Managing temperate forests for carbon storage: Impacts of logging versus forest protection on carbon stocks

Ecosphere

Volumn 5, Issue 6, 2014, Pages

  Keith, Heather ^a   Lindenmayer, David ^a   MacKey, Brendan ^b   Blair, David ^a   Carter, Lauren ^a   McBurney, Lachlan ^a   Okada, Sachiko ^a   Konishi Nagano, Tomoko ^c  

^a AUSTRALIAN NATIONAL UNIVERSITY   (Australia)

^b GRIFFITH UNIVERSITY   (Australia)

^c FUJITSU LABORATORIES LTD   (Japan)

Author keywords

Carbon accounting; Carbon emissions; Carbon storage; Disturbances; Eucalyptus regnans; Forest management logging; Montane ash forest; Native forest; Old growth forest

Indexed keywords

EID: 84903441007     PISSN: None     EISSN: 21508925     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1890/ES14-00051.1     Document Type: Article

References (161)

1. Ajani, J., H. Keith, M. Blakers, B. M. Mackey, and H. P. King. 2013. Comprehensive carbon stock and flow accounting: a national framework to support climate change mitigation policy. Ecological Economics 89:61-72.
2. Ambrose, G. J. 1982. An ecological and behavioural study of vertebrates using hollows in eucalypt branches. Dissertation. LaTrobe University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.
3. Ashton, D. H. 1975. The seasonal growth of Eucalyptus regnans F. Muell. Australian Journal of Botany 23:239-252.
4. Ashton, D. H. 1976. The development of even-aged stand of Eucalyptus regnans F. Muell. in Central Victoria. Australian Journal of Botany 24:397-414.
5. Attiwill, P. M. 1979. Nutrient cycling in a Eucalyptus obliqua (L'Herit) forests. III. Growth, biomass and net primary production. Australian Journal of Botany 27:439-458.
6. Attiwill, P. M. 1992. Productivity of Eucalyptus regnans forest regenerating after bushfire. South African Forestry Journal 160:1-6.
7. Attiwill, P. M. and M. A. Adams. 2008. Harnessing forest ecological sciences in the service of stewardship and sustainability. A perspective from 'down-under'. Forest Ecology and Management 256:1636-1645.
8. Attiwill, P. M. and M. A. Adams. 2013. Mega-fires, inquiries and politics in the eucalypt forests of Victoria, south-eastern Australia. Forest Ecology and Management 294:45-53.
9. Australian Paper Industry. 2004. Production statistics 2003-04. http://www.a3p.asn.au/admin/assets/pdf/Stats/Statistics2003-04PaperProduction. pdf
10. Balshi, M. S., A. D. McGuire, P. Duffy, M. Flannigan, D. W. Kicklighter, and J. Melillo. 2009. Vulnerability of carbon storage in North American boreal forests to wildfires during the 21st century. Global Change Biology 15:1491-1510.
11. Banks, J. C. G. 1993. Tree ring analysis of two Mountain Ash trees Eucalyptus regnans (F.Muell.) from the Watts and O'Shannassy catchments, Central Highlands, Victoria. Report to the Central Highlands Old Growth Forest Project, Department of Conservation and Natural Resources, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.
12. Battles, J. J., et al. 2002. Vegetation composition, structure, and biomass of two unpolluted watersheds in the Cordillera de Piuchué, Chiloé Island, Chile. Plant Ecology 158:5-19.
13. Beale, R. 2007. If trees could speak: stories of Australia's greatest trees. Allen & Unwin, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.
14. Bellassen, V. and S. Luyssaert. 2014. Managing forests in uncertain times. Nature 506:153-155.
15. Berry, S., B. G. Mackey, and T. Brown. 2007. Potential applications of remotely sensed vegetation greenness to habitat analysis and the conservation of dispersive fauna. Pacific Conservation Biology 13(2):120-127.
16. Berry, S. L. and M. L. Roderick. 2002. Estimating mixtures of leaf functional types using continental-scale satellite and climatic data. Global Ecology and Biogeography 11:23-40.
17. Bootle, K. R. 2005. Wood in Australia: types, properties and uses. McGraw-Hill, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.
18. Borough, C. J., W. E. Brown., A. G. Brown, W. D. Incoll, J. R. May, and T. Bird. 1984. Yield statistics. Pages 201-228 in W. E. Hillis and A. G. Brown, editors. Eucalypts for wood production. CSIRO, Academic Press, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.
19. Campbell, J. C., D. C. Donato, D. A. Azuma, and B. Law. 2007. Pyrogenic carbon emission from a large wildfire in Oregon, United States. Journal of Geophysical Research-Atmospheres 112:G04014.
20. Canadell, J. G. and M. R. Raupach. 2008. Managing forests for climate mitigation. Science 320:1456-1457.
21. Carmona, M. R., J. J. Armesto, J. C. Aravena, and C. A. Pérez. 2002. Coarse woody debris biomass in successional and primary temperate forests in Chiloé Island, Chile. Forest Ecology and Management 164:265-275.
22. Chafe, S. C. 1985. The distribution and interrelationship of collapse, volumetric shrinkage, moisture content and density in trees of Eucalyptus regnans F. Muell. Wood Science and Technology 19:329-345.
23. DCCEE [Department of Climate Change and Energy Efficiency]. 2010. Australian National Greenhouse Accounts. National Inventory Report. Volume 2. Australian Government, Canberra, ACT, Australia.
24. Dean, C. and S. H. Roxburgh. 2006. Improving visualisation of mature, high-carbon sequestering forests. Forest Biometry Modelling and Information Science 1:48-69.
25. Dean, C., S. Roxburgh, and B. G. Mackey. 2003. Growth modelling of Eucalyptus regnans for carbon accounting at the landscape scale. Pages 27-40 in A. Amaro, D. Reed, P. Soares, editors. Modelling forest systems. CABI Publishing, Wallingford, UK.
26. Dean, C. and G. Wardell-Johnson. 2010. Old-growth forests, carbon and climate change: functions and management for tall open forests in two hotspots of temperate Australia. Plant Biosystematics 144:180-193.
27. Dean, C., G. Wardell-Johnson, and J. B. Kirkpatrick. 2012. Are there any circumstances in which logging primary wet-eucalypt forest will not add to the global carbon burden? Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 161:156-169.
28. Diochon, A., L. Kellman, and H. Beltrami. 2009. Looking deeper: An investigation of soil carbon losses following harvesting from a managed northeastern red spruce (Picea rubens Sarg.) forest chronosequence. Forest Ecology and Management 257:413-420.
29. DPI [Department of Primary Industries]. 2009. Victoria's timber industry strategy. Department of Primary Industries, Victoria, Australia. http://www.dpi.vic.gov.au/-data/assets/pdf-file/0011/14150/TIS-Revised-Version- 21-Dec-09.pdf
30. DSE [Department of Sustainability and Environment]. 1996. Study of old-growth forest in Victoria's Central Highlands. Department of Sustainability and Environment, Victoria, Australia. http://www.dse.vic.gov.au/forests/ publications/research-reports/study-of-old-gorwth-forests/
31. DSE [Department of Sustainability and Environment]. 2007a. Code of practice for timber production. Department of Sustainability and Environment, State of Victoria. http://www.depi.vic.gov.au/forestry-and-land-use/timber- production/timber-harvesting-regulation/code-of-practice-for-timber-production
32. DSE [Department of Sustainability and Environment]. 2007b. Victoria's statewide forest resource inventory-Central, Central Gippsland and Dandenong Forest Management Areas, Natural Resources Report Series 07-1. Department of Sustainability and Environment, Victorian Government, Australia.
33. DSE [Department of Sustainability and Environment]. 2009. Monitoring annual harvesting performance in Victoria's State Forests technical reports for forest management areas of Central, Dandenong and Central Gippsland. Department of Sustainabil-ity and Environment, Victorian Government, Australia.
34. Eggleston, S., L. Buendia, K. Miwa, T. Ngara, and K. Tanabe, editors. 2006. IPCC guidelines for national greenhouse gas inventories. Institute for Global Environmental Strategies, Japan.
35. FAO [Food and Agriculture Organisation]. 2001. Global ecological zoning for the global forest resources assessment 2000. Working Paper 56. Food and Agriculture Organisation, Rome, Italy.
36. Feller, M. C. 1980. Biomass and nutrient distribution in two eucalypt forest ecosystems. Australian Journal of Ecology 5:309-333.
37. Flinn, D., R. Squire, and K. Wareing. 2007. Victoria. Pages 103-146 in R. J. Raison and R. O. Squire, editors. Forest management in Australia: implications for carbon budgets. National Carbon Accounting System Technical Report Number 32. Australian Greenhouse Office, Canberra, ACT, Australia.
38. Franklin, J. F., D. B. Lindenmayer, J. A. MacMahon, A. McKee, J. Magnuson, D. A. Perry, R. Waide, and D. R. Foster. 2000. Threads of continuity. Conservation Biology in Practice 1:8-16.
39. Fujimori, T., S. Kawanabe, H. Saito, C. C. Grier, and T. Shidei. 1976. Biomass and primary production in forests of three major vegetation zones of the northwestern United States. Journal of the Japanese Forestry Society 58:360-373.
40. Gallant, J. C. and T. I. Dowling. 2003. A multi resolution index of valley bottom flatness for mapping depositional areas. Water Resources Research 39(12):1347-1361.
41. Gibbons, P. and D. B. Lindenmayer. 2002. Tree hollows and wildlife conservation in Australia. CSIRO Publications, Collingwood, Victoria, Australia.
42. Gifford, R. M. 2000. Carbon contents of above-ground tissues of forest and woodland trees. National Carbon Accounting System Technical Report Number 22. Australian Greenhouse Office, Canberra, ACT, Australia.
43. Gilbert, J. M. 1959. Forest succession in the Florentine Valley, Tasmania. Papers and Proceedings of the Royal Society of Tasmania 93:129-151.
44. Gough, C. M., C. S. Vogel, K. H. Harrold, K. George, and P. S. Curtis. 2007. The legacy of harvest and fire on ecosystem carbon storage in a north temperate forest. Global Change Biology 13:1935-1949.
45. Gould, J. S., and N. P. Cheney. 2007. Fire management in Australian forests. Pages 341-371 in R. J. Raison and R. O. Squire, editors. Forest management in Australia: implications for carbon budgets. National Carbon Accounting System Technical Report Number 32. Australian Greenhouse Office, Canberra, ACT, Australia.
46. Green. G. 2002. Esperence 74D (EPO74D) Logging coupe inventory. Timber workers for forests. http://www.twff.com.au/epo74d.pdf
47. Grier, C. C. and R. S. Logan. 1977. Old-growth Pseudotsuga menziesii communities of a western Oregon watershed: biomass distribution and production budgets. Ecological Monographs 47:373-400.
48. Grier, C. C., K. A. Vogt, M. R. Keyes, and R. L. Edmonds. 1981. Biomass distribution and above-and below-ground production in young and mature Abies amabilis zone ecosystems of the Washington Cascades. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 11:155-167.
49. Grierson, P. F., M. A. Adams, and P. M. Attiwill. 1992. Estimates of carbon storage in the above-ground biomass of Victoria's forests. Australian Journal of Botany 40:631-640.
50. Gupta, R. K. and D. L. N. Rao. 1994. Potential of wastelands for sequestering carbon by reforestation. Current Science 66:378-380.
51. Harmon, M. E. 2001. Carbon sequestration in forests: addressing the scale question. Journal of Forestry 99:24-29.
52. Harmon, M. E. 2002. Moving towards a new paradigm for woody detritus management. USDA Forest Service General Technical Report PSW-GTR-181.
53. Harmon, M. E., W. K. Ferrell, and J. F. Franklin. 1990. Effects on carbon storage of conversion of old growth forests to young forests. Science 247:699-702.
54. Harmon, M. E., J. M. Harmon, W. K. Ferrell, and D. Brooks. 1996. Modelling carbon stocks in Oregon and Washington forest products: 1900-1992. Climatic Change 33:521-550.
55. Harmon, M. E., O. N. Krankina, and J. Sexton. 2000. Decomposition vectors: a new approach to estimating woody detritus decomposition dynamics. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 30:76-84.
56. Houghton, R. A. 2003. Revised estimates of the annual net flux of carbon to the atmosphere from changes in land use and land management 1850-2000. Tellus 55B:378-390.
57. Houghton, R. A. 2010. How well do we know the flux of CO2 from land use change? Tellus 62B:337-351.
58. Houghton, R. A. 2012. Carbon emissions and the drivers of deforestation and forest degradation in the tropics. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability 4:597-603.
59. Hutchinson, M. F. 2005. ANUCLIM. Version. 5.1. Centre for Resource and Environmental Studies. The Australian National University. http://cres.anu. edu.au/outputs/anuclim.php
60. Hutchinson, M., J. Stein, J. L. Stein, H. Anderson, and P. Tickle. 2008. Geodata 9 second DEM and D8 user guide. Fenner School of Environment and Society, ANU and Geoscience Australia. http://fennerschool.anu.edu.au/ publications/software/
61. Illic, J., D. Boland, M. McDonald, G. Downes, and P. Blakemore. 2000. Woody density phase 1: state of knowledge. National Carbon Accounting System Technical Report Number 18. Australian Greenhouse Office, Canberra, ACT, Australia.
62. Jaakko Pöyry. 1999. Usage and lifecycle of wood products. National Carbon Accounting System Technical Report Number 8. Australian Greenhouse Office, Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra, ACT, Australia.
63. Jaakko Pöyry. 2000. Analysis of wood product accounting options for the nation accounting system. National Carbon Accounting System Technical Report Number 24. Australian Greenhouse Office, Canberra, ACT, Australia.
64. Janisch, J. E. and M. E. Harmon. 2002. Successional changes in live and dead wood carbon stores: implications for net ecosystem productivity. Tree Physiology 22:77-89.
65. Keith, H., D. Barrett, and R. Keenan. 2000. Review of allometric relationships for estimating woody biomass for New South Wales, the Australian Capital Territory, Victoria, Tasmania and South Australia. National Carbon Accounting System Technical Report Number 5b. Australian Greenhouse Office, Canberra, ACT, Australia.
66. Keith, H., R. Leuning, K. L. Jacobsen, H. A. Cleugh, E. van Gorsel, R. J. Raison, B. E. Medlyn, A. Winters, and C. Keitel. 2009. Multiple measurements constrain estimates of net carbon exchange by a Eucalyptus forest. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 149:535-558.
67. Keith, H., B. G. Mackey, S. Berry, D. B. Lindenmayer, and P. Gibbons. 2010. Estimating carbon carrying capacity in natural forest ecosystems across heterogeneous landscapes: addressing sources of error. Global Change Biology 16:2971-2989.
68. Keith, H., B. G. Mackey, and D. B. Lindenmayer. 2009. Re-evaluation of forest biomass carbon stocks and lessons from the world's most carbon dense forests. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 106:11635-11640.
69. Keyes, M. R. and C. C. Grier. 1981. Above-and below-ground net primary production in 40-year-old Douglas-fir stands on low and high productivity sites. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 11:599-605.
70. Kirschbaum, M. U. F. 2003. To sink or burn? A discussion of the potential contributions of forests to greenhouse gas balances through storing carbon or providing biofuels. Biomass and Bioenergy 24:297-310.
71. Krankina, O. N., and M. E. Harmon. 2006. Forest management strategies for carbon storage. Pages 79-92 in M. Cloughsey, editor. Forests, carbon and climate change: a synthesis of science findings. Oregon Forest Research Institute, Portland, Oregon, USA.
72. Kuczera, G. 1987. Prediction of water yield reductions following a bushfire in ash-mixed species eucalypt forest. Journal of Hydrology 94:215-236.
73. Kurz, W. A. and M. J. Apps. 1999. A 70-year retrospective analysis of carbon fluxes in the Canadian forest sector. Ecological Applications 9:526-547.
74. Kurz, W. A., G. Stinson, G. J. Rampley, C. C. Dymonmd, and E. T. Neilson. 2008. Risk of natural disturbances makes future contribution of Canada's forests to the global carbon cycle highly uncertain. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 105:1551-1555.
75. Leighty, W. W., S. P. Hamburg, and J. Caouette. 2006. Effects of management on carbon sequestration in forest biomass in Southeast Alaska. Ecosystems 9:1051-1065.
76. Le Quéré, C., R. J. Andres, T. Boden, et al. 2012. The global carbon budget 1959-2011. Earth System Science Data Discussions 5:1107-1157.
77. Lindenmayer, D. B. 2009. Forest pattern and ecological processes: a synthesis of 25 years of research. CSIRO Publishing, Collingwood, Australia.
78. Lindenmayer, D. B., D. Blair, L. McBurney, and S. Banks. 2010. Forest phoenix: how a great forest recovers after wildfire. CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne, Australia.
79. Lindenmayer, D. B., W. Blanchard, L. McBurney, D. Blair, S. Banks, G. E. Likens, J. F. Franklin, W. F. Laurance, J. A. R. Stein, and P. Gibbons. 2012. Interacting factors driving a major loss of large trees with cavities in a forest ecosystem. PLoS ONE 7(1):1-16.
80. Lindenmayer, D. B., P. J. Burton, and J. F. Franklin. 2008. Salvage logging and its ecological consequences. CSIRO Publishing, Collingwood, Victoria, Australia.
81. Lindenmayer, D. B., R. B. Cunningham, C. F. Donnelly, and J. F. Franklin. 2000. Structural features of old growth Australian montane ash forests. Forest Ecology and Management 134:189-204.
82. Lindenmayer, D. B., R. B. Cunningham, C. MacGregor, R. D. Incoll, and D. Michael. 2003. A survey design for monitoring the abundance of arboreal marsupials in the Central Highlands of Victoria. Biological Conservation 110:161-167.
83. Lindenmayer, D. B., R. J. Hobbs, G. E. Likens, C. J. Krebs, and S. C. Banks. 2011. Newly discovered landscape traps produce regime shifts in wet forests. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 108:15887-15891.
84. Lindenmayer, D. B., R. D. Incoll, R. B. Cunningham, and C. F. Donnelly. 1999. Attributes of logs on the floor of Australian mountain ash (Eucalyptus regnans) forests of different ages. Forest Ecology and Management 123:195-203.
85. Lindenmayer, D. B. and M. A. McCarthy. 2002. Congruence between natural and human forest disturbance: a case study from Australian montane ash forests. Forest Ecology and Management 155:319-335.
86. Lindenmayer, D. B. and J. T. Wood. 2010. Long-term patterns in the decay, collapse, and abundance of trees with hollows in the mountain ash (Eucalyptus regnans) forests of Victoria, southeastern Australia. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 40:48-54.
87. Liu, S. F., O. L. Raymond, A. J. Retter, D. Phillips, A. Kernich, C. Macgregor, and D. S. Percival. 2005a. Surface geology of Australia 1:1, 000, 000 scale, New South Wales. Geoscience Australia, Canberra, ACT, Australia.
88. Liu, S. F., O. L. Raymond, A. J. Retter, S. P. Stanley, and D. S. Percival. 2005b. Surface geology of Australia 1:1, 000, 000 scale, Tasmania. Second edition. Geo-science Australia, Canberra, ACT, Australia.
89. Liu, S. F., A. J. Retter, O. L. Raymond, S. P. Stanley, and D. Phillips. 2005c. Surface geology of Australia 1:1, 000, 000 scale, Victoria. Second edition. Geosci-ence Australia, Canberra, ACT, Australia.
90. Looby, M. J. 2007. Tree hollows, tree dimensions and tree age in Eucalyptus microcarpa Maiden (Grey box) in Victoria. Thesis. University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.
91. LPDAAC [Land Processes Distributed Active Archive Center]. 2008. MODIS Data Products. USGS, NASA Earth Data. https://lpdaac.usgs.gov/
92. Lutz, J. A., A. J. Larson, M. E. Swanson, and J. A. Freund. 2012. Ecological importance of large-diameter trees in a temperate mixed-conifer forest. PLoS ONE 7(5):1-15.
93. Lutze, M. T., R. G. Campbell, and P. C. Fagg. 1999. Development of silviculture in the native state forests of Victoria. Australian Forestry 62:236-244.
94. Luyssaert, S., E. D. Schulze, A. Boerner, A. Knohl, D. Hessenmoeller, B. Law, P. Cias, and J. Grace. 2008. Old growth forests as global carbon sinks. Nature 455:213-215.
95. Luyssaert, S. et al. 2010. The European carbon balance. Part 3: Forests. Global Change Biology 16(5):1429-1450.
96. Mackensen, J. and J. Bauhus. 1999. The decay of coarse woody debris. National Carbon Accounting System Technical Report Number 6. Australian Greenhouse Office, Canberra, ACT, Australia.
97. Mackensen, J. and J. Bauhus. 2003. Density loss and respiration rates in coarse woody debris of Pinus radiata, Eucalyptus regnans and Eucalyptus maculata. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 35:177-186.
98. Mackensen, J., J. Bauhus, and E. Webber. 2003. Decomposition rates of coarse woody debris: A review with particular emphasis on Australian tree species. Australian Journal of Botany 51:27-37.
99. Mackey, B. G., H. Keith, S. L. Berry, and D. B. Lindenmayer. 2008. Green carbon: the role of natural forests in carbon storage. Part 1. A green carbon account of Australia's southeastern eucalypt forests, and policy implications. ANU E Press, Canberra, ACT, Australia.
100. Mackey, B. G., D. B. Lindenmayer, A. M. Gill, M. A. McCarthy, and J. A. Lindesay. 2002. Wildfire, fire and future climate: A forest ecosystem analysis. CSIRO, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.
101. Mackey, B. G., I. C. Prentice, W. Steffen, J. I. House, D. B. Lindenmayer, H. Keith, and S. Berry. 2013. Untangling the confusion around land carbon science and climate change mitigation policy. Nature Climate Change 3:552-557.
102. Mackowski, C. W. 1987. Wildlife hollows and timber management in Blackbutt forest. Thesis. University of New England, Armidale, New South Wales, Australia.
103. McCarthy, M. A., A. M. Gill, and D. B. Lindenmayer. 1999. Fires regimes in mountain ash forest: evidence from forest age structure, extinction models and wildlife habitat. Forest Ecology and Management 124:193-203.
104. McCarthy, M. A. and D. B. Lindenmayer. 1998. Multi-aged mountain ash forest, wildlife conservation and timber harvesting. Forest Ecology and Management 104:43-56.
105. McCaw, W. L., R. H. Smith, and J. E. Neal. 1997. Prescribed burning of thinning slash in regrowth stands of karri (Eucalyptus diversicolor). 1. Fire characteristics, fuel consumption and tree damage. International Journal of Wildland Fire 7(1):29-40.
106. McKenzie, N. J., D. W. Jacquier, D. J. Maschmedt, E. A. Griffin, and D. M. Brough. 2005. ASRIS technical specifications. Version 1.5. http://www.asris.csiro. au/
107. McKenzie, N., P. Ryan, P. Fogarty, and J. Wood. 2001. Sampling, measurement and analytical protocols for carbon estimation in soil, litter ad coarse woody debris. National Carbon Accounting System Technical Report Number 14. Australian Greenhouse Office, Canberra, ACT, Australia.
108. McKinley, D. et al. 2011. A synthesis of current knowledge on forests and carbon storage in the United States. Ecological Applications 21:1902-1924.
109. Means, J. E., P. C. MacMillan, and K. Cromack. 1992. Biomass and nutrient content of Douglas-fir logs and other detrital pools in an old-growth forest, Oregon, USA. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 22:1536-1546.
110. Nabuurs, G. J. and R. Sikkema. 2001. International trade in wood products: its role in the land use change and forestry carbon cycle. Climatic Change 49:377-395.
111. Nabuurs, G. J., et al. 2007. Forestry. Pages 541-584 in B. Metz et al., editors. Climate change 2007: mitigation. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
112. Land use change and forestry, workbook 4.2, revision 2, for carbon dioxide from the biosphere. Environment Australia, Canberra, ACT, Australia.
113. Noble, W. S. 1977. Ordeal by fire: the week a state burned up. Hawthorn Press, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.
114. Norris, J., S. Arnold, and T. Fairman. 2010. An indicative estimate of carbon stocks on Victoria's publicly managed land using the FullCAM carbon accounting model. Australian Forestry 73:209-219.
115. NVIS [National Vegetation Information System]. 2008. Australia: present major vegetation groups. NVIS Stage 1, Version 3.0. Australian Government Department of Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts, Canberra, ACT, Australia. http://www.environment.gov.au/erin/nvis/mvg/index.html
116. Ogden, J. 1978. On the dendrochronological potential of Australian trees. Australian Journal of Ecology 3:339-356.
117. Olofsson, J. and T. Hickler. 2008. Effects of human land-use on the global carbon cycle during the last 6, 000 years. Vegetation History Archaeobotany 17:605-615.
118. Pan, Y., R. A. Birdsey, O. L. Phillips, and R. B. Jackson. 2013. The structure, distribution, and biomass of the world's forests. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution and Systematics 44:593-622.
119. Payne, R. W. et al. 2012. GenStat reference manual. Fourteenth edition. VSN International, Oxford, UK.
120. Perez-Garcia, J., B. Lippke, D. Briggs, J. B. Wilson, J. Boyer, and J. Meil. 2005. The environmental performance of renewable building materials in the context of residential construction. Wood and Fiber Science 37:3-17.
121. Polglase, P. J. and P. M. Attiwill. 1992. Nitrogen and phosphorus cycling in relation to stand age of Eucalyptus regnans F.Muell. Plant and Soil 142:157-166.
122. Rab, M. A. 1994. Changes in physical properties of a soil associated with logging of Eucalyptus regnans forest in southeastern Australia. Forest Ecology and Management 70:215-229.
123. Rab, M. A. 1999. Measures and operating standards for assessing Montreal process soil sustainability indicators with reference to Victorian Central Highlands forest, southeastern Australia. Forest Ecology and Management 117:53-73.
124. Rab, M. A. 2004. Recovery of soil physical properties from compaction and soil profile disturbance caused by logging of native forest in Victorian Central Highlands, Australia. Forest Ecology and Management 191:329-340.
125. Raison, R. J. and R. O. Squire. 2007. Forest management in Australia: implications for carbon budgets. National Carbon Accounting System Technical Report Number 32. Australian Greenhouse Office, Canberra, ACT, Australia.
126. Rhemtulla, J. M., D. J. Mladenoff, and M. K. Clayton. 2009. Historical forest baselines reveal potential for continued carbon sequestration. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 106:6082-6087.
127. Richards, F. 1959. A flexible growth function for empirical use. Journal of Experimental Botany 10:290-300.
128. Richards, G. P., C. Borough, D. Evans, A. Reddin, F. Ximenes, and D. Gardner. 2007. Developing a carbon stocks and flows model for Australian wood products. Australian Forestry 70:108-119.
129. Romero, P., E. Neira, and A. Lara. 2007. Forest cover and carbon changes in coastal temperate rainforest, Chile. Publ. Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdi-via, Chile and The Nature Conservancy, Arlington, Virginia, USA.
130. Roxburgh, S. H., J. R. England, and K. Paul. 2010. Developing capability to predict biomass carbon in biodiverse plantings and native forest ecosystems. CSIRO National Research Flagships Sustainable Agriculture. Victorian Department of Sustainability and Environment, Environmental Policy and Climate Change Branch, Australia.
131. Schlegel, B. C. and P. J. Donoso. 2008. Effects of forest type and stand structure on coarse woody debris in old-growth rainforests in the Valdivian Andes, south-central Chile. Forest Ecology and Management 255:1906-1914.
132. Schulze, E. D. 2000. The carbon and nitrogen cycle of forest ecosystems. Pages 3-8 in E. D. Schulze, editor. Carbon and nitrogen cycling in European forest ecosystems. Ecological Studies. Volume 142. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Germany.
133. Schulze, E. D., R. Valentini, and M. J. Sanz. 2002. The long way from Kyoto to Marakesh: Implications of the Kyoto Protocol negotiations for global ecology. Global Change Biology 8:505-518.
134. Sillett, S. C., R. van Pelt, G. W. Koch, A. R. Ambrose, A. L. Carroll, M. E. Antoine, and B. M. Mifsud. 2010. Increasing wood production through old age in tall trees. Forest Ecology and Management 259:976-994.
135. Silverster, W. B. and T. A. Orchard. 1999. The biology of kauri (Agathis australis) in New Zealand 1. Production, biomass, carbon storage, and litter fall in four forest remnants. New Zealand Journal of Botany 37:553-571.
136. Skog, K. E. and G. A. Nicholson. 1998. Carbon cycling through wood products: The role of wood and paper products in carbon sequestration. Forest Products Journal 48(7/8):75-83.
137. Slijepcevic, A. 2001. Loss of carbon during controlled regeneration burns in Eucalyptus obliqua forest. Tasforests 13:281-290.
138. Smith, R. B. and P. Woodgate. 1985. Appraisal of fire damage for timber salvage by remote sensing in mountain ash forests. Australian Forestry 48:252-263.
139. Smithwick, E. A. H., M. E. Harmon, and J. B. Domigo. 2007. Changing temporal patterns of forest carbon stores and net ecosystem carbon balance: the stand to landscape transformation. Landscape Ecology 22:77-94.
140. Smithwick, E. A. H., M. E. Harmon, S. M. Remillard, S. A. Acker, and J. F. Franklin. 2002. Potential upper bounds of carbon stores in forests of the Pacific Northwest. Ecological Applications 12:1303-1317.
141. Snowdon, P., D. Eamus, P. Gibbons, P. Khanna, H. Keith, J. Raison, and M. Kirschbaum. 2000. Synthesis of allometrics, review of root biomass and design of future woody biomass sampling strategies. National Carbon Accounting System Technical Report Number 17. Australian Greenhouse Office, Canberra, ACT, Australia.
142. Stephenson, N. L., A. J. Das, R. Condit, S. E. Russo, P. J. Baker, N. G. Beckman, and E. R. Lines. 2014. Rate of tree carbon accumulation increases continuously with tree size. Nature 1-16. doi: 10.1038/nature12914
143. Thompson, I., B. Mackey, S. McNulty, and A. Mosseler. 2009. Forest resilience, biodiversity, and climate change. A synthesis of the biodiversity/resilience/stability relationship in forest ecosystems. Technical Series Number 43. Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity, Montreal, Quebec, Canada.
144. Thornley, J. H. M. and M. G. R. Cannell. 2000. Managing forests for wood yield and carbon storage: a theoretical study. Tree Physiology 20:477-484.
145. UNFCCC [United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change]. 1998. The Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/convkp/kpeng.pdf
146. UNFCCC [United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change]. 2011. 17th Conference of the Parties to the UNFCCC in Durban, CMP.7 Land Use, Land Use Change and Forestry. http://unfccc. int/files/meetings/durban-nov-2011/ decisions/application/pdf/awgkp-lulucf.pdf
147. Vann, D. R. et al. 2002. Distribution and cycling of C, N, Ca, Mg, K and P in three pristine, old-growth forests in the Cordillera de Piuchué, Chile. Biogeo-chemistry 60:25-47.
148. Van Wagner, C. E. 1968. The line intersect method in forest fuel sampling. Forest Science 14:20-26.
149. Viggers, J. I., H. J. Weaver, and D. B. Lindenmayer. 2013. Melbourne water catchments: Perspectives on a world class water supply. CSIRO, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.
150. Watson, F. G. R. and R. A. Vertessy. 1996. Estimating leaf area index from stem diameter measurements in Mountain Ash forest. Report 96/7. Cooperative Research Centre for Catchment Hydrology, Canberra, ACT, Australia.
151. Wellington, A. B. and I. R. Noble. 1985. Post-fire recruitment and mortality in a population of the mallee Eucalyptus incrassata in semi-arid, southeastern Australian. Journal of Ecology 73:645-656.
152. West, P. W. and J. P. Mattay. 1996. Yield prediction models and comparative growth rates for six eucalypt species. Australian Forestry. 56:210-225.
153. Wilkes, J. 1982. Pattern and process of heart rot in Eucalyptus microcorys. Australian Forestry 45:51-56.
154. Woldendorp, G., R. J. Keenan, and M. F. Ryan. 2002. Coarse woody debris in Australian forest ecosystems. Criteria and indicators of sustainable forest management. Report for the National Greenhouse Strategy. Module 6.6. Bureau of Rural Sciences, Canberra, ACT, Australia.
155. Wood, S. W., Q. Hua, K. J. Allen, and D. M. J.S. Bowman. 2010. Age and growth of a fire prone Tasmanian temperate old-growth forest stand dominated by Eucalyptus regnans, the world's tallest angiosperm. Forest Ecology and Management 260:438-447.
156. Ximenes, F. A. and W. D. Gardner. 2005. Recovery of biomass as green sawn boards after milling of Spotted Gum (Corymbia maculata) sawlogs from NSW south coast forests. National Carbon Accounting System Technical Report Number 48. Australian Greenhouse Office, Canberra, ACT, Australia.
157. Ximenes, F., W. D. Gardner, and J. F. Marchant. 2004. Total biomass measurement and recovery of biomass in log products in spotted gum (Corymbia maculata) forests of SE NSW. National Carbon Accounting System Technical Report Number 47. Australian Greenhouse Office, Canberra, ACT, Australia.
158. Ximenes, F., W. D. Gardner, and J. F. Marchant. 2005. Carbon flow following the harvest of Blackbutt trees and their conversion into sawn products. Forest Resources Research Paper Number 41. Forests NSW, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.
159. Ximenes, F., M. Kapambwe, and R. Keenan. 2008a. Timber use in residential construction and demolition. BDP Environmental Design Guide PRO 36:1-8.
160. Ximenes, F., W. D. Gardner, and A. Kathuria. 2008b. Proportion of aboveground biomass in commercial logs and residues following the harvest of five commercial forest species in Australia. Forest Ecology and Management 256:335-346.
161. Ximenes, F., W. D. Gardner, and A. L. Cowie. 2008c. The decomposition of wood products in landfills in Sydney, Australia. Waste Management 28:2344-2354.