Infections and systemic lupus erythematosus

European Journal of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases

Volumn 33, Issue 9, 2014, Pages 1467-1475

  Esposito, S ^a   Bosis, S ^a   Semino, M ^a   Rigante, D ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MILAN   (Italy)

^b CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY   (Italy)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ANTIMALARIAL AGENT; AZATHIOPRINE; CORTICOSTEROID; CYCLOPHOSPHAMIDE; CYTOTOXIC AGENT; IMMUNOSUPPRESSIVE AGENT; MYCOPHENOLIC ACID 2 MORPHOLINOETHYL ESTER; NONSTEROID ANTIINFLAMMATORY AGENT; RITUXIMAB;

AUTOIMMUNITY; BACTERIUM; CYTOMEGALOVIRUS; CYTOMEGALOVIRUS INFECTION; EPSTEIN BARR VIRUS; EPSTEIN BARR VIRUS INFECTION; ETIOLOGY; GENETIC PREDISPOSITION; HOST RESISTANCE; HUMAN; HUMAN PARVOVIRUS B19; IMMUNITY; INFECTION RISK; MICROORGANISM; PARASITE; PARASITOSIS; PARVOVIRUS INFECTION; PATHOGENESIS; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROTOZOAL INFECTION; RETROVIRUS; RETROVIRUS INFECTION; REVIEW; SYSTEMIC LUPUS ERYTHEMATOSUS; VACCINATION; VIRUS INFECTION; ANIMAL; COMPLICATION; IMMUNOLOGY; LUPUS ERYTHEMATOSUS, SYSTEMIC;

ANIMALS; HUMANS; LUPUS ERYTHEMATOSUS, SYSTEMIC; PROTOZOAN INFECTIONS; VIRUS DISEASES;

EID: 84906060211     PISSN: 09349723     EISSN: 14354373     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s10096-014-2098-7     Document Type: Review

References (108)

1. Draborg AH, Duus K, Houen G (2013) Epstein-Barr virus and systemic lupus erythematosus. Clin Dev Immunol 2013:1-10
2. Rahman A, Isenberg DA (2008) Systemic lupus erythematosus. N Engl J Med 358:929-939 (Pubitemid 351397092)
3. Habibi S, Saleem MA, Ramanan AV (2011) Juvenile systemic lupus erythematosus: review of clinical features and management. Indian Pediatr 48:879-887
4. O'Neill S, Cervera R (2010) Systemic lupus erythematosus. Best Pract Res Clin Rheumatol 24:841-855
5. Hoffman IE, Lauwerys BR, De Keyser F, Huizinga TW, Isenberg D, Cebecauer L et al (2009) Juvenile-onset systemic lupus erythematosus: different clinical and serological pattern than adult-onset systemic lupus erythematosus. Ann Rheum Dis 68:412-415
6. Doria A, Iaccarino L, Ghirardello A, Zampieri S, Arienti S, Sarzi-Puttini P et al (2006) Long-term prognosis and causes of death in systemic lupus erythematosus. Am J Med 119:700-706 (Pubitemid 44128446)
7. Petty RE, Laxer RM (2005) Systemic lupus erythematosus. In: Cassidy JT, Petty RE, Laxer RM, Lindsley CB (eds) Textbook of pediatric rheumatology. Elsevier Saunders, Philadelphia, pp 342-391
8. Brunner HI, Gladman DD, Ibañez D, Urowitz MD, Silverman ED (2008) Difference in disease features between childhood-onset and adult-onset systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum 58:556-562 (Pubitemid 351294890)
9. Samanta A, Roy S, Feehally J, Symmons DP (1992) The prevalence of diagnosed systemic lupus erythematosus in whites and Indian Asian immigrants in Leicester city, UK. Br J Rheumatol 31:679-682
10. Serdula MK, Rhoads GG (1979) Frequency of systemic lupus erythematosus in different ethnic groups in Hawaii. Arthritis Rheum 22:328-333 (Pubitemid 10141616)
11. Huang JL, Yao TC, See LC (2004) Prevalence of pediatric systemic lupus erythematosus and juvenile chronic arthritis in a Chinese population: a nation-wide prospective population-based study in Taiwan. Clin Exp Rheumatol 22:776-780
12. Kurahara DK, Grandinetti A, Fujii LL, Tokuda AA, Galario JA, Han MJ et al (2007) Visiting consultant clinics to study prevalence rates of juvenile rheumatoid arthritis and childhood systemic lupus erythematosus across dispersed geographic areas. J Rheumatol 34:425-429
13. Lehman TJ, McCurdy DK, Bernstein BH, King KK, Hanson V (1989) Systemic lupus erythematosus in the first decade of life. Pediatrics 83:235-239 (Pubitemid 19048690)
14. Taddio A, Rossetto E, Rosé CD, Brescia AM, Bracaglia C, Cortis E et al (2010) Prognostic impact of atypical presentation in pediatric systemic lupus erythematosus: results from a multicenter study. J Pediatr 156:972-977
15. Font J, Cervera R, Espinosa G, Pallarés L, Ramos-Casals M, Jiménez S et al (1998) Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) in childhood: analysis of clinical and immunological findings in 34 patients and comparison with SLE characteristics in adults. Ann Rheum Dis 57:456-459 (Pubitemid 28428213)
16. Rood MJ, ten Cate R, van Suijlekom-Smit LW, den Ouden EJ, Ouwerkerk FE, Breedveld FC et al (1999) Childhood-onset systemic lupus erythematosus: clinical presentation and prognosis in 31 patients. Scand J Rheumatol 28:222-226
17. Tan EM, Cohen AS, Fries JF, Masi AT, McShane DJ, Rothfield NF et al (1982) The 1982 revised criteria for the classification of systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum 25:1271-1277 (Pubitemid 13221242)
18. Petri M, Orbai AM, Alarcón GS, Gordon C, Merrill JT, Fortin PR et al (2012) Derivation and validation of the Systemic Lupus International Collaborating Clinics classification criteria for systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum 64:2677-2686
19. Zandman-Goddard G, Solomon M, Rosman Z, Peeva E, Shoenfeld Y (2012) Environment and lupus-related diseases. Lupus 21:241-250
20. Rigante D, Mazzoni MB, Esposito S (2014) The cryptic interplay between systemic lupus erythematosus and infections. Autoimmun Rev 13:96-102
21. Barzilai O, Ram M, Shoenfeld Y (2007) Viral infection can induce the production of autoantibodies. Curr Opin Rheumatol 19:636-643 (Pubitemid 47530886)
22. Sebastiani GD, Galeazzi M (2009) Infection - genetics relationship in systemic lupus erythematosus. Lupus 18:1169-1175
23. Sciascia S, Ceberio L, Garcia-Fernandez C, Roccatello D, Karim Y, Cuadrado MJ (2012) Systemic lupus erythematosus and infections: clinical importance of conventional and upcoming biomarkers. Autoimmun Rev 12:157-163
24. Sciascia S, Bertolaccini ML, Baldovino S, Roccatello D, Khamashta MA, Sanna G (2013) Central nervous system involvement in systemic lupus erythematosus: overview on classification criteria. Autoimmun Rev 12:426-429
25. Barzilai O, Sherer Y, Ram M, Izhaky D, Anaya JM, Shoenfeld Y (2007) Epstein-Barr virus and cytomegalovirus in autoimmune diseases: are they truly notorious? A preliminary report. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1108:567-577 (Pubitemid 47528770)
26. Koutouzov S, Mathian A, Dalloul A (2006) Type-I interferons and systemic lupus erythematosus. Autoimmun Rev 5:554-562 (Pubitemid 44508854)
27. Santana-de Anda K, Gómez-Martín D, Díaz-Zamudio M, Alcocer-Varela J (2011) Interferon regulatory factors: beyond the antiviral response and their link to the development of autoimmune pathology. Autoimmun Rev 11:98-103
28. Sekigawa I, Kawasaki M, Ogasawara H, Kaneda K, Kaneko H, Takasaki Y et al (2006) DNA methylation: its contribution to systemic lupus erythematosus. Clin Exp Med 6:99-106 (Pubitemid 44630739)
29. Kivity S, Agmon-Levin N, Blank M, Shoenfeld Y (2009) Infections and autoimmunity - friends or foes? Trends Immunol 30:409-414
30. Arbuckle MR, Gross T, Scofield RH, Hinshaw LB, Chang AC, Taylor FB Jr et al (1998) Lupus humoral autoimmunity induced in a primate model by short peptide immunization. J Invest Med 46:58-65 (Pubitemid 128452770)
31. Edwards CJ, Syddall H, Goswami R, Goswami P, Dennison EM, Cooper C (2006) Infections in infancy and the presence of antinuclear antibodies in adult life. Lupus 15:213-217
32. Zandman-Goddard G, Berkun Y, Barzilai O, Boaz M, Ram M, Anaya JM et al (2008) Neuropsychiatric lupus and infectious triggers. Lupus 17:380-384 (Pubitemid 351798712)
33. Zandman-Goddard G, Berkun Y, Barzilai O, Boaz M, Blank M, Ram M et al (2009) Exposure to Epstein-Barr virus infection is associated with mild systemic lupus erythematosus disease. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1173:658-663
34. Praprotnik S, Sodin-Semrl S, Tomsic M, Shoenfeld Y (2008) The curiously suspicious: infectious disease may ameliorate an ongoing autoimmune destruction in systemic lupus erythematosus patients. J Autoimmun 30:37-41
35. Keynan Y, Card CM, McLaren PJ, Dawood MR, Kasper K, Fowke KR (2008) The role of regulatory T cells in chronic and acute viral infections. Clin Infect Dis 46:1046-1052 (Pubitemid 351589870)
36. Bopp T, Jonuleit H, Schmitt E (2007) Regulatory T cells - the renaissance of the suppressor T cells. Ann Med 39:322-334 (Pubitemid 47262686)
37. Doria A, Sarzi-Puttini P, Shoenfeld Y (2008) Infections, rheumatism and autoimmunity: the conflicting relationship between humans and their environment. Autoimmun Rev 8:1-4
38. Perl A (1999) Mechanisms of viral pathogenesis in rheumatic disease. Ann Rheum Dis 58:454-461
39. Evans AS (1971) E.B. virus antibody in systemic lupus erythematosus. Lancet 1:1023-1024
40. de Carvalho JF, Pereira RM, Shoenfeld Y (2009) The mosaic of autoimmunity: the role of environmental factors. Front Biosci (Elite Ed) 1:501-509
41. James JA, Kaufman KM, Farris AD, Taylor-Albert E, Lehman TJ, Harley JB (1997) An increased prevalence of Epstein-Barr virus infection in young patients suggests a possible etiology for systemic lupus erythematosus. J Clin Invest 100:3019-3026 (Pubitemid 28022839)
42. Gergely P Jr, Pullmann R, Stancato C, Otvos L Jr, Koncz A, Blazsek A et al (2005) Increased prevalence of transfusion-transmitted virus and cross-reactivity with immunodominant epitopes of the HRES-1/p28 endogenous retroviral autoantigen in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Clin Immunol 116:124-134 (Pubitemid 40910238)
43. James JA, Neas BR, Moser KL, Hall T, Bruner GR, Sestak AL et al (2001) Systemic lupus erythematosus in adults is associated with previous Epstein-Barr virus exposure. Arthritis Rheum 44:1122-1126 (Pubitemid 32433618)
44. Francis L, Perl A (2010) Infection in systemic lupus erythematosus: friend or foe? Int J Clin Rheumtol 5:59-74
45. Moon UY, Park SJ, Oh ST, Kim WU, Park SH, Lee SH et al (2004) Patients with systemic lupus erythematosus have abnormally elevated Epstein-Barr virus load in blood. Arthritis Res Ther 6:R295-R302
46. Zandman-Goddard G, Shoenfeld Y (2005) Infections and SLE. Autoimmunity 38:473-485 (Pubitemid 43101781)
47. Kang I, Quan T, Nolasco H, Park SH, Hong MS, Crouch J et al (2004) Defective control of latent Epstein-Barr virus infection in systemic lupus erythematosus. J Immunol 172:1287-1294 (Pubitemid 38113792)
48. Blank M, Shoenfeld Y, Perl A (2009) Cross-talk of the environment with the host genome and the immune system through endogenous retroviruses in systemic lupus erythematosus. Lupus 18:1136-1143
49. Poole BD, Scofield RH, Harley JB, James JA (2006) Epstein-Barr virus and molecular mimicry in systemic lupus erythematosus. Autoimmunity 39:63-70 (Pubitemid 43878521)
50. Parks CG, Cooper GS, Hudson LL, Dooley MA, Treadwell EL, St Clair EW et al (2005) Association of Epstein-Barr virus with systemic lupus erythematosus: effect modification by race, age, and cytotoxic T lymphocyte-associated antigen 4 genotype. Arthritis Rheum 52:1148-1159 (Pubitemid 40530122)
51. Tugnet N, Rylance P, Roden D, Trela M, Nelson P (2013) Human endogenous retroviruses (HERVs) and autoimmune rheumatic disease: is there a link? Open Rheumatol J 7:13-21
52. Pullmann R Jr, Bonilla E, Phillips PE, Middleton FA, Perl A (2008) Haplotypes of the HRES-1 endogenous retrovirus are associated with development and disease manifestations of systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum 58:532-540 (Pubitemid 351294887)
53. Yoshiki T, Mellors RC, Strand M, August JT (1974) The viral envelope glycoprotein of murine leukemia virus and the pathogenesis of immune complex glomerulonephritis of New Zealand mice. J Exp Med 140:1011-1027
54. Perl A, Nagy G, Koncz A, Gergely P, Fernandez D, Doherty E et al (2008) Molecular mimicry and immunomodulation by the HRES-1 endogenous retrovirus in SLE. Autoimmunity 41:287-297 (Pubitemid 351593859)
55. Perl A, Colombo E, Dai H, Agarwal R, Mark KA, Banki K et al (1995) Antibody reactivity to the HRES-1 endogenous retroviral element identifies a subset of patients with systemic lupus erythematosus and overlap syndromes. Correlation with antinuclear antibodies and HLA class II alleles. Arthritis Rheum 38:1660-1671
56. Perl A, Fernandez D, Telarico T, Phillips PE (2010) Endogenous retroviral pathogenesis in lupus. Curr Opin Rheumatol 22:483-492
57. Gergely P Jr, Perl A, Poór G (2006) Possible pathogenic nature of the recently discovered TT virus: does it play a role in autoimmune rheumatic diseases? Autoimmun Rev 6:5-9 (Pubitemid 44716767)
58. Emlen W, Niebur J, Kadera R (1994) Accelerated in vitro apoptosis of lymphocytes from patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. J Immunol 152:3685-3692 (Pubitemid 24098067)
59. Pavlovic M, Kats A, Cavallo M, Shoenfeld Y (2010) Clinical and molecular evidence for association of SLE with parvovirus B19. Lupus 19:783-792
60. Aslanidis S, Pyrpasopoulou A, Kontotasios K, Doumas S, Zamboulis C (2008) Parvovirus B19 infection and systemic lupus erythematosus: activation of an aberrant pathway? Eur J Intern Med 19:314-318 (Pubitemid 351783390)
61. Hayashi T, Lee S, Ogasawara H, Sekigawa I, Iida N, Tomino Y et al (1998) Exacerbation of systemic lupus erythematosus related to cytomegalovirus infection. Lupus 7:561-564 (Pubitemid 28542635)
62. Nawata M, Seta N, Yamada M, Sekigawa I, Lida N, Hashimoto H (2001) Possible triggering effect of cytomegalovirus infection on systemic lupus erythematosus. Scand J Rheumatol 30:360-362 (Pubitemid 34001541)
63. Stratta P, Canavese C, Ciccone G, Santi S, Quaglia M, Ghisetti V et al (1999) Correlation between cytomegalovirus infection and Raynaud's phenomenon in lupus nephritis. Nephron 82:145-154 (Pubitemid 29263974)
64. Ramos-Casals M, Font J, García-Carrasco M, Cervera R, Jiménez S, Trejo O et al (2000) Hepatitis C virus infection mimicking systemic lupus erythematosus: study of hepatitis C virus infection in a series of 134 Spanish patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum 43:2801-2806 (Pubitemid 32001747)
65. Karakoç Y, Dilek K, Güllülü M, Yavuz M, Ersoy A, Akalyn H et al (1997) Prevalence of hepatitis C virus antibody in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Ann Rheum Dis 56:570-571
66. Mercado U, Avendaño-Reyes M, Araiza-Casillas R, Díaz-Molina R (2005) Prevalance of antibodies against hepatitis C and B viruses in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Rev Gastroenterol Mex 70:399-401
67. Green NM, Marshak-Rothstein A (2011) Toll-like receptor driven B cell activation in the induction of systemic autoimmunity. Semin Immunol 23:106-112
68. Pisetsky DS (2008) The role of innate immunity in the induction of autoimmunity. Autoimmun Rev 8:69-72
69. Corthésy B (2013) Role of secretory IgA in infection and maintenance of homeostasis. Autoimmun Rev 12:661-665
70. Kim WU, Sreih A, Bucala R (2009) Toll-like receptors in systemic lupus erythematosus; prospects for therapeutic intervention. Autoimmun Rev 8:204-208
71. Münz C, Lünemann JD, Getts MT, Miller SD (2009) Antiviral immune responses: triggers of or triggered by autoimmunity? Nat Rev Immunol 9:246-258
72. Fischer S, Agmon-Levin N, Shapira Y, Porat Katz BS, Graell E, Cervera R et al (2013) Toxoplasma gondii: bystander or cofactor in rheumatoid arthritis. Immunol Res 56:287-292
73. Vercelli D (2006) Mechanisms of the hygiene hypothesis - molecular and otherwise. Curr Opin Immunol 18:733-737
74. Zandman-Goddard G, Shoenfeld Y (2009) Parasitic infection and autoimmunity. Lupus 18:1144-1148
75. Clatworthy MR, Willcocks L, Urban B, Langhorne J, Williams TN, Peshu N et al (2007) Systemic lupus erythematosus-associated defects in the inhibitory receptor FcγRIIb reduce susceptibility to malaria. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 104:7169-7174 (Pubitemid 47186027)
76. Greenwood B, Corrah T (2001) Systemic lupus erythematosus in African immigrants. Lancet 358:1182 (Pubitemid 32971864)
77. Chen M, Aosai F, Norose K, Mun HS, Ishikura H, Hirose S et al (2004) Toxoplasma gondii infection inhibits the development of lupus-like syndrome in autoimmune (New Zealand Black x New Zealand White) F1 mice. Int Immunol 16:937-946 (Pubitemid 38967175)
78. Harnett W, Harnett MM (2006) Molecular basis of worm-induced immunomodulation. Parasite Immunol 28:535-543 (Pubitemid 44370859)
79. Liu G, Zhao Y (2007) Toll-like receptors and immune regulation: their direct and indirect modulation on regulatory CD4+ CD25+ T cells. Immunology 122:149-156 (Pubitemid 47389958)
80. Bach JF (2001) Protective role of infections and vaccinations on autoimmune diseases. J Autoimmun 16:347-353
81. Sawalha AH, Schmid WR, Binder SR, Bacino DK, Harley JB (2004) Association between systemic lupus erythematosus and Helicobacter pylori seronegativity. J Rheumatol 31:1546-1550 (Pubitemid 39006635)
82. Amital H, Govoni M, Maya R, Meroni PL, Ori B, Shoenfeld Y et al (2008) Role of infectious agents in systemic rheumatic diseases. Clin Exp Rheumatol 26:S27-S32 (Pubitemid 351595980)
83. Ram M, Anaya JM, Barzilai O, Izhaky D, Porat Katz BS, Blank M et al (2008) The putative protective role of hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection from autoimmune disorders. Autoimmun Rev 7:621-625
84. Graham RR, Ortmann W, Rodine P, Espe K, Langefeld C, Lange E et al (2007) Specific combinations of HLA-DR2 and DR3 class II haplotypes contribute graded risk for disease susceptibility and autoantibodies in human SLE. Eur J Hum Genet 15:823-830 (Pubitemid 47109040)
85. Schulze C, Munoz LE, Franz S, Sarter K, Chaurio RA, Gaipl US et al (2008) Clearance deficiency - a potential link between infections and autoimmunity. Autoimmun Rev 8:5-8
86. Van Ghelue M, Moens U, Bendiksen S, Rekvig OP (2003) Autoimmunity to nucleosomes related to viral infection: a focus on hapten-carrier complex formation. J Autoimmun 20:171-182 (Pubitemid 36355842)
87. Shoenfeld Y, Gilburd B, Abu-Shakra M, Amital H, Barzilai O, Berkun Y et al (2008) The mosaic of autoimmunity: genetic factors involved in autoimmune diseases - 2008. Isr Med Assoc J 10:3-7 (Pubitemid 351649454)
88. Papadimitraki ED, Choulaki C, Koutala E, Bertsias G, Tsatsanis C, Gergianaki I et al (2006) Expansion of toll-like receptor 9-expressing B cells in active systemic lupus erythematosus: implications for the induction and maintenance of the autoimmune process. Arthritis Rheum 54:3601-3611 (Pubitemid 44737172)
89. Garred P, Voss A, Madsen HO, Junker P (2001) Association of mannose-binding lectin gene variation with disease severity and infections in a population-based cohort of systemic lupus erythematosus patients. Genes Immun 2:442-450 (Pubitemid 33674263)
90. Walport MJ, Davies KA, Botto M (1998) C1q and systemic lupus erythematosus. Immunobiology 199:265-285 (Pubitemid 28404347)
91. Aron-Maor A, Shoenfeld Y (2001) Vaccination and systemic lupus erythematosus: the bidirectional dilemmas. Lupus 10:237-240 (Pubitemid 32410085)
92. Dell' Era L, Esposito S, Corona F, Principi N (2011) Vaccination of children and adolescents with rheumatic diseases. Rheumatology (Oxford) 50:1358-1365
93. Del Porto F, Laganà B, Biselli R, Donatelli I, Campitelli L, Nisini R et al (2006) Influenza vaccine administration in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus and rheumatoid arthritis. Safety and immunogenicity. Vaccine 24:3217-3223
94. Hidalgo-Tenorio C, Jiménez-Alonso J, de Dios Luna J, Tallada M, Martínez-Brocal A, Sabio JM (2004) Urinary tract infections and lupus erythematosus. Ann Rheum Dis 63:431-437 (Pubitemid 38453311)
95. Gladman DD, Hussain F, Ibañez D, Urowitz MB (2002) The nature and outcome of infection in systemic lupus erythematosus. Lupus 11:234-239 (Pubitemid 34506728)
96. Hill MD, Karsh J (1997) Invasive soft tissue infections with Streptococcus pneumoniae in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus: case report and review of the literature. Arthitis Rheum 40:1716-1719 (Pubitemid 27426168)
97. Marcos M, Fernández C, Soriano A, Marco F, Martínez JA, Almela M et al (2011) Epidemiology and clinical outcomes of bloodstream infections among lupus patients. Lupus 20:965-971
98. Erdozain JG, Ruiz-Irastorza G, Egurbide MV, Martinez-Berriotxoa A, Aguirre C (2006) High risk of tuberculosis in systemic lupus erythematosus? Lupus 15:232-235
99. Mok MY, Wong SS, Chan TM, Fong DY, Wong WS, Lau CS (2007) Non-tuberculous mycobacterial infection in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Rheumatology (Oxford) 46:280-284 (Pubitemid 46189789)
100. Rider JR, Ollier WE, Lock RJ, Brookes ST, Pamphilon DH (1997) Human cytomegalovirus infection and systemic lupus erythematosus. Clin Exp Rheumatol 15:405-409 (Pubitemid 27324003)
101. Ramos-Casals M, Cuadrado MJ, Alba P, Sanna G, Brito-Zerón P, Bertolaccini L et al (2008) Acute viral infections in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus: description of 23 cases and review of the literature. Medicine (Baltimore) 87:311-318
102. Pryor BD, Bologna SG, Kahl LE (1996) Risk factors for serious infection during treatment with cyclophosphamide and high-dose corticosteroids for systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum 39:1475-1482 (Pubitemid 26314980)
103. Danza A, Ruiz-Irastorza G (2013) Infection risk in systemic lupus erythematosus patients: susceptibility factors and preventive strategies. Lupus 22:1286-1294
104. Bosch X, Guilabert A, Pallarés L, Cerveral R, Ramos-Casals M, Bové A et al (2006) Infections in systemic lupus erythematosus: a prospective and controlled study of 110 patients. Lupus 15:584-589 (Pubitemid 44661745)
105. Dixon WG, Kezouh A, Bernatsky S, Suissa S (2011) The influence of systemic glucocorticoid therapy upon the risk of non-serious infection in older patients with rheumatoid arthritis: a nested case-control study. Ann Rheum Dis 70:956-960
106. Díaz-Lagares C, Pérez-Alvarez R, García- Hernández FJ, Ayala-Gutiérrez MM, Callejas JL, Martínez-Berriotxoa A et al (2011) Rates of, and risk factors for, severe infections in patients with systemic autoimmune diseases receiving biological agents offlabel. Arthritis Res Ther 13:R112
107. Navarra SV, Guzmán RM, Gallacher AE, Hall S, Levy RA, Jimenez RE et al (2011) Efficacy and safety of belimumab in patients with active systemic lupus erythematosus: a randomised, placebo-controlled, phase 3 trial. Lancet 377:721-731
108. Sisó A, Ramos-Casals M, Bové A, Brito-Zerón P, Soria N, Muñoz S et al (2008) Previous antimalarial therapy in patients diagnosed with lupus nephritis: influence on outcomes and survival. Lupus 17:281-288 (Pubitemid 351655794)