Experimental Social Policymaking During World War II: The United Service Organizations (USO) and American War-Community Services (AWCS)

Journal of Policy History

Volumn 12, Issue 3, 2000, Pages 321-338

  Knapp, Gretchen ^a  

^a ILLINOIS STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

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EID: 84903222072     PISSN: 08980306     EISSN: 15284190     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/jph.2000.0017     Document Type: Article

References (84)

1. Grateful appreciation is due the Clarke Chambers Travel Fellowship and the Mark Diamond Research Fund, which enabled me to visit the University of Minnesota's archives. Special thanks to David Klaassen (Social Welfare History Archives), Dagmar Getz (YMCA Archives), Elizabeth Norris (YWCA Archives), H. Warren Willis (National Conference of Catholic Bishops), and
2. William Creech (National Archives). Clarke Chambers thoughtfully commented on a portion of this article.
3. ODHWS (Office of Defense Health & Welfare Services), “Memo re Facilities and Services ‘Locally Needed,’” 5 April 1943, Family Service Association of America (FSAA), B(ox) 36, Social Welfare History Archives (hereafter SWHA), University of Minnesota. This instruction authorized area War Manpower directors to determine the essential needs for activities and services required to meet basic manpower needs and respond in conjunction with other local agencies, particularly for matters of health and welfare.
4. Leslie Leighninger, Social Work: Search for Identity (New York, 1987), 103-14.
5. The original name, National United Welfare Committee for Defense, became the United Service Organizations for National Defense in 1941. The five charter members were the YMCA, the YWCA, the Jewish Welfare Board, the Knights of Columbus, and the Salvation Army. “Minutes NUWCD,” 15 November 1940 to 9 January 1941, “Interim Report on Plans of National Religiously Affiliated Private Agencies in the Morale Aspects of the National Defense Program,” 5 February 1941, USO-YMCA, Box 1, YMCA Archives, University of Minnesota.
6. Rita L. Lynn, The National Catholic Community Services in World War II (Washington, D.C. 1952), 43.
7. “YW-WCS Report, 1945,” YW-WCS, National Board, YWCA Archives, New York.
8. The original founders included John Manley (YMCA), Luke Hart (NCCS), Frank Weil (JEB), Edward Parker (SA), and Emma Hirth (YWCA). Manley and Hart had been involved in World War I welfare activities. The Jewish Welfare Board became the National Jewish Welfare Board in 1944. Oscar Kanowsky, The JWB Survey (New York, 1948), 51.
9. Eugene E. Barnett, “Memo,” n.d. USO-YMCA, B9, YMCA Archives. During World War I, the Knights of Columbus had spearheaded aid to servicemen by encouraging the formation of the National Catholic War Council.
10. See John F. Piper Jr.’s The American Churches in World War I (Athens, Ohio, 1985) for a description of the role of Christian churches in World War I. Jewish Welfare Board activity in World War I is covered briefly in Kanowsky,The JWB Survey, 45-53.
11. Emma P. Hirth, “History of the Participation of the YWCA in the USO,” 15–16, typescript, USO-YWCA, B9, SWHA. The National Education-Recreation Council conducted the tour through Trenton, New Jersey, and Norfolk, Virginia.
12. Hirth, “History of YWCA in the USO,” USO-YMCA, B9, SWHA, 16.
13. Quoted in Hirth, “History of the YWCA in the USO,” USO-YMCA, B9, SWHA, 17.
14. Hirth, “History of YWCA in the USO,” USO-YWCA, B9, SWHA, 17.
15. George C. Marshall to Harper Sibley, President of USO, 19 December 1941, as reprinted in Lynn, The NCCS in World War II, 261.
16. George C. Marshall to Chester I. Barnard, President of USO, 31 May 1942, and
17. “A Joint Statement of the American Red Cross and the United Service Organizations, Inc.” reprinted in The NCCS in World War II, 262-69.
18. Hirth, “History of YWCA in the USO,” B9, USO-YWCA, SWHA, 48–50. At first, only the YMCA and the Jewish Welfare Board met to explore cooperative projects.
19. Lynn, The NCCS in World War II, 18–19.
20. Hirth, “History of YWCA in the USO,” USO-YWCA, B9, SWHA, 62–70. Community Chests & Councils eventually became the United Way.
21. Lynn, The NCCS in World War II, 19–20.
22. Hirth, “History of the YWCA in the USO,” B9, USO-YWCA, SWHA, 59–72.
23. Lynn, The NCCS in World War II, 34.
24. USO Field Operations, “USO Units and Personnel as of November 10, 1941,” and “Final Report of the USO,” November 1947, B48, USO-YMCA, YMCA Archives. These were referred to as Mobile and Maneuvers Services, the sole USO operation (outside of USO-Camp Shows) established on military property under the Army's supervision. (Lynn,The NCCS in World War II, 40.) Military training programs on college campuses were excluded from the USO program. [Francis Keppel, Joint Army & Navy Committee, War Department, to Ray Johns, Director of Field Services, USO, 23 March 1943 and 26 March 1943, RG 225, B50, National Archives (hereafter NARA).] A special USO program of religious service on college campuses under military use began in 1943, but was not advertised as a USO project. (USO [unsigned] to Charles P. Taft, Assistant Director, ODHWS, 26 April 1943, RG 225, B50, NARA.)
25. Shifting Scenes (NTAA) 37 (January 1946), 2.
26. “Final Report of the USO,” November 1947, B50, USO-YMCA, YMCA Archives, 10.
27. “Final Report of the USO,” November 1947, B50, USO-YMCA, YMCA Archives, 12–13.
28. Lindsey F. Kimball, “Community and Campaign Relationships of the USO,” 44–46, 15 August 1942, USO-YMCA, B65, YMCA Archives. Kimball was the first president of the USO. Chester Barnard, a well-known industrialist, succeeded him.
29. Division of Community Operations, Field Operations Department, USO Manual: Community Conducted Organizations, (May 1945), 7, 9, 103-4.
30. “Principles and Policies for the Conduct of Religious Activities in USO,” USO Field Service Bulletin No. 27, 22 October 1942, as reprinted in Lynn, The NCCS in World War II,77-79. Certain USO-NCCS centers were criticized as having a “semi-official Catholic status” and thus not open to Protestants. (“Meeting of Sub-Committee on Religious Activities,” 19 March 1942, RG 225, B50, NARA.)
31. Ray Johns, “Current Problems Facing USO Leadership,” 4 November 1942, Release #3, RG 225, B50, NARA.
32. “Principles and Policies for the Conduct of Religious Activities in USO,” USO Field Service Bulletin No. 27, 22 October 1942, as reprinted in Lynn, The NCCS in World War II,77-79.
33. “Minutes, Special Meeting of USO Committee on Services to Women and Girls,” 16 May 1943, USO-YMCA, B43, YMCA Archives. The Stage Door Canteen barred servicewomen as a matter of written policy because they “len(t) further military appearance” to the club. They were permitted to briefly enter the Canteen, but not to sit, eat, or remain in the center. (Bertha F. Stone, Stage Door Canteen, to Cdr. J. L. Reynolds, U.S. Navy, 14 April 1943, USO-YMCA, B43, YMCA Archives.)
34. Negro Service Committee, “Statement of Policy Regarding USO Services to Negroes,” 7 July 1942, and
35. “Minutes,” 12 November 1942, USO-YMCA, B47, YMCA Archives.
36. “Meeting of Advisory Group of Church Representatives,” 23 November 1943, RG 225, B50, NARA.
37. “Minutes of Committee on Work with Women and Girls,” 18 May 1943, and
38. “Minutes of Negro Service Committee,” 12 November 1942, USO-YMCA, B47, YMCA Archives.
39. “USO Literature Distribution Policy,” 1942?, USO-YMCA, B65, YMCA Archives. Jay Urice, a former Association secretary, was instrumental in developed USO-YMCA policies.
40. Lindsley F. Kimball, “Community and Campaign Relationships of the USO,” 15 August 1942, 46, USO-YMCA, B66, YMCA Archives, University of Minnesota.
41. Lindsley F. Kimball, “Community and Campaign Relationships of the USO,” 15 August 1942, 46, USO-YMCA, B66, YMCA Archives, University of Minnesota.
42. “A Statement Concerning the U.S.O.” in The Watchman Examiner (June 1942) as quoted in Rev. Marion J. Creeger's “Church-Y.M.C.A. Cooperation in the USO” (press release of FCC), 7 May 1943, USO-YMCA, B70, E572, YMCA Archives, University of Minnesota.
43. Kimball, “Community and Campaign Relationships of the USO,” 15 August 1942, USO-YMCA, B65, YMCA Archives, 50.
44. “Some Notes on NSWC Meeting,” 1 November 1940, NSWA, Suppl. 1, F75, SWHA.
45. National Social Welfare Council, Special Meeting, Minutes, 15 October 1940, NSWA, Suppl. 1, F75, SWHA.
46. “Community Organization of Health and Welfare Activities in the National Defense Program,” 5 April 1941, NSWA, Suppl. 1, F75, SWHA.
47. See Agnes Meyer, Journey Through Chaos (New York, 1944), for an edited compilation of the series.
48. See Brooks Spivey Creedy, Women Behind the Lines: YWCA Program with War Production Workers, 1940-1947 (New York, 1947). for a popular (and highly edited) account of the YWCA's activities during the war, both through AWCS and independently.
49. After the war the name changed to Family Service Association of America.
50. See Nancy J. Weiss, The National Urban League: 1910-1940 (New York: Oxford, 1974).
51. The International Institutes were under the YWCA until the interwar period. The AFII began the war as the National Institute of Immigrant Welfare (NIIW). See Raymond A. Mohl, “The International Institute Movement and Ethnic Pluralism,” Social Science 56 (1981), 14-21.
52. Gladys Kitchel Southard, “YW-WCS Report,” July 1945, National Social Work Assembly (NSWA), F148, SWHA.
53. NSWC Minutes, NSWA, Suppl. 1, F75, SWHA.
54. “Special War Funds, 1 July 1943-30 June 1944,” AWCS, YW-WCS, National Board, YWCA.
55. “Minutes, Board of Directors, 5 October 1943,” National Board, YWCA, and “Memo,” 25 May 1943
56. “Status of War Services Project,” FSAA, B14, SWHA. Each agency contributed to AWCS on a pro rata basis in relation to the budgetary recommendation. 338 EXPERIMENTAL SOCIAL POLICYMAKING DURING WORLD WAR II
57. “Final Report, AWCS,” National Social Work Assembly (NSWA), B14, SWHA
58. B. Creedy, Women Behind the Lines, 87-91.
59. AWCS, “Final Report,” 7 May 1943-31 December 1946, National Board, YMCA.
60. AWCS, “Final Report,” 31 December 1946, 193.3, National Board, YMCA.
61. “Proposed By-Laws for American War-Community Services,” 30 September 1943, FWAA, B37, SWHA.
62. “Cooperative Agreements and Procedures in Effect Between the National Agencies Constituting AWCS,” 6 March 1944, NSWA, B14, SWHA.
63. What Councils of Social Agencies Do (New York, 1939). The first CSA's were established in 1909; by 1939, 306 CSAs had been organized. The majority of CSAs and CCCs shared a single staff.
64. The Council of Social Agencies was defined as a delegate body representing most, if not all, of the local public and private social and health agencies. Civic organizations (such as the League of Women Voters, the Parent-Teacher Association) often participated. Each group provided one lay and one professional delegate. Theoretically, the Chest raised funds and the CSA planned programs, although neither had legal authority over members. (What Council of Social Agencies Do, 1939)
65. “Final Report,” AWCS, YW-WCS, 193.3, National Board, YWCA. Richmond's operation included FSAA, CC&C, and the YWCA. “Minutes, AWCS Board of Directors,” 16 October 1944, AWCS, YW-WCS, 193.3, National Board, YWCA.
66. “Minutes, Board of Directors, AWCS,” 5 October 1943, FWAA, B37, SWHA.
67. “Final Report, AWCS,” 7 May 1943-31 December 1946, YW-WCS, 193.3, National Board, YWCA.
68. “Final Report,” and
69. “AWCS Central Office,” 1 February 1945, AWCS, YW-WCS, 193.3, National Board, YWCA.
70. “Final Report,” AWCS, YW-WCS, 193.3, National Board, YWCA.
71. Leonard Swoverland, “Gary Studies Its No. 1 Problem,” Public Welfare in Indiana 50 (August 1945): 3–5.
72. For comparison, Gary's black population was 2.3 percent of the total population in 1910. Mable Grover, “Field Report,” January 1946, NOPHN, NSWA, B15, SWHA
73. “Third & Final YWCA-WCS Report,” 1945-1946, NSWA, B14, SWHA
74. and Hazel Ormsbee, “Summary of Situation in Gary,” FWAA, B37, SWHA.
75. “Statement on the Relationship of National Agencies to Local Welfare Planning,” Meeting of Advisory Committee on Health and Welfare Planning of Community Chests and Councils, 19 May 1946, AWCS, NSWA, B15, SWHA.
76. See Leighninger, Social Work: Search for Identity, 103–14, for a discussion of the two opposing schools of thought in social work, and the wartime manifestation of the struggle for dominance within professional social work organizations.
77. Social Work: Search for Identity, 113–14. Both the interim committee and AWCS were absorbed by the National Social Work Assembly, which represented professional organizations rather than individuals, in 1946.
78. “Report of AWCS,” 1947, FSAA, B14, SWHA.
79. M. Grover, A. Heningburg, NOPHN & NUL field reports, Gary, Indiana, 1946, NSWA, B30, SWHA.
80. McMillan, Community Organization in Social Welfare, 440–41.
81. Community Organization in Social Welfare, 449–50. Agreements among the Community Chests, the CIO, and the AFL were reached after a series of meetings in 1942.
82. (“Bulletin on Labor Relations,” On the Alert,17 August 1942, reprinted in McMillan, Community Organization in Social Welfare, 504–6.)
83. McMillan, Community Organization in Social Welfare, 53. 7.
84. Opal Boynton, “Housing and Migration Problems Face USO,” Better Times (2 October 1942)