Mixed blood Indians: Racial construction in the early south

Mixed Blood Indians: Racial Construction in the Early South

Volumn , Issue , 2003, Pages 1-135

  Perdue, Theda ^a  

^a NONE

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References (396)

1. William Bartram, "Travels Through North and South Carolina", in William Bartram on the Southeastern Indians, ed. Gregory A. Waselkov and Kathryn E. Holland Braund (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1995), 46-47
2. (hereafter referred to as Waselkov and Braund, William Bartram).
3. Samuel Cole Williams, ed. Early Travels in the Tennessee Country, 1540-1800 (Johnson City, Tenn.: The Watauga Press, 1928), 150-55.
4. Jean-Bernard Bossu, Jean-Bernard Bossu's Travels in the Interior of North America, 1751-1762, ed. Seymour Feiler (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1962), 67.
5. George Strother Gaines, The Reminiscences of George Strother Gaines, Pioneer and Statesman of Early Alabama and Mississippi, 1805-1843, ed. James P. Pate (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1998), 47.
6. W. David Baird, Peter Pitchlynn: Chief of the Choctaws (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1972), 5.
7. James Axtell, "The White Indians of Colonial America", in The European and the Indian: Essays in the Ethnohistory of Colonial North America (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1981), 168-206.
8. J. Leitch Wright Jr., William Augustus Bowles: Director General of the Creek Nation (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1967);
9. Knox Mellon Jr., "Christian Priber's Cherokee 'Kingdom of Paradise, '" Georgia Historical Quarterly 57(1973):319-31;
10. Claudio Saunt, A New Order of Things: Property, Power, and the Transformation of the Creek Indians, 1733-1816 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 111-38.
11. Horatio B. Cushman, History of the Choctaw, Chickasaw, and Natchez Indians, ed. Angie Debo (1899; reprint, Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1999), 326.
12. Saunt, A New Order, 130-33.
13. Theda Perdue, "Clan and Court: Another Look at the Early Cherokee Republic", American Indian Quarterly 24(2000):562-69.
14. James Merrell, "The Racial Education of the Catawba Indians", Journal of Southern History 50(1984):363-84.
15. Theda Perdue, Slavery and the Evolution of Cherokee Society, 1540-1866 (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1979), 36-42;
16. Saunt, A New Order, 111-38.
17. William S. Willis Jr., "Divide and Rule: Red, White, and Black in the Old South", in Red, White, and Black: Symposium on Indians in the Old South, ed. Charles Hudson (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1971), 99-115.
18. John Norton, The Journal of Major John Norton, 1816, ed. Carl Frederick Klinck and James John Talman (Toronto: Champlain Society, 1970), 45.
19. Benjamin Hawkins, "A Sketch of the Creek Country in the Years 1798 and 1799", in Letters, Journals, and Writings of Benjamin Hawkins, ed. C. L. Grant (Savannah: Beehive Press, 1980), 1:292
20. (hereafter referred to as Grant, Writings of Hawkins).
21. David Taitt, "Journal of David Taitt's Travels from Pensacola, West Florida, to and Through the Country of the Upper and the Lower Creeks, 1772", in Travels in the American Colonies, ed. Newton D. Mereness (New York: Macmillan Company, 1916), 558.
22. Florette Henri, The Southern Indians and Benjamin Hawkins, 1796-1816 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1986), 127.
23. Deposition of James Ore, 16 June 1792, American State Papers: Indian Affairs (Washington: Gales and Seaton, 1832-1861), 1:274;
24. John P. Brown, Old Frontiers: The Story of the Cherokee Indians from the Earliest Times to the Date of Their Removal to the West, 1838 (Kingsport, Tenn.: Southern Publishers, Inc., 1938), 340-42.
25. Williams, Early Travels;
26. Perdue, Slavery, 8-9.
27. A Return of Persons Killed, Wounded, and Taken Prisoner, 5 November 1792, American State Papers, 1:329-31.
28. Norton, Journal, 38, 49, 55.
29. Adriane Strenk, "Tradition and Transformation: Shoe Boots and the Creation of a Cherokee Culture" (master's thesis, University of Kentucky, 1993).
30. John Demos, The Unredeemed Captive: A Family Story from Early America (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1994).
31. James Axtell, "The White Indians of Colonial America", William and Mary Quarterly 32(1975):55-88.
32. Taitt, "Journal of Travels", 558.
33. Cushman, History of Indians, 375.
34. Hawkins, "Sketch of Creek Country", 1:305;
35. Henri, Southern Indians, 127, 147.
36. John Phillip Reid, "A Perilous Rule: The Law of International Homicide", in The Cherokee Indian Nation: A Troubled History, ed. Duane H. King (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1979), 33-45.
37. Joseph Martin, "Journal Kept by General Joseph Martin describing Hopewell Treaties with the Southern Indian Nations" (Draper Manuscript Collection, State Historical Society of Wisconsin, Madison, ser. U, vol. 14), 79;
38. Greg O'Brien, "The Conqueror Meets the Unconquered: Negotiating Cultural Boundaries on the Post-Revolutionary Southern Frontier", Journal of Southern History 67(2001):59.
39. James Taylor Carson, Searching for the Bright Path: The Mississippi Choctaws from Prehistory to Removal (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1999), 22-23, 57.
40. "A Ranger's Report of Travels with General Oglethorpe, 1739-1742", in Travels in the American Colonies, ed. Newton D. Mereness (New York: Macmillan Company, 1916), 220;
41. Taitt, "Journal of Travels", 502-3.
42. George Chicken, "Colonel Chicken's Journal to the Cherokees, 1725", in Travels in the American Colonies, ed. Newton D. Mereness (New York: Macmillan Company, 1916), 101-2.
43. Bartram, "Travels Through North and South Carolina", 50.
44. Greg O'Brien, "Choctaws in a Revolutionary Age: A Study of Power and Authority, 1750-1801" (Ph. D. diss., University of Kentucky, 1998), 46-47.
45. K. G. Davies, ed., Documents of the American Revolution, 1700-1783 (Shannon: Irish University Press, 1972-1981), 3:213.
46. Caleb Swan, "Position and State of Manners and Arts in the Creek, or Muskogee Nation in 1791", in Henry Rowe Schoolcraft, Historical and Statistical Information Respecting the History, Condition, and Prospects of the Indian Tribes of the United States (Philadelphia: Lippincott, Grambo, 1851-1857), 5:279, 281.
47. Emmet Starr, History of the Cherokee Indians and Their Legends and Folk Lore (Muskogee, Okla.: Hoffman Printing Co., 1984), 467.
48. "Ranger's Report", 221.
49. John Lawson, A New Voyage to Carolina, ed. Hugh Talmage Lefler (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1967), 24.
50. Bernard Romans, A Concise and Natural History of East and West Florida, ed. Kathryn E. Holland Braund (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1999), 113.
51. Hawkins, Journal, 2 April 1802, in Grant, Writings of Hawkins, 2:419.
52. Hawkins, "Sketch of Creek Country", 1:292;
53. Hawkins, Journal, 9 February 1802, in Grant, Writings of Hawkins, 2:411.
54. James Adair, Adair's History of the American Indians, ed. Samuel Cole Williams (1775; reprint, New York: Promontory Press, 1930), 96-97.
55. Bartram, "Observations on the Creek and Cherokee Indians", in Waselkov and Braund, William Bartram, 147.
56. Tobias Fitch, "Captain [Tobias] Fitch's Journal to the Creeks, 1725", in Travels in the American Colonies, ed. Newton D. Mereness (New York: Macmillan Company, 1916), 176.
57. Verner Crane, The Southern Frontier, 1670-1732 (Durham: Duke University Press, 1928).
58. John Phillip Reid, A Better Kind of Hatchet: Law, Trade, and Diplomacy in the Cherokee Nation during the Early Years of European Contact (University Park: Penn State University Press, 1976);
59. Richard White, The Roots of Dependency: Subsistence, Environment, and Social Change among the Choctaws, Pawnees, and Navajos (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1983), 1-146;
60. Tom Hatley, The Dividing Paths: Cherokees and South Carolinians Through the Era of Revolution (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993);
61. and Kathryn E. Holland Braund, Deerskins & Duffels: The Creek Indian Trade with Anglo-America, 1685-1815 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1993).
62. Taitt to John Stuart, 16 March 1772, in Taitt, "Journal of Travels", 525, (n. 1).
63. Lawson, New Voyage, 190.
64. Bossu, Jean-Bernard Bossu, 172;
65. Louis-Philippe, Diary of My Travels in America, trans. Stephen Becker (New York: Delacorte Press, 1976), 73.
66. Taitt to Stuart, 4 May 1772, in Taitt, "Journal of Travels", 552, n 1.
67. Captain Raymond Demere to Governor William Henry Lyttleton, 24 June 1756, 2 January 1757, in Documents Relating to Indian Affairs, 1754-1765, ed. William L. McDowell Jr. (Columbia: South Carolina Dept. of Archives & History, 1992), 126-27, 303.
68. Hawkins, Journal, 28 November 1796, in Grant, Writings of Hawkins, 1:4.
69. Hawkins to Thomas Jefferson, 11 July 1803, in Grant, Writings of Hawkins, 2:455-56.
70. Bartram, "Observations on the Creek and Cherokee Indians", 155-56.
71. Hawkins, Journal, 20 December 1796, in Grant, Writings of Hawkins, 1:25.
72. Bartram, "Travels Through North and South Carolina", 77.
73. Hawkins, Journal, 25 December 1796, in Grant, Writings of Hawkins, 1:28.
74. Hawkins, Journal, 18, 25 December 1796, in Grant, Writings of Hawkins, 1:22, 27-28.
75. Taitt, "Journal of Travels", 504-5.
76. Bartram, "Travels Through North and South Carolina", 65-66.
77. Lawson, New Voyage, 192.
78. James Crawford, The Mobilian Trade Language (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1978).
79. Adair, Adair s History, 398.
80. Lawson, New Voyage, 192.
81. Charles Hudson, The Southeastern Indians (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1976), 317-18, 365-75.
82. Hawkins, Journal, 18 December 1796, 1:22.
83. Adair, Adair s History, 251.
84. John Phillip Reid, A Law of Blood: The Primitive Law of the Cherokee Nation (New York: New York University Press, 1970).
85. Norton, Journal, 36, 66.
86. Thomas Nairne, Nairne's Muskhogean Journals: The 1708 Expedition to the Mississippi River, ed. Alexander Moore (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1988), 60-61.
87. Lawson, New Voyage, 192.
88. Crane, Southern Frontier, 158-61, 162-86;
89. Adair, Adair's History, 281-83.
90. Henry Timberlake, Lieut. Henry Timberlake's Memoirs, 1756-1765, ed. Samuel Cole Williams (Johnson City, Tenn.: Watauga Press, 1927), 89.
91. Bartram, "Travels Through North and South Carolina", 96;
92. Brown, Old Frontiers, 348.
93. Bartram, "Travels Through North and South Carolina", 46-47.
94. Hawkins, Announcement, 14 January 1799, in Grant, Writings of Hawkins, 1:239.
95. Hawkins to Jefferson, 11 July 1803, 2:455-56.
96. Hawkins, Journal, 18 December 1796, 1:21.
97. Michael D. Green, "Mary Musgrove: Creating a New World", in Sifters: Native American Women's Lives, ed. Theda Perdue (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), 29.
98. Starr, History of Cherokee, 468-71;
99. Brown, Old Frontiers, 275.
100. Brown, Old Frontiers, 277-78, 348.
101. Bartram, "Travels Through North and South Carolina", 46.
102. Gaines, Reminiscences of Gaines, 47.
103. Cushman, History of Indians, 328.
104. Lawson, New Voyage, 35-36.
105. Hawkins, Journal, 16 February 1797, in Grant, Writings of Hawkins, 1:47.
106. Hawkins, "Sketch of Creek Country", 1:301.
107. Bartram, "Travels Through North and South Carolina", 114.
108. Romans, Concise and Natural History, 147;
109. Louis-Philippe, Diary of Travels, 72.
110. Theda Perdue, "Native Women in the Early Republic: Old World Perceptions, New World Realities", in Native Americans in the EarlyRepublic, ed. Ronald Hoffman and Frederick Hoxie (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1999), 85-122.
111. Bartram, "Travels Through North and South Carolina", 101-2.
112. Hawkins to addressee unknown, n. d., in Grant, Writings of Hawkins, 2:457.
113. Adair, Adair s History, 133-35.
114. Bartram, "Travels Through North and South Carolina", 47.
115. Lawson, New Voyage, 195.
116. Adair, Adair s History, 447-48.
117. Hawkins, Journal, 11 December 1796, in Grant, Writings of Hawkins, 1:15.
118. Norton, Journal, 76, 121.
119. Joe M. Anoatubby, "Debunkingthe Mixed-Blood Myth: Alternatives for InterpretingChickasaw History", (paper presented at the Southern Historical Association, Louisville, Ky., 2000).
120. Nathaniel J. Sheidley, "Unruly Men: Indians, Settlers, and the Ethos of Frontier Patriarchy in the Upper Tennessee Watershed, 1763-1815" (Ph. D. diss., Princeton University, 1999), 155-67.
121. U. S. Commissioners to Secretary Graham, 8 July 1817, Correspondence of Andrew Jackson, 1767-1845, ed. John S. Bassett (Washington: Carnegie Institution, 1926-1935), 2:300.
122. David Keith Hampton, comp., Cherokee Reservees (Oklahoma City: Baker PublishingCo., 1979).
123. Reprinted in Theda Perdue and Michael D. Green, The Cherokee Removal: A Brief History with Documents (Boston: Bedford Books, 1995), 125.
124. Theda Perdue, Cherokee Women: Gender and Culture Change, 1700-1835 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1998), 153-55.
125. Laws of the Cherokee Nation: Adopted by the Council at Various Periods. Printed for the Benefit of the Nation (Tahlequah, Cherokee Nation: Cherokee Advocate Office, 1852), 10.
126. Antonio J. Waring, ed., Laws of the CreekNation (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1960), 20, 22, 26.
127. Swan, "Position and State", 262-63.
128. Romans, Concise and Natural History, 137.
129. William G. McLoughlin and Walter H. Conser Jr., "The Cherokee Censuses of 1809, 1825, and 1835", in McLoughlin, The Cherokee Ghost Dance: Essays on the Southeastern Indians, 1789-1861 (Macon: Mercer University Press, 1984), 218, 240.
130. Arrell M. Gibson, The Chickasaws (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1971)
131. Hawkins to addressee unknown, 2:457.
132. John P. Brown, Old Frontiers: The Story of the Cherokee Indians from the Earliest Times to the Date of Their Removal to the West, 1838 (Kingsport, Tenn.: Southern Publishers, Inc., 1938), 128.
133. Michael D. Green, "Mary Musgrove: Creating a New World", in Sifters: Native American Women s Lives, ed. Theda Perdue (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), 35, 45.
134. Duane Champagne makes this point briefly in Social Order and Political Change: Constitutional Governments among the Cherokee, the Choctaw, the Chickasaw, and the Creek (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1992), 54.
135. John Lawson, A New Voyage to Carolina, ed. Hugh Talmage Lefler (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1967), 192.
136. Hawkins to James McHenry, 6 January 1797, in Letters, Journals, and Writings of Benjamin Hawkins, ed. C. L. Grant (Savannah: Beehive Press, 1980) 1:63
137. (hereafter referred to as Grant, Writings of Hawkins).
138. Rufus Anderson, Memoir of Catharine Brown: A Christian Indian of the Cherokee Nation (Boston: Crocker and Brewster; New York: John P. Haven, 1825; reprint, Signal Mountain, Tenn.: Mountain Press, 1998), 124.
139. John Norton, The Journal of Major John Norton, 1816, ed. Carl Frederick Klinck and James John Talman (Toronto: Champlain Society, 1970), 60.
140. William Bartram, "Travels Through North and South Carolina", in William Bartram on the Southeastern Indians, ed. Gregory A. Waselkov and Kathryn E. Holland Braund (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1995), 102
141. (hereafter referred to as Waselkov and Braund, William Bartram).
142. Brainerd Journal, 5, 23 September, 20 October 1818;
143. Daniel S. Butrick's Journal, 6 October 1818;
144. Hawkins, Journal, 16 February 1797, in Grant, Writings of Hawkins, 1:47-48.
145. Benjamin Hawkins, "A Sketch of the Creek Country in the Years 1798 and 1799", in Grant, Writings of Hawkins, 1:298.
146. Hawkins to William Eustis, 27 August 1809, in Grant, Writings of Hawkins, 2:556.
147. Louis-Philippe, Diary of My Travels in America, trans. Stephen Becker (New York: Delacorte Press, 1976), 76-77.
148. "Journal of David Taitt's Travels from Pensacola, West Florida, to and Through the Country of the Upper and Lower Creeks, 1772";
149. "Colonel [George] Chicken's Journal to the Cherokees, 1725";
150. "A Ranger's Report of Travels with General Oglethorpe, 1739-1742";
151. in Travels in the American Colonies, ed. Newton D. Mereness (New York: Macmillan Company, 1916), 541, 224, 135.
152. Taitt, "Journal of Travels", 510.
153. Hawkins, Journal, 21 January 1797, in Grant, Writings of Hawkins, 1:37.
154. "The Invention of the Creek Nation: A Political History of the Creek Indians in the South's Imperial Era, 1540-1763" (Ph. D. diss., Emory University, 2000)
155. William S. Willis Jr., "Patrilineal Institutions in Southeastern North America", Ethnohistory 10(1963):250-69.
156. Thomas Nairne, Nairne's Muskhogean Journals: The 1708 Expedition to the Mississippi River, ed. Alexander Moore (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1988), 61-62.
157. Lawson, New Voyage, 205.
158. Hawkins, "A Sketch of Creek Country", 1:318.
159. Taitt, "Journal of Travels", 504-5.
160. Brown, Old Frontiers, 277-78, 332, 345-46, 353.
161. Louis-Philippe, Diary of Travels, 77.
162. Reginald Horsman, Expansion and American Indian Policy, 1783-1812 (East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 1967).
163. Hawkins to Peter Early, 15 February 1815, in Grant, Writings of Hawkins, 2:717.
164. J. Leitch Wright Jr., Creeks and Seminoles: The Destruction and Regeneration of the Muscogulge People (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1986), 60, 167-68.
165. Hawkins to James Monroe, 23 January 1815, in Grant, Writings of Hawkins, 2:716-17.
166. Michael D. Green, The Politics of Indian Removal: Creek Government and Societyin Crisis (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1982);
167. Joel W. Martin, Sacred Revolt: The Muskogees' Struggle for a New World (Boston: Beacon Press, 1991);
168. Gregory Evans Dowd, A Spirited Resistance: The North American Indian Struggle for Unity, 1745-1815 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992);
169. Claudio Saunt, A New Order of Things: Property, Power, and the Transformation of the Creek Indians, 1733-1816 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999).
170. James Taylor Carson, Searching for the Bright Path: The Mississippi Choctaws from Prehistory to Removal (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1999), 86-102.
171. Green, Politics, 69-97;
172. "Treaty with the Creeks, 1825", in Charles J. Kappler, ed., Indian Treaties, 1778-1883 (1904; reprint, New York: Amereon House, 1972), 214-17.
173. Carson, Searchingfor Path, 70.
174. W. David Baird, Peter Pitchlynn: Chiefof the Choctaws (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1972), 24-28.
175. Gary E. Moulton, John Ross: Cherokee Chief (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1978), 6.
176. Benjamin W. Griffith Jr., McIntosh and Weatherford: Creek Indian Leaders (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1988), 254.
177. Carson, Searching for Path, 95-96;
178. Donna L. Akers, "Peter P. Pitchlynn: Race and Identity in Nineteenth-Century America", in The Human Tradition in Antebellum America, ed. Michael A. Morrison (Wilmington, Del.: Scholarly Resources, 2000), 134.
179. Baird (Peter Pitchlynn, 6)
180. James Taylor Carson's dissertation, "Searchingfor the Bright Path: The Mississippi Choctaws from Prehistory to Removal" (Ph. D. diss., University of Kentucky, 1996), 128-29
181. Arturo O'Neill to Josef de Ezpeleta, 19 October 1783, in John Walton Caughey, McGillivray of the Creeks (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1938), 62-63.
182. Horatio B. Cushman, History of the Choctaw, Chickasaw, and Natchez Indians, ed. Angie Debo (1899; reprint, Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1999) 355;
183. Champagne, Social Order, 156-84;
184. William G. McLoughlin, After the Trail of Tears: The Cherokees' Struggle for Sovereignty, 1839-1880 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1993), 229.
185. Emmet Starr, History of the Cherokee Indians and Their Legends and Folk Lore (Muskogee, Okla.: Hoffman Printing Co., 1984), 410-11.
186. Joe M. Anoatubby, "Debunkingthe Mixed-Blood Myth: Alternatives for InterpretingChickasaw History", (paper presented at the Southern Historical Association, Louisville, Ky., 2000).
187. William G. McLoughlin, Cherokee Renascence in the New Republic (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986), 191-92.
188. Carson, Searching for Path, 92-93, 102.
189. William G. McLoughlin, "Thomas Jefferson and the Rise of Cherokee Nationalism, 1806-1809", in The Cherokee Ghost Dance: Essays on the Southeastern Indians (Macon, Ga.: Mercer University Press, 1984), 73-110
190. (hereafter referred to as McLoughlin, Cherokee Ghost Dance).
191. Thurman Wilkins, Cherokee Tragedy: The Ridge Family and the Decima tion of a People (New York: Macmillan, 1970), 253.
192. Chester B. DePratter, Late Prehistoric and Early Historic Chiefdoms in the Southeastern United States (New York: Garland Publishing, 1991);
193. Timothy R. Pauketat, The Ascent of Chiefs: Cahokia and Mississippian Politics in Native North America (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1994);
194. John E. Scarry, ed., Political Structure and Change in the Prehistoric Southeastern United States (Gainesville: University Presses of Florida, 1996);
195. Bruce D. Smith, ed., Mississippian Emergence: The Evolution of Ranked Agricultural Societies in Eastern North America (Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1990);
196. Mark Williams and Gary Shapiro, eds., Lamar Archaeology: Mississippian Chiefdoms in the Deep South (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1990).
197. Lawson, New Voyage, 200.
198. Carson, Searching for Path, 14-15.
199. Bartram, "Observations on the Creek and Cherokee Indians", in Waselkov and Braund, William Bartram, 147.
200. Bartram, "Travels Through North and South Carolina", 53.
201. Grant Foreman, Advancingthe Frontier, 1830-1860 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1933), 324-25.
202. Richard White, The Roots of Dependency: Subsistence, Environment, and Social Change among the Choctaws, Pawnees, and Navajos (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1983), 34-51.
203. Theda Perdue, Cherokee Women: Gender and Culture Change, 1700-1835 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1998), 102.
204. Hawkins, "Sketch of Creek Country", 1:292
205. Francis Paul Prucha, American Indian Policy in the Formative Years: The Indian Trade and Intercourse Acts, 1790-1834 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1962), 41-50.
206. Hawkins to Henry Dearborn, 1 January 1809, and Hawkins to William Eustis, 1812, in Grant, Writings of Hawkins, 2:547, 600.
207. Hawkins, Journal, 9 February 1802, in Grant, Writings of Hawkins, 2:411.
208. Henry Knox to George Washington, 7 July 1789, American State Papers: Indian Affairs (Washington: Gales and Seaton, 1832-1861), 1:53.
209. Doublehead to Meigs, 8 June 1804
210. Pathkiller and Toolachee to Meigs, 14 September 1812, Records of the Cherokee Agency in Tennessee, 1801-1835, Record Group 75, National Archives, Washington, D. C., Microcopy M-208 (hereafter referred to as M-208).
211. Hawkins to Thomas Jefferson, 13 September 1806, in Grant, Writings of Hawkins, 2:508.
212. Hawkins, Journal, 9 February 1802, 2:410.
213. O'Brien's "Choctaws in a Revolutionary Age: A Study of Power and Authority, 1750-1801" (Ph. D. diss., University of Kentucky, 1998).
214. Bartram, "Travels Through North and South Carolina", 66.
215. James Axtell, The Invasion Within: The Contest of Cultures in Colonial North America (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985), 4;
216. William G. McLoughlin, "Native American Reactions to Christian Missions", in The Cherokees and Christianity, 1794-1870 (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1994), 9-33.
217. O'Brien, "Choctaws in a Revolutionary Age", 27-28.
218. Rowena McClinton Ruff, "Notable Persons in Cherokee History: Charles Hicks", Journal of Cherokee Studies 17(1996):16-27;
219. Lee Irwin, "Different Voices Together: Preservation and Acculturation in Early 19th Century Cherokee Religion", Journal of Cherokee Studies 18(1997):3-26.
220. Carson, Searching for Path, 108.
221. Clara Sue Kidwell, Choctaws and Missionaries in Mississippi, 1818-1918 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1995), 92-115;
222. Champagne, Social Order, 152.
223. Carson, Searching for Path, 110.
224. Arrell M. Gibson, The Chickasaws (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1971), 103-37;
225. Carson, Searching for Path, 103-26.
226. William G. McLoughlin, Cherokees and Missionaries, 1789-1839 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1974), 47-53, 317.
227. Gibson, Chickasaws, 65, 110.
228. Kidwell, Choctaws and Missionaries, 50-68.
229. Carson, Searchingfor Path, 83, 90-91.
230. Missionary Herald, September 1820, 417.
231. Carson, Searchingfor Path, 95.
232. McLoughlin, Cherokees and Missionaries, 135.
233. Anderson, Memoir of Catharine Brown, 10, 23.
234. John Ridge to Albert Gallatin, 27 February 1826, in Perdue and Green, The Cherokee Removal: A Brief History with Documents (Boston: Bedford Books, 1995), 40.
235. Nathaniel J. Sheidley, "Unruly Men: Indians, Settlers, and the Ethos of Frontier Patriarchy in the Upper Tennessee Watershed, 1763-1815" (Ph. D. diss., Princeton University, 1999), 231-51.
236. Bartram, "Observations on the Creek and Cherokee Indians", 156-58.
237. James Adair, Adair's History of the American Indians, ed. Samuel Cole Williams (1775; reprint, New York: Promontory Press, 1930), 443.
238. Louis-Philippe, Diary of Travels, 96-97.
239. Cushman, History of Indians, 344-45;
240. Carson, Searching for Path, 54.
241. Saunt, A New Order, 89, 169-71.
242. Perdue, Cherokee Women, 140-41.
243. Norton, Journal, 51-52.
244. Hawkins to addressee unknown, n. d., in Grant, Writings of Hawkins, 62:457;
245. William G. McLoughlin, "Cherokee Anomie, 1794-1810", in The Cherokee Ghost Dance: Essays on the Southeastern Indians, 1789-1861 (Macon: Mercer University Press, 1984), 3-38.
246. Thomas L. McKenney and James Hall, The Indian Tribes of North America, with Biographical Sketches and Anecdotes of the Principal Chiefs (Edinburgh: John Grant, 1935), 2:178-93;
247. "Alabama Indian Chiefs", The Alabama Historical Quarterly 13(1951):45-49.
248. James C. Kelley, "Oconostota", Journal of Cherokee Studies 3(1979):233.
249. Saunt, A New Order, 176-77.
250. YoungWolf's Last Will and Testament, 12 March 1814, John Howard Payne Papers, Newberry Library, Chicago, Ill.;
251. reprinted in Perdue and Green, Cherokee Removal, 29.
252. McLoughlin, Renascence, 77-91.
253. Saunt, A New Order, 217.
254. Carson, Searching for Path, 72.
255. Gibson, Chickasaws, 148-53;
256. George Strother Gaines, The Reminiscences of George Strother Gaines, Pioneer and Statesman of Early Alabama and Mississippi, 1805-1843, ed. James P. Pate (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1998), 148.
257. Perdue, Cherokee Women, pt. 1.
258. Hawkins to addressee unknown, 2:457.
259. Daniel F. Littlefield Jr., The Chickasaw Freedmen: A People Without a Country, (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1980), 9-10.
260. Kidwell, Choctaws and Missionaries, 108-9.
261. Carson, Searchingfor Path, 80.
262. William G. McLoughlin and Walter H. Conser Jr., "The Cherokee Censuses of 1809, 1825, and 1835" in McLoughlin, Cherokee Ghost Dance, 215-50;
263. R. Halliburton Jr., Red Over Black: Black Slaveryamongthe Cherokee Indians (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1977), 181-90.
264. Littlefield, Chickasaw Freedmen, 10.
265. Daniel F. Littlefield, Africans and Creeks: From the Colonial Period to the Civil War (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1979), 115-16.
266. Laws of the Cherokee Nation: Adopted by the Council at Various Periods. Printed for the Benefit of the Nation (Tahlequah, Cherokee Nation: Cherokee Advocate Office, 1852), 3.
267. Social Order, 124-75.
268. Green, Politics, 149-52.
269. Green, Politics, 69-97.
270. James Mooney, "Myths of the Cherokee", 19th Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1900), 239.
271. Gibson, Chickasaws, 10-11.
272. Carson, Searchingfor Path, 8.
273. Green, Politics, 13.
274. Laws of Cherokee Nation, 118-19.
275. Theda Perdue, "The Trail of Tears: Removal of the Southern Indians", in The American Indian Experience: A Profile, 1524 to the Present, ed. Phillip Weeks (Arlington Heights, Ill.: Forum Press, 1988), 96-117.
276. Florence Rebecca Ray, Chieftain Greenwood LeFlore and the Choctaw Indians of the Mississippi Valley (Memphis: Davis PrintingCo., 1936).
277. Griffith, McIntosh and Weatherford, 254.
278. Sharon Flanagan, "The Georgia Cherokees Who Remained: Race, Status and Property in the Cherokee Community", The Georgia Historical Quarterly 73(1989):584-609.
279. Moulton, John Ross, 100-101.
280. Jackson to Crawford, 10 June 1816, in Correspondence of Andrew Jackson, ed. John S. Bassett (Washington, D. C.: Carnegie Institution, 1926-1935), 2:244.
281. Francis Jennings, The Invasion of America: Indians, Colonization, and the Cant of Conquest (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1975), 43-57;
282. Roy Harvey Pearce, Savagism and Civilization: A Study of the Indian and the American Mind (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988), 3-49;
283. James Axtell, The Invasion Within: The Contest of Cultures in Colonial North America (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985), 131-78.
284. Bernard W. Sheehan, Seeds of Extinction: Jeffersonian Philanthropy and the American Indian (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1973), 15-116.
285. William Byrd, William Byrd's Histories of the Dividing Line Betwixt Virginia and North Carolina, ed. William K. Boyd (1929; reprint, New York: Dover Publications, 1967), 120.
286. Thomas Jefferson, Notes on the State of Virginia, ed. William Peden (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1955), 62;
287. Jefferson to Chastellux, 7 June 1785, in The Papers of Thomas Jefferson, ed. Julian P. Boyd et al. (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1950) 7:185.
288. James Adair, Adair's History of the American Indians, ed. Samuel Cole Williams (1775; reprint, New York: Promontory Press, 1930), 4-5.
289. Robert Beverley, The History and Present State of Virginia (1705; reprint, Indianapolis and New York: The Bobbs-Merrill Company, Inc. 1971), 89.
290. Sheehan, Seeds of Extinction, 174-80.
291. Helen C. Rountree, "Pocahontas: The Hostage Who Became Famous", in Sifters: Native American Women's Lives, ed. Theda Perdue (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001) 14-28.
292. Beverley, History of Virginia, 18-19.
293. Byrd, Histories of Dividing Line, 120.
294. Wilbur R. Jacobs, The Appalachian Indian Frontier: The Edmund Atkin Report and Plan of1755 (1954; reprint, Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1967), 80, 91 (n. 3).
295. Arturo O'Neill to Marques de Sonora, 12 July 1787, in McGillivray of the Creeks, ed. John Walton Caughey (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1938), 156-58.
296. Jefferson to Hawkins, 18 February 1803, in The Writings of Thomas Jefferson, ed. Andrew A. Lipscomb and Albert Ellery Bergh (Washington, D. C.: Thomas Jefferson Memorial Assn., 1903-1904), 10:363.
297. Missionary Herald, January 1827, 9.
298. Missionary Herald, October 1819, 465.
299. MissionaryHerald, September 1822, 287.
300. Byrd, Histories of Dividing Line, 4.
301. Hawkins to Jefferson, 11 July 1803, in Letters, Journals, and Writings of Benjamin Hawkins, ed. C. L. Grant (Savannah: Beehive Press, 1980), 2:455-56
302. (hereafter referred to as Grant, Writings of Hawkins).
303. Meigs to Chulisa and Sour Mush, 14 March 1808. Records of the Cherokee Agency in Tennessee, 1801-1835, Record Group 75, National Archives, Washington, D. C., Microcopy M-208 (hereafter referred to as M-208).
304. Bernard Romans, A Concise and Natural History of East and West Florida, ed. Kathryn E. Holland Braund (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1999), 110-11.
305. Thomas L. McKenney and James Hall, The Indian Tribes of North America, with Biographical Sketches and Anecdotes of the Principal Chiefs (Edinburgh: John Grant, 1935), 2:264-69.
306. Doublehead to J. D. Chisolm, 20 November 1802, M-208.
307. Duane Champagne, Social Order and Political Change: Constitutional Governments amongthe Cherokee, the Choctaw, the Chickasaw, and the Creek (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1992), chaps. 3 and 4.
308. Theda Perdue, Cherokee Women: Gender and Culture Change, 1700-1835 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1998), chap. 6.
309. Fire and the Spirits: Cherokee Law from Clan to Court (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1975).
310. William G. McLoughlin, "Native American Reactions to Christian Missions", in The Cherokees and Christianity, 1794-1870 (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1994), 25.
311. James Taylor Carson, Searchingfor the Bright Path: The Mississippi Choctaws from Prehistory to Removal (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1999), 125;
312. Arrell M. Gibson, The Chickasaws (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1971), 135.
313. Jefferson to Hawkins, 18 February 1803, in The Writings of Thomas Jefferson, ed. Paul Leicester Ford (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1892-1899), 8:213-14.
314. Draft of Jefferson's Fifth Annual Message, in The Writings of Thomas Jefferson, ed. Paul Leicester Ford (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1892-1899), 8:394.
315. Meigs to Hawkins, 13 February 1805, M-208.
316. Robert F. Berkhofer Jr., The White Man s Indian: Images of the American Indian from Columbus to the Present (New York: Random House, 1978), 33-70;
317. Robert E. Bieder, Science Encounters the Indian, 1820-1880 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1986);
318. and Reginald Horsman, Race and Manifest Destiny: The Origins of American Racial Anglo-Saxonism (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1981).
319. Thomas F. Gossett, Race: The Historyofan Idea in America (1963; reprint, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997), 32-84;
320. George M. Fredrickson, The Black Image in the White Mind: The Debate on African American Character and Destiny, 1817-1914 (New York: Harper & Row, 1971), 1-96;
321. and William Stanton, The Leopard's Spots: Scientific Attitudes Toward
322. Romans, Concise and Natural History, 110.
323. Theda Perdue and Michael D. Green, The Cherokee Removal: A Brief History with Documents (Boston: Bedford Books, 1995), 125.
324. Missionary Herald, April 1830, 115.
325. Wilson Lumpkin to the U. S. House of Representatives, May 1830, in Wilson Lumpkin, The Removal of the Cherokee Indians from Georgia, 1827-1841 (1907; reprint, New York: Augustus M. Kelley, 1971), 79, 82.
326. Lewis Cass, "Removal of the Indians", North American Review 30(January 1830):67.
327. Dana D. Nelson, The Word in Black and White: Reading Race in American Literature, 1638-1867 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993), 38-64.
328. Berkhofer, White Man's Indian, 71-96;
329. and Susan Scheckel, The Insistence of the Indian: Race and Nationalism in Nineteenth-Century American Culture (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1998).
330. Horsman, Race and Manifest Destiny, 58-59.
331. Thomas L. McKenney, Memoirs, Official and Personal (1846; reprint, Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1973), 188-90;
332. J. Leitch Wright Jr., Creeks and Seminoles: The Destruction and Regeneration of the Muscogulge People (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1986), 231.
333. American Eagle, 22 March 1824;
334. Niles Weekly Register, 9 July 1825.
335. Thurman Wilkins, Cherokee Tragedy: The Ridge Family and the Decimation ofa People (New York: MacMillan, 1970), 148-150.
336. Joel Williamson, New People: Miscegenation and Mulattoes in the United States (New York: Free Press, 1980), 71-75.
337. Bernard W. Sheehan, Seeds of Extinction, 177.
338. Horsman, Race and Manifest Destiny, 118.
339. Speech of the Hon. Wilson Lumpkin, 70, 77.
340. Cass, "Removal of Indians", 71.
341. Missionary Herald, May 1822, 139.
342. Members of the Church at Creek Path, May 1822;
343. Report on the Station at Haweis, January 1828, ABCFM.
344. Missionary Herald, September 1824, 284.
345. Missionary Herald, February 1823, 45.
346. Butrick to Jeremiah Evarts, 24 November 1824, ABCFM.
347. Missionary Herald, February 1829, 58.
348. Missionary Herald, March 1831, 82.
349. Minutes of a Conference between Brigadier General James Wilkinson, Benjamin Hawkins and Andrew Pickens, Esquires, Commissioners of the United States, and the Principal Chiefs of the Choctaw Nation of Indians, held at Fort Adams, 15 December 1801, in Grant, Writings of Hawkins, 1:397-98.
350. Carson, Searchingfor Path, 79;
351. Champagne, Social Order, 149.
352. Levi Colbert et. al. to Andrew Jackson, 22 November 1832, Letters Received, 1824-1881, U. S. Bureau of Indian Affairs, Record Groups 75, National Archives, Washington, D. C., Microcopy M-234 (hereafter referred to as M-234).
353. McKenney and Hall, Indian Tribes of North America.
354. Champagne, Social Order, 112.
355. McKenney and Hall, Indian Tribes of North America, 1:62, 368.
356. Missionary Herald, September 1824, 285.
357. Missionary Herald, September 1824, 284.
358. Missionary Herald, August 1820, 380.
359. Missionary Herald, September 1824, 284.
360. Emmet Starr, History of the Cherokee Indians and Their Legends and Folk Lore (Muskogee, Okla.: Hoffman Printing Co., 1984), 426-27, 474-75.
361. Mary Jane Warde, George Washington Grayson and the Creek Nation, 1843-1920 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1999), 14;
362. Don L. Shadburn, Unhallowed Intrusion: A History of Cherokee Families in Forsyth County, Georgia (Saline, Mich.: McNaughton and Gunn, Inc., 1993), 113-14.
363. Missionary Herald, July 1818, 339.
364. Elias Boudinot, "An Address to the Whites", in Theda Perdue, Cherokee Editor: The Writings of Elias Boudinot (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1983), 69.
365. Missionary Herald, October 1821, 310-11.
366. Warde, Grayson, 4.
367. McKenney, Memoirs, 38.
368. William Chamberlain's Journal, 24 August 1825;
369. Samuel A. Worcester to Jeremiah Evarts, 24 October 1825, ABCFM.
370. Laws of the Cherokee Nation: Adopted by the Council at Various Periods. Printed for the Benefit of the Nation (Tahlequah, Cherokee Nation: Cherokee Advocate Office, 1852), 57.
371. Ann Paine, Notebook 2, 20 December 1820, ABCFM.
372. Ronald N. Satz, American Indian Policy in the Jacksonian Era (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1975).
373. Jackson to Col. Robert Butler, 5 September 1816, Correspondence of Andrew Jackson, 2:259.
374. U. S. Commissioners to Secretary Graham, 8 July 1817, Correspondence of Andrew Jackson, 2:300.
375. Jackson to Butler, 21 June 1817, Correspondence of Andrew Jackson, 2:299.
376. Mary Young, "John Ross: Cherokee Chief and Defender of the Nation", in The Human Tradition in Antebellum America, ed. Michael A. Morrison (Wilmington, Del.: Scholarly Resources, 2000), 115-30.
377. Missionary Herald, July 1818, 339.
378. U. S. Commissioners to Secretary Graham, 8July 1817, Correspondence of Andrew Jackson, 2:303.
379. Jackson to Butler, 21 June 1817, Correspondence of Andrew Jackson, 2:299.
380. U. S. Commissioners to Secretary Graham, 8 July 1817, Correspondence of Andrew Jackson, 2:300, 304.
381. Lumpkin, Removal of Cherokee, 77.
382. U. S. Commissioners to Secretary Graham, 8 July 1817, Correspondence of Andrew Jackson, 2:304.
383. Lumpkin, Removal of Cherokee, 78.
384. Angie Debo, And Still the Waters Run: The Betrayal of the Five Civilized Tribes (1940; reprint, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1972), especially chapters 1 and 2.
385. U. B. Phillips, "The Central Theme of Southern History", American Historical Review 34(1928):30-43.
386. U. B. Phillips, American Negro Slavery: A Survey of the Supply, Employment and Control of Negro Labor as Determined by the Plantation Regime (New York, London: D. Appleton and Company, 1918);
387. U. B. Phillips, Life and Labor in the Old South (Boston: Little, Brown, 1929).
388. U. B. Phillips, "Georgia and State Rights: A Study of the Political History of Georgia from the Revolution to the Civil War with Particular Regard to Federal Relations", Annual Report of the American Historical Association for the Year 1901 (Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1902), 2:70.
389. Angie Debo, The Rise and Fall of the Choctaw Republic (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1934), 77.
390. Angie Debo, The Road to Disappearance: A History of the Creek Indians (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1941), 84, 94.
391. Henry Thompson Malone, Cherokees of the Old South: A People in Transition (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1956), 53, 183-84.
392. Gibson, Chickasaws, 80-81, 142.
393. McLoughlin, "Accepting Christianity, 1839-1860", in The Cherokees and Christianity, 1794-1870 (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1994), 189-90.
394. Claudio Saunt, A New Order of Things: Property, Power, and the Transformation of the Creek Indians, 1733-1816 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 2-3.
395. (Social Order, 54).
396. Melissa L. Meyer, The White Earth Tragedy: Ethnicity and Dispossession at a Minnesota Anishinaabe Reservation, 1889-1920 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1994).