The talking book: African Americans and the Bible

The Talking Book: African Americans and the Bible

Volumn , Issue , 2006, Pages 1-286

  Callahan, Allen Dwight ^a,b  

^a Seminário Teológico Batista do Nordeste   (Brazil)

^b Instituto Martin Luther King Jr   (Brazil)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84903110733     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: None     Document Type: Book

References (485)

1. Frances Harper, "Learning to Read" (1872), in Henry Louis Gates, Jr., and Nellie Y. McKay, eds., The Norton Anthology of African American Literature (New York: W. W. Norton, 1997), 419.
2. William Brown Hodgson, "The Gospel, Written in the Negro Patois of English with Arabic Characters by a Mandingo Slave in Georgia" (New York: American Ethnological Society, 1957), 5, 10
3. Richard Brent Turner, "African Muslim Slaves, the Nation of Islam, and the Bible," in Vincent Wimbush, ed., African Americans and the Bible: Sacred Texts and Social Textures (New York: Continuum, 2000), 297.
4. Cotton Mather, The Negro Christianized: An Essay to Excite and Assist the Good Work, the Instruction of Negro-Servants in Christianity ... (Boston: B. Green, 1706), 42-43.
5. Mark Noll, "Revolution and the Rise of Evangelical Social Influence in North Atlantic Societies," in Noll, David W. Bebbington, and George A. Rawlyk, eds., Evangelicalism: Comparative Studies of Popular Protestantism in North America, the British Isles, and Beyond, 1700-1990 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), 113-136, esp. 128-130.
6. Harvey Gra, The Literacy Myth: Literacy and Social Structure in the Nineteenth-Century City (New York: Academic Press, 1979), 28
7. Janet Cornelius, When I Can Read My Title Clear: Literacy, Slavery, and Religion in the Antebellum South (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1991), 4, n. 10.
8. Albert J. Raboteau, Slave Religion: The "Invisible Institution" in the Antebellum South (New York: Oxford University Press, 1978), 129-130.
9. Albert J. Raboteau, "African-Americans, Exodus, and the American Israel," in Paul E. Johnson, ed., African-American Christianity: Essays in History (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994), 4.
10. Sterling Stuckey, "'My Burden Lightened': Frederick Douglass, the Bible, and Slave Culture," in Wimbush, ed., African Americans and the Bible, 264.
11. Cornelius, When I Can Read, 100, n. 34
12. John Boles, ed., Masters and Slaves in the House of the Lord: Race and Religion in the American South, 1740-1870 (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1988), 135.
13. Raboteau, "Exodus," 6.
14. Cornelius, When I Can Read, 20.
15. Charles F. James, ed., Documentary History of the Struggle for Religious Liberty in Virginia (Lynchburg, VA: J. P. Bell, 1900), 84-85, cited in Raboteau, "Exodus," 5, n. 7.
16. Raboteau, "Exodus," 5, n. 9.
17. Cornelius, When I Can Read, 4, 23-24, 94.
18. Raboteau, "Exodus," 8.
19. Vincent Harding, "Religion and Resistance among Antebellum Slaves, 1800-1860," in Timothy E. Fulop and Albert J. Raboteau, eds., African-American Religion: Interpretive Essays in History and Culture (New York: Routledge, 1997), 112, n. 15.
20. "Confessions of Ben, alias Ben Woolfolk," in Willie Lee Rose, ed., A Documentary History of Slavery in North America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1976), 113-114.
21. Charleston Corporation, An Account of the Late Intended Insurrection (N.p.: 1822), 34 (italics in the original), quoted in Harding, "Religion and Resistance," 113.
22. "The Vesey Conspiracy," in Herbert Aptheker, ed., A Documentary History of the Negro People in the United States, 3 vols. (New York: Citadel Press, 1951), 1:75-76.
23. Urich B. Phillips, American Negro Slavery (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1966), 421, cited in Harding, "Religion and Resistance," 115.
24. Margaret Washington, "The Meanings of Scripture in Gullah Concepts of Liberation and Group Identity," in Wimbush, ed., African Americans and the Bible, 326-327.
25. S. L. Greenslade, ed., The Cambridge History of the Bible, vol. 3: The West, from the Reformation to the Present Day (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1963), 209.
26. Haven P. Perkins, "Religion for Slaves: Diaculties and Methods," Church History, 10, no. 3 (1941): 232, cited in Harding, "Religion and Resistance," 116.
27. John B. Cade, "Out of the Mouths of Ex-Slaves," Journal of Negro History 20 (1935): 318, reprinted in Paul Finkelman, ed., Articles on American Slavery, vol. 1 (New York: Garland, 1989), 82.
28. Frederick Douglass, Life and Times of Frederick Douglass: His Early Life as a Slave, His Escape from Bondage, and His Complete History; Written by Himself, introduction by Rayford W. Logan (New York: Collier Books, 1962), 78-79.
29. Cornelius, When I Can Read, 32-33.
30. William W. Freehling, Prelude to Civil War: The Nullification Controversy in South Carolina, 1816-1836 (New York: Harper and Row, 1966)
31. Whitemarsh Seabrook, Essay on the Management of Slaves (Charleston, SC, 1834), 15, 28-30
32. Charles Joyner, Down by the Riverside: A South Carolina Slave Community (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1984), 157-158.
33. George P. Rawick, ed., The American Slave: A Composite Autobiography, 12 vols. (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1977), 7:24
34. John W. Roberts, From Trickster to Badman: The Black Folk Hero in Slavery and Freedom (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1989), 145.
35. Zephaniah Kingsley, Treatise on the Patriarchal or Co-operative System of Society as It Exists in Some Governments, and Colonies in America, and in the United States, under the Name of Slavery, with Its Necessities and Advantages, by an Inhabitant of Florida, 2nd ed. (1829), excerpted in Dena J. Epstein, Sinful Tunes and Spirituals: Black Folk Music to the Civil War (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1977), 194, and cited in Roberts, Trickster, 142.
36. John Mason Peck, Forty Years of Pioneer Life, ed. Rufus Babcock (Philadelphia: American Baptist Publication Society, 1864), cited in Roberts, Trickster, 143.
37. Joyner, Down by the Riverside, 154-155.
38. Elizabeth Botume, First Days amongst the Contrabands (1893; reprint ed., New York: Arno Press, 1968), 74-75
39. Margaret Washington, "The Meanings of Scripture," in Wimbush, ed., African Americans and the Bible, 335.
40. Elizabeth Ware Pearson, ed., Letters from Port Royal Written at the Time of the Civil War (Boston: W. B. Clarke, 1906), 27.
41. Raboteau, Slave Religion, 242
42. Norman Yetman, ed., Voices from Slavery (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1970), 177
43. Cade, "Out of the Mouths of Ex-Slaves," 91.
44. Henry Louis Gates, Jr., The Signifying Monkey: A Theory of Afro-American Literary Criticism (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988), 131-132.
45. Henry Louis Gates, Jr., and William L. Andrews, eds., Pioneers of the Black Atlantic: Five Slave Narratives from the Enlightenment, 1772-1815 (Washington, DC: Civitas, 1998), 40-41.
46. John Jea, "John Jea: The Life, History, and Unparalleled Su{currency sign}ering of John Jea, the African Preacher: Compiled and Written by Himself," in Pioneers of the Black Atlantic: Five Slave Narratives from the Enlightenment, 1772-1815., 391-392.
47. B. A. Botkin, ed., Lay My Burden Down: A Folk History of Slavery (New York: Delta, 1994), 50.
48. Cornelius, When I Can Read, 89.
49. Gates and Andrews, eds., Pioneers, 392-393.
50. Gates, Signifying Monkey, 163.
51. Cornelius, When I Can Read, 94.
52. Rebecca Cox Jackson, Gifts of Power: The Writings of Rebecca Cox Jackson, Black Visionary, Shaker Eldress, ed. Jean McMahon Humez (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1981), 108, quoted in Gates, Signifying Monkey, 242.
53. Gates and Andrews, eds., Pioneers, 28-29.
54. Rawick, ed., American Slave, 8, pt. 3:940.
55. Cade, "Out of the Mouths of Ex-Slaves," 94.
56. Booker T. Washington, Up from Slavery (1901; reprint ed., New York: Doubleday, 1998), 63, 95, 63.
57. Rawick, ed., American Slave, 12, pt. 1:180.
58. Octavia V. Rogers Albert, The House of Bondage or, Charlotte Brooks and Other Slaves (New York: Hunt and Eaton, 1890), 10-11, quoted in Cornelius, When I Can Read, 91.
59. Mary Mann-Page Newton, "Aunt Deborah Goes Visiting," Journal of American Folklore 4, no. 15 (1891): 354-356.
60. Ralph Ellison, "A Very Stern Discipline," in John Callahan, ed., The Collected Works of Ralph Ellison (New York: Modern Library, 1995), 728.
61. Toni Morrison, Song of Solomon (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1977), 18-19.
62. Toni Morrison, Beloved: A Novel (New York: Penguin, 1987), 218.
63. Jupiter Hammond, An Address to the Negroes of the City of New York (Long Island, NY: Carroll and Patterson, 1786), reprinted in Milton C. Sernett, ed., Afro-American Religious History: A Documentary Witness (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1985), 40.
64. Washington, Up from Slavery, 26.
65. Elijah Muhammad, Message to the Blackman in America (Chicago: Muhammad Mosque of Islam No. 2, 1965), 95.
66. Sterling Stuckey, Slave Culture: Nationalist Theory and the Foundations of Black America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987), 165.
67. Sterling Stuckey, "'My Burden Lightened': Frederick Douglass, the Bible, and Slave Culture," in Vincent Wimbush, ed., African Americans and the Bible: Sacred Texts and Social Textures (New York: Continuum, 2000), 262.
68. Stuckey, "'My Burden Lightened,'" 251-265.
69. Charles H. Nichols, Many Thousands Gone: The Ex-Slaves' Account of Their Bondage and Freedom (Leiden: Brill, 1963), 82.
70. William Wells Brown, The Narrative of William W. Brown, a Fugitive Slave (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996), 82.
71. John Jea, "John Jea: The Life, History, and Unparalleled Su{currency sign}ering of John Jea, the African Preacher: Compiled and Written by Himself," in Henry Louis Gates, Jr., and William L. Andrews, eds., Pioneers of the Black Atlantic: Five Slave Narratives from the Enlightenment, 1772-1815 (Washington, DC: Civitas, 1998), 391.
72. Phillis Wheatley, "On Being Brought from Africa to America," in William H. Robinson, ed., Phillis Wheatley and Her Writings (New York: Garland, 1984), 160.
73. Midrash Rabba-Genesis, 22:5-6.
74. James W. C. Pennington, A Textbook of the Origin and History, etc., etc., of the Colored People (Hartford, CT: L. Skinner, 1841), 7-8.
75. "De Ways of de Wimmens," in Langston Hughes and Arna Bontemps, eds., The Book of Negro Folklore (New York: Fleming H. Revell, 1958), 130-135.
76. "Origin of Races," in The Book of Negro Folklore, 155.
77. Babylonian Talmud, Sanh. 108b
78. Midrash Rabba-Genesis, 36:7-8.
79. William Sumner Jenkins, Pro-Slavery Thought in the Old South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1935), 205-206.
80. George R. Price and James Brewer Stewart, eds., To Heal the Scourge of Prejudice: The Life and Writings of Hosea Easton (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1999), 70, 80-81, 83.
81. Anthony B. Pinn, ed., Moral Evil and Redemptive Su{currency sign}ering: A History of Theodicy in African-American Religious Thought (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2002), 138.
82. Alonzo Potter Burgess Holly, God and the Negro: Synopsis of God of the Negro or the Biblical Record of the Race of Ham (Nashville, TN: National Baptist Publishing Board, 1937), 122.
83. Sondra A. O'Neale, Jupiter Hammon and the Biblical Beginnings of African American Literature (Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press, and [Philadelphia]: American Theological Library Association, 1993), 2.
84. Milton C. Sernett, ed., Afro-American Religious History: A Documentary Witness (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1985), 35, 41.
85. Raboteau, Slave Religion, 294.
86. William M. Manross, A History of the American Episcopal Church, 3rd ed. (New York: Morehouse-Gorham, 1959), 148-150.
87. Neau's catechism quoted in Wood, Arrogance of Faith, 72.
88. Cotton Mather, The Negro Christianized: An Essay to Excite and Assist the Good Work, the Instruction of Negro-Servants in Christianity... (Boston: B. Green, 1706), 42-43.
89. Paul D. Escott, Slavery Remembered: A Record of Twentieth-Century Slave Narratives (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1979), 113-114.
90. John W. Blassingame, ed., The Frederick Douglass Papers, ser. 1: Speeches, Debates, and Interviews, vol. 1: 1841-1846 (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1979), 404-405.
91. Alexander Glennie, Sermons Preached on Plantations to Congregations of Slaves (Charleston, SC, 1844), 22-26
92. Charles Joyner, Down by the Riverside: A South Carolina Slave Community (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1984), 156.
93. Mariah Heywood in Slave Narratives: A Folk History of Slavery in the United States from Interviews with Former Slaves, 17 vols. (Washington, DC: Library of Congress, 1941), 14, pt. 1:285
94. Joyner, Down by the Riverside, 156.
95. John W. Blassingame, ed., Slave Testimony: Two Centuries of Letters, Speeches, Interviews, and Autobiographies (Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press, 1976), 642-643, 538.
96. Howard Thurman, Jesus and the Disinherited (Richmond, IN: Friends United Press, 1981), 30-35.
97. William Wells Brown, Clotel (New York: Arno Press, 1969), 100.
98. Herbert Aptheker, ed., A Documentary History of the Negro People in the United States, 3 vols. (New York: Citadel Press, 1951), 1:8-9.
99. Wood, Arrogance of Faith, 43.
100. Anthony Benezet and John Wesley, Views of American Slavery, Taken a Century Ago (Philadelphia: Association of Friends for the Di{currency sign}usion of Religious and Useful Knowledge, 1858), 47-48.
101. Olaudah Equiano, The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, or Gustavus Vassa, the African, Written by Himself, 2 vols. (1789), in Gates and Andrews, eds., Pioneers of the Black Atlantic, 223.
102. Minutes of Several Conversations between the Rev. Thomas Coke, L.L.D., the Rev. Francis Asbury, and Others, at a Conference, Begun in Baltimore, in the State of Maryland, on Monday, the 27th of December, in the Year 1784 (Philadelphia, 1785), 15
103. H. Shelton Smith, In His Image, But ... : Racism in Southern Religion, 1780-1910 (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1972), 103.
104. Wood, Arrogance of Faith, 64.
105. James Henley Thornwell, "Slavery and the Religious Instruction of the Coloured Population," Southern Presbyterian Review (July 1850): 135.
106. Robert L. Dabney, A Defense of Virginia, and through Her, of the South, in Recent Contests against the Sectional Party (New York, 1867), 197.
107. Richard Fuller and Francis Wayland, Domestic Slavery Considered as a Scriptural Institution (New York: Lewis Colby, 1847), 202.
108. Sernett, ed., Afro-American Religious History, 169.
109. Marilyn Richardson, ed., Maria W. Stewart, America's First Black Woman Political Writer: Essays and Speeches (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987), 66.
110. James Baldwin, The Fire Next Time ... (New York: Dial Press, 1963), 50.
111. Alice Walker, The Color Purple (New York: Washington Square Press, 1982), 177.
112. "Balm in Gilead," in Verolga Nix and J. Jeerson Cleveland, eds., Songs of Zion, Supplemental Worship Resources 12 (Nashville, TN: Abingdon, 1981), 123.
113. Theophus H. Smith, Conjuring Culture: Biblical Formations of Black America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), 169.
114. Dorothy Scarborough, On the Trail of Negro Folk Songs (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1925), 71-72.
115. Lawrence W. Levine, Black Culture and Black Consciousness: Afro-American Folk Thought from Slavery to Freedom (New York: Oxford University Press, 1977), 34.
116. Albert J. Raboteau, Slave Religion: The "Invisible Institution" in the Antebellum South (New York: Oxford University Press, 1978), 291-292.
117. Moses Roper, A Narrative of the Adventures and Escape of Moses Roper from American Slavery (London, 1840), 62
118. John W. Roberts, From Trickster to Badman: The Black Folk Hero in Slavery and Freedom (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1989), 146.
119. Charlotte Forten, "Life on the Sea Islands," pt. 2, Atlantic Monthly, June 1864, 672
120. Margaret Washington, "The Meanings of Scripture," in Vincent Wimbush, ed., African Americans and the Bible: Sacred Texts and Social Textures (New York: Continuum, 2000), 336.
121. V. P. Franklin, Black Self-Determination: A Cultural History of African American Resistance (Brooklyn, NY: Lawrence Hill Books, 1992), 60.
122. Douglass Strange, "Document: Bishop Alexander Payne's Protestation of American Slavery," Journal of Negro History 52 (January 1967): 63
123. Raboteau, Slave Religion, 313.
124. "Walk in Jerusalem Jus' Like John," in James Weldon and J. Rosamond Johnson, The Books of American Negro Spirituals: Including the Book of American Negro Spirituals and The Second Book of Negro Spirituals, 2 vols. (New York: Viking Press, 1925-1926; reprint ed., New York: Da Capo Press, 1989), 2:58-59.
125. Mary A. Livermore, My Story of the War: A Woman's Narrative of Four Years Personal Experience as Nurse in the Union Army ... (Hartford, CT: A. D. Worthington, 1889), quoted in Raboteau, Slave Religion, 313.
126. Sterling Brown, "Negro Folk Expression: Spirituals, Seculars, Ballads and Work Songs," Phylon 14 (Winter 1953): 45-61.
127. "Joshua Fit the Battle of Jericho," in Weldon and Johnson, Books of American Negro Spirituals, 1:56-58.
128. W. E. B. Du Bois, The Souls of Black Folk (1903; reprint ed., New York: Penguin, 1989), 163.
129. "A Secret Organization for Freedom, 1856," in Herbert Aptheker, ed., A Documentary History of the Negro People in the United States, 3 vols. (New York: Citadel Press, 1951), 1:379.
130. Charles Joyner, Down by the Riverside: A South Carolina Slave Community (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1984), 168.
131. Roberts, Trickster, 154.
132. Thomas L. Johnson, Twenty-Eight Years a Slave: Or, The Story of My Life in Three Continents, 7th ed. (Bournemouth, Eng.: W. Mate, 1909), 29-30, quoted in Raboteau, Slave Religion, 312.
133. Martin R. Delany, Blake, or The Huts of America, a Novel (Boston: Beacon Press, 1970), 258.
134. Howard Thurman, "On Viewing the Coast of Africa," in For the Inward Journey (Richmond, IN: Friends United Press, 1984), 60.
135. "Babel's Streams," in George Pullen Jackson, ed., Down-East Spirituals and Others: Three Hundred Songs Supplementary to the Author's Spiritual FolkSongs of Early America (New York: J. J. Augustin, [1943]), 186.
136. http://www.africanamericans.com/FrederickDouglassJuly4th.htm.
137. Robert Hayden, "Frederick Douglass," in Henry Louis Gates, Jr., and Nellie Y. McKay, eds., The Norton Anthology of African American Literature (New York: W. W. Norton, 1997), 1508-9.
138. http://www.africanamericans.com/FrederickDouglassJuly4th.htm.
139. Thomas Sowell, Conquests and Cultures: An International History (New York: Basic Books, 1998), 110.
140. Michael Crowder, West African Resistance: The Military Response to Colonial Occupation (New York: Africana, 1971).
141. Hugh Thomas, The Slave Trade: The Story of the Atlantic Slave Trade, 1440-1870 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1997), 119-121.
142. Ronald Takaki, A Di{currency sign}erent Mirror: A History of Multicultural America (Boston: Little, Brown, 1993), 58-66.
143. See Ira Berlin, Generations of Captivity: A History of African-American Slaves (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2003).
144. Toni Morrison, Beloved: A Novel (New York: Penguin, 1987), 221-222.
145. William Wells Brown, The Narrative of William W. Brown, a Fugitive Slave, in Gates and McKay, eds., Norton Anthology of African American Literature, 253.
146. Charles H. Long, Significations: Signs, Symbols, and Images in the Interpretation of Religion (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1986), 177.
147. Cheryl J. Sanders, Saints in Exile: The Holiness-Pentecostal Experience in African American Religion and Culture (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996), 129, 128.
148. Jeanette Robinson Murphy, "The Survival of African Music in America," Popular Science Monthly 55 (1899): 660-672
149. James Abbington, "Biblical Themes in the R. Nathaniel Dett Collection," in Vincent Wimbush, ed., African Americans and the Bible: Sacred Texts and Social Textures (New York: Continuum, 2000), 282.
150. Cornel West, Keeping Faith: Philosophy and Race in America (New York: Routledge, 1993), xiii.
151. Andrew Fede, "Legitimized Violent Slave Abuse in the American South, 1619-1865: A Case Study of Law and Social Change in Six Southern States," American Journal of Legal History 29 (1985): 94.
152. Catherine Clinton, "'With a Whip in His Hand': Rape, Memory, and African American Women," in Genevieve Fabre and Robert O'Meally, eds., History and Memory in African-American Culture (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), 208.
153. W. E. B. Du Bois, The Souls of Black Folk (1903; reprint ed., New York: Penguin, 1989), 156.
154. Albert J. Raboteau, "The Black Experience in American Evangelicalism: The Meaning of Slavery," in Timothy E. Fulop and Albert J. Raboteau, eds., African-American Religion: Interpretive Essays in History and Culture (New York: Routledge, 1997), 97.
155. B. A. Botkin, ed., Lay My Burden Down: A Folk History of Slavery (New York: Delta, 1994), 27.
156. Albert J. Raboteau, "African-Americans, Exodus, and the American Israel," in Paul E. Johnson, ed., African-American Christianity: Essays in History (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994), 4.
157. Michael Gomez, "The Preacher Kings," in Wimbush, ed., African Americans and the Bible, 510.
158. John W. Roberts, From Trickster to Badman: The Black Folk Hero in Slavery and Freedom (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1989), 124.
159. James Weldon and J. Rosamond Johnson, The Books of American Negro Spirituals: Including the Book of American Negro Spirituals and the Second Book of Negro Spirituals, 2 vols. (New York: Viking Press, 1925-1926; reprint ed., New York: Da Capo Press, 1989), 1:20.
160. Marion A. Haskell, "Negro Spirituals," Century Magazine 36 (1899): 578.
161. R. Nathaniel Dett, ed., Religious Folk-Songs of the Negro as Sung at Hampton Institute (Hampton, VA: Hampton Institute Press, 1927), xlii.
162. Frederick Law Olmstead, A Journey in the Seaboard Slave States (1856), cited in Albert J. Raboteau, Slave Religion: The "Invisible Institution" in the Antebellum South (New York: Oxford University Press, 1978), 69.
163. Elizabeth Ware Pearson, ed., Letters from Port Royal Written at the Time of the Civil War (Boston: W. B. Clarke, 1906), 27.
164. H. G. Spaulding quoted in Walter F. Pitts, Old Ship of Zion: The Afro-Baptist Ritual in the African Diaspora (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 93-94.
165. Pearson, ed., Letters from Port Royal, 27.
166. Pitts, Old Ship of Zion, 93; Sterling Stuckey, Slave Culture: Nationalist Theory and the Foundations of Black America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987), 10-17.
167. Daniel Alexander Payne, Recollections of Seventy Years (Nashville, TN: AME Sunday School Union, 1888), 253-256.
168. Clifton Joseph Furness, "Communal Music among Arabians and Negroes," Musical Quarterly 16 (1930): 49-51, cited in Lawrence W. Levine, Black Culture and Black Consciousness: Afro-American Folk Thought from Slavery to Freedom (New York: Oxford University Press, 1977), 27.
169. Pitts, Old Ship of Zion, 95.
170. Lomax and Parrish cited in Raboteau, Slave Religion, 70.
171. Dorothy Scarborough, assisted by Ola Lee Gulledge, On the Trail of Negro Folk-Songs (Hatboro, PA: Folklore Associates, 1963), 14-16
172. Frederick Douglass, My Bondage and My Freedom (1855; reprint ed., New York: Dover, 1969), 99, 104.
173. Mahalia Jackson with Evan McLeod Wylie, Movin' on Up (New York: Hawthorn Books, 1966), 32, 63
174. Miles Davis with Quincy Troupe, Miles, the Autobiography (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1989), 7.
175. New York Times, Aug. 18, 2002.
176. Judith Weisenfeld, "'For the Cause of Mankind': The Bible, Racial Uplift, and Early Race Movies," in Wimbush, ed., African Americans and the Bible, 736-738.
177. August Wilson, Joe Turner's Come and Gone: A Play in Two Acts (New York: Penguin Books, 1988), "The Play" [unpaginated].
178. Jaqueline L. Tobin and Raymond G. Dobard, Hidden in Plain View: The Secret Story of Quilts and the Underground Railroad (New York: Doubleday, 1999), 133.
179. Murphy, Working the Spirit, 162.
180. James Baldwin, Go Tell It on the Mountain (New York: Dial Press, 1953), 200-201.
181. G. A. Cooke, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Book of Ezekiel (Edinburgh: T. and T. Clark, 1960), 397.
182. "Great Day," in Weldon and Johnson, Books of Spirituals, 2:56-57.
183. Carl J. Anderson, "Ezekiel and the Vision of Dry Bones," in Linda Goss and Marian E. Barnes, eds., Talk That Talk: An Anthology of African American Storytelling (New York: Simon and Schuster/Touchstone, 1989), 199.
184. Douglass, My Bondage and My Freedom, 104.
185. Steven S. Tuell, "Divine Presence and Absence in Ezekiel's Prophecy," in Margaret S. Odell and John T. Strong, eds., The Book of Ezekiel: Theological and Anthropological Perspectives (Atlanta, GA: Society of Biblical Literature, 2000), 97-116, esp. 109-113
186. Carol Newsome, Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice: A Critical Edition (Atlanta, GA: Scholars Press, 1985), esp. 52-56, 226, 303.
187. W. E. B. Du Bois, The Souls of Black Folk (1903; reprint ed., New York: Penguin, 1989), 208.
188. Stephen Breck Reid, "The Theology of the Book of Daniel and the Political Theory of W. E. B. Du Bois," in Randall C. Bailey and Jacquelyn Grant, eds., The Recovery of Black Presence: An Interdisciplinary Exploration; Essays in Honor of Dr. Charles B. Copher (Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press, 1995), 37-49.
189. Barbara Leigh Smith Bodichon, An American Diary, 1857-8, ed. Joseph W. Reed, Jr. (London: Routledge and K. Paul, 1972), 65, cited in Albert J. Raboteau, "African-Americans, Exodus, and the American Israel," in Paul E. Johnson, ed., African-American Christianity: Essays in History (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994), 13.
190. Iveson L. Brookes, A Defense of Southern Slavery, against the Attacks of Henry Clay and Alex'r Campbell ... (Hamburg, SC, 1851), 5
191. Forrest G. Wood, The Arrogance of Faith: Christianity and Race in America from the Colonial Era to the Twentieth Century (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1990), 86.
192. "Go Down, Moses," in James Weldon and J. Rosamond Johnson, The Books of American Negro Spirituals: Including the Book of American Negro Spirituals and the Second Book of Negro Spirituals, 2 vols. (New York: Viking Press, 1925-26; reprint ed., New York: Da Capo Press, 1989), 1:51-53.
193. "Didn't Ol' Pharoah Get Lost?" in African Americans and the Bible: Sacred Texts and Social Textures (New York: Continuum, 2000), 60-61.
194. Vincent Wimbush, ed., African Americans and the Bible: Sacred Texts and Social Textures (New York: Continuum, 2000), 337.
195. Abel McGee Chreitzberg, Early Methodism in the Carolinas (Nashville, TN: Publishing House of the M[ethodist] E[piscopal] C[hurch], South, 1897), 158-159
196. Albert J. Raboteau, Slave Religion: The "Invisible Institution" in the Antibellum South (New York: Oxford University Press, 1978), 8-9.
197. Paul Laurence Dunbar, "An Antebellum Sermon," in Henry Louis Gates, Jr., and Nellie Y. McKay, eds., The Norton Anthology of African American Literature (New York: W. W. Norton, 1997), 892.
198. B. A. Botkin, Lay My Burden Down: A Folk History of Slavery (New York: Delta, 1989), 27.
199. Paul Laurence Dunbar, "We Wear the Mask," in Gates and McKay, eds., Norton Anthology of African American Literature, 896.
200. Dunbar, "Antebellum Sermon," 893.
201. Richard M. Dorson, American Negro Folktales (Greenwich, CT: Fawcett, 1967), 256-257.
202. John W. Roberts, From Trickster to Badman: The Black Folk Hero in Slavery and Freedom (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1989), 155.
203. Gerhard Von Rad, Old Testament Theology, trans. D. M. G. Stalker, 2 vols. (New York: Harper, 1962), 1:35.
204. Harry Middleton Hyatt, Hoodoo-Conjuration-Witchcraft - Rootwork: Beliefs Accepted by Many Negroes and White Persons, These Being Orally Recorded among Blacks and Whites, 5 vols. (Hannibal, MO: Western, 1970-1978), 2:1758, quoted in Kevin J. Hayes, Folklore and Book Culture (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1997), 14-27.
205. Works Project Administration, Drums and Shadows: Survival Studies among the Georgia Coastal Negroes (Garden City, NY: Anchor Books, 1972), 25.
206. Charles Joyner, Down by the Riverside: A South Carolina Slave Community (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1984), 143.
207. Zora Neale Hurston, "Hoodoo in America," Journal of American Folklore 44 (October - December 1931): 414.
208. Zora Neale Hurston, Tell My Horse, in Cheryl A. Wall, ed., Zora Neale Hurston: Novels and Stories (New York: Library of America, 1995), 378.
209. Zora Neale Hurston, Moses, Man of the Mountain, in Wall, ed., Hurston: Novels and Stories, 443.
210. Joyner, Down by the Riverside, 164.
211. Frances Harper, "Our Greatest Want," in Gates and McKay, eds., Norton Anthology, 431-432.
212. Raboteau, "Exodus," 13.
213. Charles L. Perdue, Jr., Thomas E. Barden, and Robert K. Phillips, Weevils in the Wheat: Interviews with Virginia Ex-Slaves (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1976), 10, quoted in Roberts, Trickster, 161.
214. Jaqueline L. Tobin and Raymond G. Dobard, Hidden in Plain View: The Secret Story of Quilts and the Underground Railroad (New York: Doubleday, 1999), 147.
215. James Weldon Johnson, "Let My People Go," in Johnson, God's Trombones: Seven Negro Songs in Verse (New York: Viking Press, 1927), 45-52.
216. Beauford Delaney, The Burning Bush, 1941, reproduced in Gary A. Reynolds and Beryl J. Wright, Against the Odds: African-American Artists and the Harmon Foundation (Newark, NJ: Newark Museum, 1989), 127, pl. 7.
217. Hurston, Moses, Man of the Mountain, 501.
218. Charlotta Bass, "I Accept This Call," National Guardian Apr. 2, 1952, reprinted in Gerda Lerner, ed., Black Women in White America: A Documentary History (New York: Vintage Books, 1973), 345.
219. Martin Luther King, Jr., Where Do We Go from Here: Chaos or Community? (New York: Harper and Row, 1967), 124
220. King, "Out of the Long Night of Segregation," Presbyterian Outlook, Feb. 10, 1958, 6.
221. Martin Luther King, Jr., "I See the Promised Land," in James Melvin Washington, ed., A Testament of Hope: The Essential Writings and Speeches of Martin Luther King, Jr. (San Francisco: Harper and Row, 1986), 279
222. Jesse L. Jackson, "Protecting the Legacy: The Challenge of Martin Luther King, Jr.," in Jackson, Straight from the Heart, ed. Roger D. Hatch and Frank E. Watkins (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1987), 127.
223. Mattias Gardell, "The Sun of Islam Will Rise in the West: Minister Farrakhan and the Nation of Islam in the Latter Days," in Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad and Jane Idleman Smith, eds., Muslim Communities in North America (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1994), 17.
224. Taylor Branch, Pillar of Fire: America in the King Years, 1963-65 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1998), 34.
225. Louis Farrakhan, "Remarks at the Million Man March," http://www.africawithin.com/mmm/transcript.htm.
226. "Didn't Ol' Pharaoh Get Lost?" in Weldon and Johnson, Books of American Negro Spirituals, 1:61.
227. Eddie S. Glaude, Jr., Exodus! Religion, Race, and Nation in Early Nineteenth Century Black America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2002), 46.
228. DavidLyle Jerey, "The Bible and the American Myth," in Je{currency sign}rey, People of the Book: Christian Identity and Literary Culture (Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans, 1996), 317-352.
229. Winthrop Papers, vol. 2 (Boston: Massachusetts Historical Society, 1931), 282-284, 292-295, reprinted in Conrad Cherry, ed., God's New Israel: Religious Interpretations of American Destiny (Englewood Cli{currency sign}s, NJ: PrenticeHall, 1971), 43, cited in Raboteau, "Exodus," 10.
230. Werner Sollors, Beyond Ethnicity: Consent and Descent in American Culture (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), 42-44
231. Herman Melville, White Jacket: or, The World in a Man-of-War (New York: Oxford University Press, 1967), 152-153
232. James Russell Lowell, "Oration Ode," in William Michael Rossetti, ed., The Poetical Works of James Russell Lowell (New York, 1889), 298.
233. Martin R. Delany, Blake, or The Huts of America, a Novel (Boston: Beacon Press, 1970), 315, n. 3.
234. Gilbert Osofsky, ed., Puttin' on Ole Massa: The Slave Narratives of Henry Bibb, William Wells Brown, and Solomon Northup (New York: Harper and Row, 1969), 147, 166, 215.
235. Von Rad, Old Testament Theology, 2:133.
236. "Didn't Ol' Pharaoh Get Lost?" in Weldon and Johnson, Books of American Negro Spirituals, 1:60.
237. The New National Baptist Hymnal (Nashville, TN: National Baptist Publishing Board, 1977), 512.
238. Cheryl Townsend Gilkes, "The Virtues of Brotherhood and Sisterhood: African American Fraternal Organizations and Their Bibles," in Wimbush, ed., African Americans and the Bible, 401, n. 1.
239. Cited in Roberts, Trickster, 152.
240. Albert Murray, The Hero and the Blues (New York: Vintage, 1995), 61.
241. Louis Ruchames, ed., Racial Thought in America, vol. 1: From the Puritans to Abraham Lincoln (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1969), 47, 58.
242. Francis Grimké, "A Resemblance and a Contrast between the American Negro and the Children of Israel, in Egypt, or the Duty of the Negro to Contend Earnestly for His Rights Guaranteed under the Constitution," in Carter Woodson, ed., The Works of Francis L. Grimké, 4 vols. (Washington, DC: Associated Publishers, 1942), 1:352.
243. Glaude, Exodus! 54.
244. Henry Highland Garnet, "An Address to the Slaves of the United States of America," in John H. Bracey, Jr., August Meier, and Elliott Rudwick, eds., Black Nationalism in America (Indianapolis, IN: Bobbs-Merrill, 1990), 74.
245. Glaude, Exodus! 147-149.
246. G. K. Chesterton, "On Leisure," in Selected Essays, chosen by Dorothy Collins (London: Methuen, 1955), 269.
247. Timothy B. Tyson, Radio Free Dixie: Robert F. Williams and the Roots of Black Power (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1999), 97.
248. Samuel Sewall, "The Selling of Joseph: A Memorial," in Ruchames, Racial Thought, 1:47.
249. Henry Louis Gates, Jr., and William L. Andrews, eds., Pioneers of the Black Atlantic: Five Slave Narratives from the Enlightenment, 1772-1815 (Washington, DC: Civitas, 1998), 210.
250. Vincent Harding, "The Anointed Ones: Hamer, King, and the Bible in the Southern Freedom Movement," in Wimbush, ed., African Americans and the Bible, 544.
251. Glaude, Exodus! 54.
252. American Missionary 6, no. 2 (February 1862): 33, cited in Raboteau, "Exodus," 14.
253. "I Wish I Had Died in Egypt Land," in John Wesley Work, ed., American Negro Songs (New York: Howell, Soskin, 1940), 157.
254. "Go Down, Moses," in Weldon and Johnson, Books of American Negro Spirituals, 1:51-53
255. "Walk Together Children," in Gates and McKay, eds., Norton Anthology of African American Literature, 9.
256. Martin Luther King, Jr., "I See the Promised Land," in Washington, ed., Testament of Hope, 279-286.
257. At the 1963 Chicago Conference on Religion and Race, quoted in Branch, Pillar of Fire, 24.
258. "God's A-Gwinter Trouble de Water," in Weldon and Johnson, Books of American Negro Spirituals, 2:85.
259. Elizabeth Hyde Botume, First Days amongst the Contrabands (1893; New York: Arno Press, 1968), 204.
260. Margaret Washington, "The Meanings of Scripture," in Wimbush, ed., African Americans and the Bible, 336
261. George P. Rawick, ed., The American Slave: A Composite Autobiography, suppl. ser. 2, vol. 16 (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1972), 89.
262. Frederick Douglass, Life and Times of Frederick Douglass: His Early Life as a Slave, His Escape from Bondage, and His Complete History; Written by Himself, introduction by Rayford W. Logan (New York: Collier Books, 1969), 159-160, cited in Raboteau, "Exodus," 14.
263. Joseph M. Murphy, Working the Spirit: Ceremonies of the African Diaspora (Boston: Beacon Press, 1994), 153.
264. Lawrence W. Levine, Black Culture and Black Consciousness: Afro-American Folk Thought from Slavery to Freedom (New York: Oxford University Press, 1977), 37-38.
265. Joyner, Down by the Riverside, 167-168.
266. Sarah H. Bradford, Scenes from the Life of Harriet Tubman (Salem, NH: Ayer, 1992), 18-19.
267. Arthur H. Fauset, Sojourner Truth, God's Faithful Pilgrim (1938; reprint ed., New York: Russell and Russell, 1971), 175.
268. George M. Fredrickson, Black Liberation: A Comparative History of Black Ideologies in the United States and South Africa (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 66, n. 18.
269. Delany, Blake, 21.
270. Fredrickson, Black Liberation, 67.
271. Herbert Aptheker, ed., A Documentary History of the Negro People in the United States, 3 vols. (New York: Citadel Press, 1951), 2:713.
272. Moses Moore, "'Behold the Dreamer Cometh': Orishatukeh Fadama and Pan-African Biblical Hermeneutics," in Wimbush, ed., African Americans and the Bible, 423.
273. Africa's Offering (New York: John A. Gray, 1862), republished in Anthony B. Pinn, ed., Moral Evil and Redemptive Su{currency sign}ering: A History of Theodicy in African-American Religious Thought (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2002), 87-88.
274. Quoted in Fredrickson, Black Liberation, 77, n. 39.
275. Orishatukeh Fadama, "What the African Movement Stands For," African Mail, Sept. 25, 1914, cited in Moore, "'Behold the Dreamer Cometh,'" 422, 430, n. 26.
276. Fadama, "The A.M.E. Church and Kittrell Normal Institute," Christian Recorder, Apr. 16, 1890, 289, cited in Moore, "'Behold the Dreamer Cometh,'" 430, n. 27.
277. "The Afro-Americans at Victoria Park," Sierra Leone Weekly News, Jan. 23, 1915, cited in Moore, "'Behold the Dreamer Cometh,'" 430.
278. Milton Sernett, "Rereadings: The Great Migration and the Bible," in Wimbush, ed., African Americans and the Bible, 449.
279. David Walker, Appeal to the Colored Citizens of the World, in Charles M. Wiltse, ed., David Walker's Appeal, in Four Articles, Together with a Preamble, to the Coloured Citizens of the World, but in Particular, and Very Expressly, to Those of the United States of America (New York: Hill and Wang, 1965).
280. Garnet, "Address to the Slaves," 72-73.
281. Grimké, "Resemblance and Contrast," 350-351.
282. Carter Godwin Woodson, Negro Orators and Their Orations (1925; reprint ed., New York: Russell and Russell, 1969), 64, cited in Raboteau, "African-Americans, Exodus, and American Israel," 14.
283. Henry MacNeal Turner, AME Recorder, Jan. 25, 1883, in Milton C. Sernett, ed., Afro-American Religious History: A Documentary Witness (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1985), 261-262.
284. W. E. B. Du Bois, "The Migration of Negroes," Crisis (June 1917): 66, quoted in Sernett, "Rereadings," 449.
285. Nannie Helen Burroughs, "Unload Your Uncle Toms," Louisiana Weekly, Dec. 23, 1933, reprinted in Lerner, Black Women in White America, 551-553.
286. Arna Bontemps, Black Thunder (New York: Macmillan, 1936), 50-53.
287. Tobin and Dobard, Hidden in Plain View, 143-144.
288. Orishatukeh Fadama, "The African Movement: The Perils of Pioneering-A Parallel," Sierra Leone Weekly News, Sept. 11, 1915, cited in Moore, "'Behold the Dreamer Cometh,'" 426.
289. W. E. B. Du Bois, The Souls of Black Folk (1903; reprint ed., New York: Penguin, 1989), 6.
290. Albert J. Raboteau, "'Ethiopia Shall Soon Stretch Forth Her Hands': Black Destiny in Nineteenth-Century America," in Raboteau, A Fire in the Bones: Reflections on African-American Religious History (Boston: Beacon Press, 1995), 42.
291. George M. Fredrickson, Black Liberation: A Comparative History of Black Ideologies in the United States and South Africa (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 62.
292. William Scott, "'And Ethiopia Shall Stretch Forth Its Hands': The Origins of Ethiopianism in Afro-American Thought, 1767-1896," Umoja, n.s., 2 (Spring 1978): 3.
293. Cotton Mather, The Negro Christianized: An Essay to Excite and Assist the Good Work, the Instruction of Negro-Servants in Christianity ... (Boston: B. Green, 1706).
294. Cotton Mather, Rules for the Society of Negroes, 1693 (New York: Lenox Library, 1888), 3-4.
295. Albert J. Raboteau, Slave Religion: The "Invisible Institution" in the Antibellum South (New York: Oxford University Press, 1978), 129-130.
296. George Shepperson, "Ethiopianism Past and Present," in C. G. Baëta, ed., Christianity in Tropical Africa: Studies Presented and Discussed at the Seventh International African Seminar, University of Ghana, April 1965 (London: Oxford University Press for the International African Institute, 1968), 249.
297. Carol V. R. George, Segregated Sabbaths: Richard Allen and the Emergence of Independent Black Churches, 1760-1840 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1973), 165.
298. Julian D. Mason, Jr., The Poems of Phillis Wheatley (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1966), 110.
299. Jupiter Hammond, "An Address to Miss Phillis Wheatley, Ethiopian Poetess (1778)," in Richard Barksdale and Kenneth Kinnamon, eds., Black Writers of America: A Comprehensive Anthology (New York: Macmillan, 1972), 47-48.
300. Scott, "'And Ethiopia Shall Stretch Forth,'" 2.
301. Phillis Wheatley, "To the University of Cambridge in New England (1767)," in Mason, ed., Poems of Phillis Wheatley, 5-6.
302. Richard Allen, The Life, Experience, and Gospel Labours of the Rt. Rev. Richard Allen (Philadelphia: Martin and Boden, 1833; reprint ed., New York: Abingdon, 1960), 76.
303. Prince Hall, "A Charge, Delivered to the African Lodge, June 24, 1797, at Menotonomy," in Dorothy Porter, ed., Early Negro Writing, 1760-1837 (Boston: Beacon Press, 1971), 72.
304. Robert A. Young, The Ethiopian Manifesto, in Sterling Stuckey, ed., The Ideological Origins of Black Nationalism (Boston: Beacon Press, 1972), 30-38.
305. David Walker, Appeal to the Colored Citizens of the World, in Charles M. Wiltse, ed., David Walker's Appeal, in Four Articles, Together with a Preamble, to the Coloured Citizens of the World, but in Particular, and Very Expressly, to Those of the United States of America (New York: Hill and Wang, 1965), 18.
306. Fredrickson, Black Liberation, 64-65, 65, n. 15.
307. Josiah Nott, Two Lectures, on the Natural History of the Caucasian and Negro Races (Mobile, AL, 1844), 30-34
308. Forrest G. Wood, The Arrogance of Faith: Christianity and Race in America from the Colonial Era to the Twentieth Century (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1990), 99.
309. Louis Agassiz, "The Diversity of the Origin of the Human Race," Christian Examiner and Religious Miscellany 49 July (1850): 181-204.
310. Frederick Douglass, "The Claims of the Negro Ethnologically Considered (1854)," in Philip S. Foner, ed., The Voice of Black America: Major Speeches by Negroes in the United States, 1797-1971 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1972), 144.
311. Frederick Douglass, "The Abilities and Possibilities of Our Race (1865)," in Foner, Voice of Black America, 331.
312. Henry Highland Garnet, The Past and the Present Condition, and the Destiny, of the Colored Race (1848; reprint ed., Miami, FL: Mnemosyne, 1969), 6-12.
313. Frances E. W. Harper, "Ethiopia," in Henry Louis Gates, Jr., and Nellie Y. McKay, eds., The Norton Anthology of African American Literature (New York: W. W. Norton, 1997), 412.
314. John Saillant, "Origins of African American Biblical Hermeneutics in Eighteenth-Century Black Opposition to the Slave Trade and Slavery," in Vincent Wimbush, ed., African Americans and the Bible: Sacred Texts and Social Textures (New York: Continuum, 2000), 237-250.
315. John Marrant, "A Sermon Preached on the 24th Day of June 1789, Being the Festival of Saint John the Baptist, at the Request of the Right Worshipful the Grand Master Prince Hall, and the Rest of the Brethren of the African Lodge of the Honorable Society of Free and Accepted Masons in Boston," in Adam Potkay and Sandra Burr, eds., Black Atlantic Writers of the Eighteenth Century: Living the New Exodus in England and the Americas (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1995), 106-122, quotation on 115.
316. Paul Cuffe, "Address to My Scattered Brethren and Fellow Countrymen at Sierra Leone," cited in Sheldon H. Harris, ed., Paul Cu{currency sign}e: Black America and the Africa Return (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1972), 56.
317. Lott Carey to friends in Virginia, Apr. 24, 1826, in Adelaide Cromwell Hill and Martin Kilson, eds., Apropos of Africa: Sentiments of Negro American Leaders on Africa from the 1800s to the 1950s (London: Cass, 1969), 94-95.
318. Silvia M. Jacobs, "Pan-African Consciousness among African Americans," in Talmadge Anderson, ed., Black Studies: Theory, Method, and Cultural Perspective (Pullman: Washington State University Press, 1990), 70.
319. W. E. B. Du Bois, "Of Alexander Crummell," in Du Bois, Souls of Black Folk, 177.
320. Alexander Crummell, The Future of Africa: Being Addresses, Sermons, etc., Delivered in the Republic of Liberia (New York: Schlein, 1862), 107, 108.
321. In Africa's Offering (New York: John A. Gray, 1862), republished in Anthony B. Pinn, ed., Moral Evil and Redemptive Su{currency sign}ering: A History of Theodicy in African-American Religious Thought (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2002), 91.
322. "Blyden's Letter," New York Age, Jan. 21, 1895
323. "Blyden's Letter," Sierra Leone Weekly News, Mar. 9, 1895
324. Moses Moore, "'Behold the Dreamer Cometh': Orishatukeh Fadama and Pan-African Biblical Hermeneutics," in Wimbush, ed., African Americans and the Bible, 420, 428, n. 12.
325. Edward Wilmot Blyden, "The Ethiopian Eunuch," in Blyden, Christianity, Islam, and the Negro Race (London: W. B. Whittingham, 1887; reprint ed., Chesapeake, VA: ECA Associates, 1990), 152-172, quotation on 162.
326. Howard Brotz, ed., Negro Social and Political Thought, 1850-1920: Representative Texts (New York: Basic Books, 1966), 191.
327. Fredrickson, Black Liberation, 65, n. 15.
328. Martin R. Delany, Blake, or The Huts of America, a Novel (Boston: Beacon Press, 1970), 172.
329. Fredrickson, Black Liberation, 66, n. 18, 60, n. 17.
330. Lawrence S. Little, Disciples of Liberty: The African Methodist Episcopal Church in the Age of Imperialism, 1884-1916 (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 2000), 70.
331. Fredrickson, Black Liberation, 75, n. 34.
332. Scott, "'And Ethiopia Shall Stretch Forth,'" 11.
333. Fredrickson, Black Liberation, 75.
334. AME Church Review 1, no. 6 (October 1884): 79-85, reprinted in Pinn, Moral Evil, 131-140, quotations on 133-134, 134, 135, 136.
335. James A. Handy, "An Exposition on Psalm 68:31," in Theophilus Gould Steward, The End of the World, or, Clearing the Way for the Fullness of the Gentiles (Philadelphia: A.M.E. Church Book Rooms, 1888), 137-151, quotation on 150.
336. Cleveland Gazette, Mar. 28, 1896, 2.
337. Savannah Tribune, Mar. 21, 1896, 2, 4.
338. In Chris Prouty, Empress Taytu and Menilek II: Ethiopia, 1883-1910 (Trenton, NJ: Red Sea Press, 1986), 270, cited in Clarence E. Walker, We Can't Go Home Again: An Argument about Afrocentrism (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001), 47.
339. Fredrickson, Black Liberation, 80-85.
340. J. Mutero Chirenje, Ethiopianism and Afro-Americans in Southern Africa, 1883-1916 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1987), 164-165.
341. Paul Lawrence Dunbar, "Ode to Ethiopia," in Gates and McKay, eds., Norton Anthology, 887.
342. Pauline Hopkins, Of One Blood, or, The Hidden Self, cited in Hopkins, The Magazine Novels of Pauline Hopkins (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988), 590, 531, 533, 570.
343. Du Bois, "Of Our Spiritual Strivings," 6.
344. Marcus Garvey, "The Future as I See It," in Gates and McKay, eds., Norton Anthology, 979-980.
345. Aaron McGruder, ed., Philosophy and Opinions of Marcus Garvey, 2 vols. in 1 (New York: Atheneum, 1969), 2:37-38.
346. Randall K. Burkett, Garveyism as a Religious Movement: The Institutionalization of a Black Civil Religion (Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press, 1978), 34-36, 44.
347. Jacques-Garvey, ed., Philosophy of Garvey, 2:140-141.
348. On Diggs, see Burkett, Garveyism, 122-126.
349. New York World, Aug. 15, 1922, 3
350. Burkett, Garveyism, 126.
351. Amy Jacques Garvey, Garvey and Garveyism (Kingston, Jamaica: United Printers, 1963), 104.
352. Jacques-Garvey, ed., Philosophy of Garvey, 1:46, 60.
353. Chicago Commission on Race Relations, The Negro in Chicago: A Study of Race Relations and a Race Riot (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1922), 59-64.
354. Universal Hagar's Spiritual Church documents are accessible on the Web site of the Rev. George H. Latimer-Knight, "The History of Father George William Hurley and the Universal Hagar's Spiritual Church," at http://fatherhurley.com.
355. http://www.fatherhurley.com/tc.htm.
356. Nathaniel Samuel Murrell, "Turning Hebrew Psalms into Reggae Rhythms: Rastas' Revolutionary Lamentations for Social Change," at http://www.crosscurrents.org/murrell.htm, p. 2.
357. George Schuyler, "Views and Reviews," Pittsburgh Courier, Nov. 23, 1935.
358. Langston Hughes, "Call of Ethiopia," Opportunity, Journal of Negro Life 13, no. 9 (September 1935): 276.
359. John Cullen Gruesser, Black on Black: Twentieth-Century African American Writing about Africa (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2000), 4, 176-177.
360. Alain Locke, "Apropos of Africa," in Hill and Kilson, eds., Apropos of Africa, 352-355.
361. Funkadelic, "Mothership Connection (Star Child)," Mothership Connection, Casablanca Records 824502.
362. Alice Walker, The Color Purple (New York: Washington Square Press, 1982), 209-210.
363. Alexander Crummell, "The Destined Superiority of the Negro," in J. R. Oldfield, ed., Civilization and Black Progress: Selected Writings of Alexander Crummell on the South (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1995), 48
364. W. E. B. Du Bois, "The Conservation of Races," American Negro Academy Occasional Papers 2 (1897): 12.
365. Adam Hochschild, King Leopold's Ghost: A Story of Greed, Terror, and Heroism in Colonial Africa (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1998), 111-112
366. Adam Hochschild, The Congo from Leopold to Kabila: A People's History (London: Zed Books, 2002), 23, n. 44, 25.
367. Hochschild, King Leopold's Ghost, 264.
368. Locke, "Apropos of Africa," 352.
369. Walker, Color Purple, 126.
370. W. E. B. Du Bois, The Negro (1915; reprint ed., Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2001), 9.
371. Walker, Color Purple, 125-126.
372. Howard Thurman, Jesus and the Disinherited (Richmond, IN: Friends United Press, 1981), 112.
373. Toni Morrison, Sula (New York: New American Library, 1973), 65.
374. Ronald Steiner, "'Seeking Jesus': A Religious Rite of Negroes in Georgia," Journal of American Folklore 14, no. 54 (1901): 172.
375. David Macrae, The Americans at Home: Pen-and-Ink Sketches of American Men, Manners, and Morals, 2 vols. (Edinburgh: Edmonston and Douglas, 1870), 2:112-113.
376. Albert J. Raboteau, Slave Religion: The "Invisible Institution" in the Antebellum South (New York: Oxford University Press, 1978), 242.
377. Aaron McGruder and Reginald Hudlin, illustrated by Kyle Baker, Birth of a Nation: A Comic Novel (New York: Crown, 2004), 65.
378. Lawrence W. Levine, Black Culture and Black Consciousness: Afro-American Folk Thought from Slavery to Freedom (New York: Oxford University Press, 1977), 50.
379. Margaret Washington, "The Meanings of Scripture in Gullah Concepts of Liberation and Group Identity," in Vincent Wimbush, ed., African Americans and the Bible: Sacred Texts and Social Textures (New York: Continuum, 2000), 334.
380. Jaqueline L. Tobin and Raymond G. Dobard, Hidden in Plain View: The Secret Story of Quilts and the Underground Railroad (New York: Doubleday, 1999), 146.
381. Cheryl Townsend Gilkes, "'Go and Tell Mary and Martha': The Spirituals, Biblical Options for Women, and Cultural Tensions in the African-American Religious Experience," Social Compass 43, no. 4 (1996): 570-573.
382. Charles White, O Mary, Don't You Weep, reproduced in Richard J. Powell, Black Art and Culture in the Twentieth Century (London: Thames and Hudson, 1997), 77, no. 117.
383. "Daniel Saw the Stone," in James Weldon and J. Rosamond Johnson, The Books of American Negro Spirituals: Including the Book of American Negro Spirituals and the Second Book of Negro Spirituals, 2 vols. (New York: Viking Press, 1925-1926; reprint ed., New York: Da Capo Press, 1989), 1:162-163.
384. David Emmanuel Goatley, Were You There? Godforsakenness in Slave Religion (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1996), 49, n. 39.
385. Harold Courlander, Negro Folk Music U.S.A. (New York: Columbia University Press, 1963), 61.
386. In R. Nathaniel Dett, ed., Religious Folk-Songs of the Negro as Sung at Hampton Institute (Hampton, VA: Hampton Institute Press, 1927), 145.
387. "He Is King of Kings," in Religious Folk-Songs of the Negro as Sung at Hampton Institute (Hampton, VA: Hampton Institute Press, 1927), 146-147.
388. David Walker, Appeal to the Colored Citizens of the World, in Charles M. Wiltse, ed., David Walker's Appeal, in Four Articles, Together with a Preamble, to the Coloured Citizens of the World, but in Particular, and Very Expressly, to Those of the United States of America (New York: Hill and Wang, 1965), 11-12.
389. W. E. B. Du Bois, "Of the Faith of the Fathers," in Du Bois, The Souls of Black Folk (1903; reprint ed., New York: Penguin, 1989), 163.
390. Gayraud Wilmore, Black Religion and Black Radicalism, 2nd ed. (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1983), 62-71.
391. Thomas Wentworth Higginson, Army Life in a Black Regiment (1870; reprint ed., New York: Collier Books, 1962), 48.
392. Thomas Wentworth Higginson, "Negro Spirituals," Atlantic Monthly, June 1867, 695.
393. "Judgment," in Dett, ed., Religious Folk-Songs, 158.
394. "My Lord, What a Mourning," in Religious Folk-Songs, 157.
395. Ice Cube, "When I Get to Heaven," The Predator, Priority Records, 57185.
396. Richard M. Dorson, American Negro Folktales (Greenwich, CT: Fawcett, 1967), 255-256.
397. James Baldwin, The Amen Corner: A Play (New York: Dial Press, 1968), 6-7.
398. John W. Roberts, From Trickster to Badman: The Black Folk Hero in Slavery and Freedom (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1989), 153.
399. Dett, ed., Religious Folk-Songs, 180-181, 146-147.
400. W. B. Allen, interviewed by J. R. Jones at American Slavery: A Composite Autobiography, http://greenwood.scbbs.com/servlet/sdssfile/gwsn_03s_all_w.pdf.
401. In Washington, "Meanings of Scripture," 337.
402. Timothy B. Tyson, Radio Free Dixie: Robert F. Williams and the Roots of Black Power (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1999), 216-218.
403. Neal Robinson, Christ in Islam and Christianity (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1991), 168-170.
404. Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad and Jane Idelman Smith, Mission to America: Five Islamic Sectarian Communities in North America (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1993), 96-97.
405. James G. Spady and Joseph D. Eure, eds., Nation Conscious Rap (New York: PC International Press, 1991), 268-269.
406. Kelly Brown Douglas, The Black Christ (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1994), 111-112
407. James H. Cone, The Spirituals and the Blues: An Interpretation (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1991), 43-44.
408. Joseph R. Washington, Jr., Black Religion: The Negro and Christianity in the United States (Boston: Beacon Press, 1964), 147.
409. Mahalia Jackson and Doris Akers, "Lord, Don't Move This Mountain," in Verolga Nix and J. Je{currency sign}erson Cleveland, eds., Songs of Zion, Supplemental Worship Resources 12 (Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press, 1981), 173.
410. Muhammad, Message to the Blackman, 95.
411. James Weldon Johnson, "The Prodigal Son," in Johnson, God's Trombones: Seven Negro Songs in Verse (New York: Viking Press, 1927), 25.
412. Prince Hall, A Charge Delivered to the Brethren of the African Lodge on the 25th of June, 1792 ... (Boston: Bible and Heart, 1792), 4.
413. Martin Luther King, Jr., "On Being a Good Samaritan," in King, Strength to Love (New York: Harper and Row, 1963), 17.
414. James L. Wells, The Good Samaritan, c. 1932-1933, in Gary Reynolds and Beryl J. Wright, Against the Odds: African-American Artists and the Harmon Foundation (Newark, NJ: Newark Museum, 1989), 270, pl. 94.
415. Peter J. Boyer, "Man of Faith," New Yorker, Oct. 22, 2001, 50.
416. John Calvin, The Gospel According to Saint John, ed. D. W. Torrance and T. F. Torrance, trans. T. H. L. Parker (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1959), 209.
417. Boyer, "Man of Faith," 52.
418. Walker, Appeal, 37-38.
419. Martin R. Delany, Blake, or The Huts of America, a Novel (Boston: Beacon), 197.
420. Frederick Douglass, Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass (New York: Signet, 1968), 120.
421. Anna Julia Cooper, "Womanhood a Vital Element in the Regeneration of the Race," in Mary Helen Washington, ed., A Voice from the South (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988), 16, 18.
422. W. E. B. Du Bois, "Darrow," Crisis 35 (June 1928): 203, reprinted in Writings by W.E.B. Du Bois in Periodicals Edited by Others, vol. 2: 1910-1934, ed. Herbert Aptheker (Millwood, NY: Kraus-Thomson Organization, 1982), 516.
423. A. Philip Randolph, "Negro Labor and the Church," reprinted in A Documentary History of the Negro People of the United States, vol. 2: 1910-1932, ed. Herbert Aptheker (Secaucus, NJ: Citadel Press, 1969), 630-636.
424. Langston Hughes, "Goodbye, Christ" (1932), in Nathan Irvin Huggins, ed., Voices from the Harlem Renaissance (New York: Oxford University Press, 1976), 419-420.
425. Countee Cullen, "Black Magdalens" (1925), in Huggins, ed., Voices, 347.
426. Amiri Baraka, "When We'll Worship Jesus" (1972), in Paul Vangelisti, ed., Transbluesency: The Selected Poems of Amiri Baraka/Leroi Jones (1961-1995) (New York: Marsilio, 1995), 158-161.
427. Tom Skinner, How Black Is the Gospel? (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott, 1970), 96, 104.
428. August Wilson, Joe Turner's Come and Gone (New York: Penguin Books, 1988), 91-93.
429. Chuck D with Yusuf Jah, Fight the Power: Rap, Race, and Reality (New York: Delacorte Press, 1997), 156-157.
430. Thurman, Jesus and the Disinherited, 17.
431. Fannie Lou Hamer, in Edwin King, "Go Tell It on the Mountain: A Prophet from the Delta," Sojourners, December 1982, 20
432. Martin Luther King, Jr., Stride toward Freedom: The Montgomery Story (New York: Harper and Row, 1958), 40.
433. Charlie Braxton, "Apocalypse" (1990), in Kevin Powell and Ras Baraka, eds., In the Tradition: An Anthology of Young Black Writers (New York: Harlem River Press, 1992), 112.
434. KRS-One in Spady and Eure, eds., Nation Conscious Rap, 184.
435. Aaron McGruder, A Right to Be Hostile: The Boondocks Treasury (New York: Three River Press, 2003), 43.
436. In Amy Jacques-Garvey, ed., Philosophy and Opinions of Marcus Garvey, 2 vols. in 1 (New York: Atheneum, 1969), 1:62, 60-61.
437. Ja Rule, "Only Begotten Son," Venni, Vetti, Vecci, Def Jam, 538920.
438. Lauryn Hill, "Forgive Them Father," The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill, Ruffhouse/ Columbia, 69035.
439. "Crucifixion," in Weldon and Johnson, Books of American Negro Spirituals, 1:174.
440. Edward Wilmot Blyden, "The Ethiopian Eunuch," in Blyden, Christianity, Islam, and the Negro Race (London: W. B. Whittingham, 1887; reprint ed., Chesapeake, VA: ECA Associates, 1990), 162.
441. Goatley, Were You There? 46.
442. Thomas C. Gray, The Confessions of Nat Turner: Leader of the Late Insurrection in Southampton, Va (1861; reprint ed., Salem, NH: Ayer, 1991), 5.
443. U.S. Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States: Colonial Times to 1970 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1976), 422, cited in Thomas Sowell, Conquests and Cultures: An International History (New York: Basic Books, 1998), 168.
444. W. E. B. Du Bois, "Jesus Christ in Texas," from Darkwater: Voices from within the Veil (1920), reprinted in David Levering Lewis, ed., W. E. B. Du Bois: A Reader (New York: Henry Holt, 1995), 501-502.
445. Countee Cullen, The Black Christ and Other Poems (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1929), 96, and flyleaf illustration by the poet's brother Charles.
446. Langston Hughes, The Panther and the Lash: Poems of Our Times (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1967), 37.
447. Frank Horne, "On Seeing Two Brown Boys in a Catholic Church," in Arnold Adolff;, ed., The Poetry of Black America: Anthology of the Twentieth Century (New York: Harper and Row, 1973), 55.
448. Public Enemy, "Welcome to Terrordome," Fear of a Black Planet, Def Jam Records, 23446.
449. Tupac Shakur as Makaveli, "Blasphemy," The Don Killuminati: The Seven Day Theory, Interscope, 90039.
450. Michael Eric Dyson, Holler If You Hear Me: Searching for Tupac Shakur (New York: Basic Civitas Books, 2001), 230.
451. NAS, "God Love Us," Nastradamus, Sony, 63930.
452. Erik J. Williams, "Thugology: Carving Out Explosive Biblical and Theological Space in a Hip-Hop Universe," BMa: The Sonia Sanchez Literary Review 6, no. 1 (Fall 2000): 79.
453. Makaveli, "Blasphemy."
454. Cornel West, "A Philosophical View of Easter," in West, Prophetic Fragments (Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans; Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press, 1988), 265-266.
455. Marcus Garvey, "The Resurrection of the Negro," in Jacques-Garvey, ed., Philosophy and Opinions of Marcus Garvey, 1:88.
456. "De Angel Roll De Stone Away," in Weldon and Johnson, Books of American Negro Spirituals, 2:118-120.
457. Nas speaking in an interview in AllHipHop.com, as reported in http://www.rapnewsdirect.com/Artists/2Pac/News/0-202-1100-00.html.
458. Tupac Shakur as Makaveli, "Blasphemy," The Don Killuminati: The Seven Day Theory, Interscope, 90039.
459. Turner, writing in The Voice of Missions, Feb. 1, 1898
460. Wilmore, Black Religion and Black Radicalism, 125.
461. Alice Walker, The Color Purple (New York: Washington Square Press, 1982), 177.
462. Randall K. Burkett, Garveyism as a Religious Movement: The Institutionalization of a Black Civil Religion (Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow, 1978), 183.
463. Wilmore, Black Religion and Black Radicalism, 182.
464. Albert B. Cleage, Jr., The Black Messiah (New York: Sheed and Ward, 1968), 3, 92-93.
465. James H. Cone, Black Theology and Black Power (New York: Seabury Press, 1969), 36.
466. Poor Righteous Teachers, Pure Poverty, Profile, 1415.
467. Spady and Eure, eds., Nation Conscious Rap, 230.
468. KRS-One, "The Eye Opener," Boogie Down Productions, on Live Hardcore Worldwide, Jive, 1425.
469. Darrell Dawsey, Living to Tell about It: Young Black Men in America Speak Their Piece (New York: Doubleday, 1996), 243.
470. Tupac Shakur, "Black Jesuz," Still I Rise, Interscope Records, 490413.
471. Tupac Shakur, 1971-1996, by the editors of Vibe (New York: Crown, 1997), 126.
472. Sonia Sanchez quoted in Dyson, Holler If You Hear Me, 209-210.
473. Howard Thurman, Deep River and the Negro Spiritual Speaks of Life and Death (Richmond, IN: Friends United Press, 1990), 4, 17
474. Goatley, Were You There? 46.
475. Jacquelyn Grant, White Women's Christ and Black Women's Jesus: Feminist Christology and Womanist Response (Atlanta, GA: Scholar's Press, 1989), 209-216.
476. Shakur, "Black Jesuz."
477. Norman R. Yetman, Voices from Slavery (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1970), 75.
478. W. E. B. Du Bois, The Souls of Black Folk (1903; reprint ed., New York: Penguin, 1989), 144.
479. David Bradley, "Passion Play at Mount Pisgah," Pennsylvania Gazette (March 1997), 29.
480. Southern Galaxy (Natchez), June 12, 1828, quoted in Terry Alford, Prince among Slaves (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1977), 81-82.
481. John Jasper, "The Sun Do Move," in Langston Hughes and Arna Bontemps, eds., The Book of Negro Folklore (New York: Fleming H. Revell, 1958), 228-229.
482. In Henry Louis Gates, Jr., and William L. Andrews, eds., Pioneers of the Black Atlantic: Five Slave Narratives from the Enlightenment, 1772-1815 (Washington, DC: Civitas, 1998), 331.
483. Stanley Crouch, "Do the Afrocentric Hustle," The All-American Skin Game, or, The Decoy of Race: The Long and the Short of It, 1990-1994 (New York: Pantheon Books, 1995), 44.
484. Nathaniel Paul, "An Address, Delivered on the Celebration of the Abolition of Slavery, in the State of New York, July 5, 1827," in Milton C. Sernett, ed., Afro-American Religious History: A Documentary Witness (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1985), 85.
485. Howard Thurman, Jesus and the Disinherited (Richmond, IN: Friends United Press, 1981), 14-15.