainster MA Henle fibers may direct light toward the center of the fovea Lasers Light Ophthalmol 2 1988 79-86.
95. Fishman GA Light-induced maculopathy from surgical microscopes during cataract surgery In: Ernest JT The 1985 year book of ophthalmology 1985 Mosby-Year Book St Louis.
96. Michels M., Sternberg P Jr., Operating microscope-induced retinal phototoxicity: pathophysiology, clinical manifestations and prevention Surv Ophthalmol 34 4 1990 237-252.
97. Brod RD., Olsen KR., Ball SF., et al. The site of operating microscope light-induced injury on the human retina Am J Ophthalmol 107 4 1989 390-397.
98. Pavilack MA., Brod RD Site of potential operating microscope light-induced phototoxicity on the human retina during temporal approach eye surgery Ophthalmology 108 2 2001 381-385.
99. Michels M., Lewis H., Abrams GW., et al. Macular phototoxicity caused by fiberoptic endoillumination during pars plana vitrectomy Am J Ophthalmol 114 3 1992 287-296.
100. Khwarg SG., Geoghegan M., Hanscom TA Light-induced maculopathy from the operating microscope Am J Ophthalmol 98 5 1984 628-630.
101. Robertson DM., Feldman RB Photic retinopathy from the operating room microscope Am J Ophthalmol 101 5 1986 561-569.
102. Mares-Perlman JA., Brady WE., Klein BE., et al. Diet and nuclear lens opacities Am J Epidemiol 141 4 1995 322-334.
103. Parver LM., Auker CR., Fine BS Observations on monkey eyes exposed to light from an operating microscope Ophthalmology 90 8 1983 964-972.
104. Irvine AR., Wood I., Morris BW Retinal damage from the illumination of the operating microscope. An experimental study in pseudophakic monkeys Arch Ophthalmol 102 9 1984 1358-1365.
105. Green WR., Robertson DM Pathologic findings of photic retinopathy in the human eye Am J Ophthalmol 112 5 1991 520-527.
106. Mansour AM., Yunis MH., Medawar WA Ocular coherence tomography of symptomatic phototoxic retinopathy after cataract surgery: a case report J Med Case Reports 1 2011 133.
107. Jaffe GJ., Irvine AR., Wood IS., et al. Retinal phototoxicity from the operating microscope. The role of inspired oxygen Ophthalmology 95 8 1988 1130-1141.
108. Ferguson J Photosensitivity due to drugs Photodermatol Photoimmunol Photomed 18 5 2002 262-269.
109. Long VW., Woodruff GH Bilateral retinal phototoxic injury during cataract surgery in a child J Aapos 8 3 2004 278-279.
110. Manzouri B., Egan CA., Hykin PG Phototoxic maculopathy following uneventful cataract surgery in a predisposed patient Br J Ophthalmol 86 6 2002 705-706.
111. Khwarg SG., Linstone FA., Daniels SA., et al. Incidence, risk factors, and morphology in operating microscope light retinopathy Am J Ophthalmol 103 3 Pt 1 1987 255-263.
112. Kleinmann G., Hoffman P., Schechtman E., et al. Microscope-induced retinal phototoxicity in cataract surgery of short duration Ophthalmology 109 2 2002 334-338.
113. O’Brien DP., Francis IC The corneal quilt: a protective device designed to reduce intraoperative retinal phototoxicity Ophthalmic Surg 25 3 1994 191-194.
114. Kraff MC., Lieberman HL., Jampol LM., et al. Effect of a pupillary light occluder on cystoid macular edema J Cataract Refract Surg 15 6 1989 658-660.
115. Jampol LM., Kraff MC., Sanders DR., et al. Near-UV radiation from the operating microscope and pseudophakic cystoid macular edema Arch Ophthalmol 103 1 1985 28-30.
116. Keates RH., Genstler DE UV radiation Ophthalmic Surg 13 4 1982 327.
117. Sliney DH., Armstrong BC Radiometric analysis of surgical microscope lights for hazards analyses Appl Opt 25 12 1986 1882-1889.
118. Kraff MC., Sanders DR., Jampol LM., et al. Effect of an ultraviolet-filtering intraocular lens on cystoid macular edema Ophthalmology 92 3 1985 366-369.
119. Colin J., Ropars YM., Bonissent JF., et al. Cystoid macular oedema and intraocular lenses with ultraviolet filters J Eur Implant Soc 4 1987 5-10.
120. Clarke MP., Yap M., Weatherill JR Do intraocular lenses with ultraviolet absorbing chromophores protect against macular oedema? Acta Ophthalmol (Copenh) 67 5 1989 593-596.
121. Komatsu M., Kanagami S., Shimizu K Ultraviolet-absorbing intraocular lens versus non-UV-absorbing intraocular lens: comparison of angiographic cystoid macular edema J Cataract Refract Surg 15 6 1989 654-657.
122. Ciardella AP., Schiff W., Barile G., et al. Persistent indocyanine green fluorescence after vitrectomy for macular hole Am J Ophthalmol 136 1 2003 174-177.
123. Uemura A., Kanda S., Sakamoto Y., et al. Visual field defects after uneventful vitrectomy for epiretinal membrane with indocyanine green-assisted internal limiting membrane peeling Am J Ophthalmol 136 2 2003 252-257.
124. Engelbrecht NE., Freeman J., Sternberg P Jr., et al. Retinal pigment epithelial changes after macular hole surgery with indocyanine green-assisted internal limiting membrane peeling Am J Ophthalmol 133 1 2002 89-94.
125. Thompson JT., Haritoglu C., Kampik A., et al. Should indocyanine green be used to facilitate removal of the internal limiting membrane in macular hole surgery Surv Ophthalmol 54 1 2009 135-138.
126. Delori FC., Parker JS., Mainster MA Light levels in fundus photography and fluorescein angiography Vision Res 20 12 1980 1099-1104.
127. Delori FC., Pomerantzeff O., Mainster MA Light levels in ophthalmic diagnostic instruments Proc Soc Photo Optical Instrum Enginering 229 1980 154-160.
128. Klingbeil U Safety aspects of laser scanning ophthalmoscopes Health Phys 1 1 1986 81-93.
129. Mainster MA., Turner PL Retinal examination and photography are safe: is anyone surprised? Ophthalmology 117 2 2010 197-198.
130. Robertson DM., Erickson GJ The effect of prolonged indirect ophthalmoscopy on the human eye Am J Ophthalmol 87 5 1979 652-661.
131. Delori FC., Webb RH., Sliney DH Maximum permissible exposures for ocular safety (ANSI 2000), with emphasis on ophthalmic devices J Opt Soc Am A Opt Image Sci Vis 24 5 2007 1250-1265.
132. Kohnen S Light-induced damage of the retina through slit-lamp photography Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol 238 12 2000 956-959.
133. Cideciyan AV., Jacobson SG., Aleman TS., et al. In vivo dynamics of retinal injury and repair in the rhodopsin mutant dog model of human retinitis pigmentosa Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 102 14 2005 5233-5238.
134. Berson EL Light deprivation and retinitis pigmentosa Vision Res 20 12 1980 1179-1184.
135. van der Hoeve J Eye lesions produced by light rich in ultraviolet rays: senile cataract, senile degeneration of the macula Am J Ophthalmol 3 1920 178-194.
136. Ts’o MO., La Piana FG., Appleton B The human fovea after sungazing Trans Am Acad Ophthalmol Otolaryngol 78 1974 OP-677.
137. Mainster MA Solar retinitis, photic maculopathy and the pseudophakic eye J Am Intraocul Implant Soc 4 3 1978 84-86.
138. Young RW A theory of central retinal disease In: Sears ML New directions in ophthalmic research 1981 Yale University Press New Haven, CT.
139. Margrain TH., Boulton M., Marshall J., et al. Do blue light filters confer protection against age-related macular degeneration? Prog Retin Eye Res 23 5 2004 523-531.
140. McCarty CA., Mukesh BN., Fu CL., et al. Risk factors for age-related maculopathy: the Visual Impairment Project Arch Ophthalmol 119 10 2001 1455-1462.
141. Taylor HR., West S., Munoz B., et al. The long-term effects of visible light on the eye Arch Ophthalmol 110 1 1992 99-104.
142. Dong LM., Stark WJ., Jefferys JL., et al. Progression of age-related macular degeneration after cataract surgery Arch Ophthalmol 127 11 2009 1412-1419.
143. Chew EY., Sperduto RD., Milton RC., et al. Risk of advanced age-related macular degeneration after cataract surgery in the Age-Related Eye Disease Study: AREDS report 25 Ophthalmology 116 2 2009 297-303.
144. Baatz H., Darawsha R., Ackermann H., et al. Phacoemulsification does not induce neovascular age-related macular degeneration Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 49 3 2008 1079-1083.
145. Sutter FK., Menghini M., Barthelmes D., et al. Is pseudophakia a risk factor for neovascular age-related macular degeneration? Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 48 4 2007 1472-1475.
146. Xu L., Li Y., Zheng Y., et al. Associated factors for age related maculopathy in the adult population in China: the Beijing eye study Br J Ophthalmol 90 9 2006 1087-1090.
147. Sliney DH Photoprotection of the eye - UV radiation and sunglasses J Photochem Photobiol B 64 2-3 2001 166-175.
148. Abraham AG., Cox C., West S The differential effect of ultraviolet light exposure on cataract rate across regions of the lens Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 51 8 2011 3919-3923.
149. Rabin JC., Wiley RW., Levine RR., et al. U.S. Army sunglasses: issues and solutions J Am Optom Assoc 67 4 1996 215-222.
150. American National Standard for the Safe Use of Lasers, ANSI Z136.1-2007 2007 American National Standards Institute Washington, DC.
151. Sliney DH., Wolborsht ML Safety standards and measurement techniques for high intensity light sources Vision Res 20 12 1980 1133-1141.
152. American National Standard for the Safe Use of Lasers in Health Care Facilities, ANSI Z136.3-2005 2005 American National Standards Institute Washington, DC.
153. Safety of Laser Products-Part 1: Equipment classification, requirements and user’s guide, IEC 60825-1, Ed. 2.0b 2008 International Electrotechnical Commission Geneva, Switzerland.
154. Sliney DH., Trokel SL Medical lasers and their safe use 1993 Springer-Verlag New York.
155. Sliney DH., Mainster MA Ophthalmic laser safety: tissue interactions, hazards and protection Ophthalmol Clin North Am 11 2 1998 157-164.
156. Performance Standards for Light-Emitting Products, 21CFR1040 2011 Center for Devices and Radiological Health, United States Food and Drug Administration Washington, DC.