Young men and the sea: Yankee seafarers in the age of sail

Young Men and the Sea: Yankee Seafarers in the Age of Sail

Volumn , Issue , 2005, Pages 1-336

  Vickers, Daniel ^a   Walsh, Vincent ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA   (Canada)

^b MEMORIAL UNIVERSITY OF NEWFOUNDLAND   (Canada)

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EID: 84902929461     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: None     Document Type: Book

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205. Mehitabel Williams. See Vital Records of Salem, Massachusetts, to the End of the Year, 1849, 6 vols. (Salem, Mass., 1916-1925), 3:191, 193.
206. Bettye Hobbs Pruitt, ed., The Massachusetts Tax Valuation List of 1771 (Boston, 1978)
207. Daniel Vickers, "An Honest Tar: Ashley Bowen of Marblehead," New England Quar terly, 69 (1996), 531-553
208. Alexander Keyssar, "Widowhood in EighteenthCentury Massachusetts: A Problem in the History of the Family," Perspectives in American History, 8 (1974), 86-94.
209. Karin Wulf, Not All Wives: Women of Colonial Philadelphia (Ithaca, N.Y., 2000), 130-142.
210. Benjamin F. Browne, "Youthful Recollections of Salem, Written by Benjamin F. Browne in 1869," EIHC, 50 (1914), 291.
211. Bryant F. Tolles, Jr., Architecture in Salem: An Illustrated Guide (Salem, Mass., 1983), 41-42.
212. Patricia Cleary, "'She Will Be in the Shop': Women's Sphere of Trade in Eighteenth-Century Philadelphia and New York," Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography, 119 (1995), 181-202.
213. David W. Conroy, In Public Houses: Drink and the Revolution of Authority in Colonial Massachusetts (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1995), 99-156
214. George Francis Dow and Mary G. Thresher, eds., Records and Files of the Quarterly Courts of Essex County, Massachusetts, 1636-1686, 9 vols. (Salem, 1911-1975), 6:392.
215. Vickers, "Nantucket Whalemen in the Deep-Sea Fishery: The Changing Anatomy of an Early American Labor Force," Journal of American History, 72 (1985), 285.
216. Philip Chadwick, Foster Smith, Colonial Society of Massachusetts, Publications, 2 vols. (Boston, 1973), 45:394-397.
217. James Duncan Phillips, Salem in the Eighteenth Century (Boston, 1937), 396-397, 406, 432, 440-442.
218. James Duncan Phillips, Salem and the Indies: The Story of the Great Commercial Era of the City (Boston, 1947), 9-16
219. William Bentley, The Diary of William Bentley, D.D.: Pastor of the East Church, Salem, Massachusetts, 4 vols. (Salem, 1905-14; rpt. Gloucester, Mass., 1962), 1-7
220. Evarts B. Breene and Virginia D. Harrington, American Population Before the Federal Census of 1790 (New York, 1932), 31.
221. Harold A. Innis, The Cod Fisheries: The History of an International Economy (Toronto, 1940; rpt. 1978), 220.
222. James Duncan Phillips, "Salem Ocean-borne Commerce from the Close of the Revolution to the Establishment of the Constitution," Essex Institute, Historical Collections, 75 (1939), 135-158, 249-274, 358-381
223. Samuel Eliot Morison, The Maritime History of Massachusetts (Boston, 1921; rpt. Boston, 1979), 30-40.
224. James Duncan Phillips, "Who Owned the Salem Vessels in 1810?" EIHC, 83 (1947), 1-13
225. Charles Tyng, Before the Wind: The Memoir of an American Sea Captain, 1808-1833, ed. Susan Fels (New York, 1999), 100-101, 136-146
226. Gorham Low, The Sea Made Men: The Story of a Gloucester Lad, ed. Elizabeth L. Alling (New York, 1937), 80-84, 150-151, 255-267
227. Frederic W. Howay, Voyages of the "Columbia" to the Northwest Coast, 1787-1790 and 1790-1793, Massachusetts Historical Society, Collections, 79 (1941, rpt. 1990), 37-40, 188, 240-241, 310-313
228. Richard J. Cleveland, In the Forecastle, or Twenty-Five Years a Sailor (1842; rpt. New York, ca. 1870), 163-176, 194-198, 284-327.
229. Richard Henry Dana, Jr., Two Years Before the Mast: A Personal Narrative of Life at Sea (Harmondsworth, 1981), 58-59
230. Benjamin W. Labaree et al., America and the Sea: A Maritime History (Mystic, Conn., 1998), 190-191.
231. Edward Randolph, "Report to the Committee for Trade and Plantations," Oct. 12, 1676, in Edward Randolph Papers, ed. Robert Noxon Toppan, Publication of the Prince Society (Boston, 1898; rpt. New York, 196725:249.
232. W. Jerey Bolster, Black Jacks: African American Seamen in the Age of Sail (Cambridge, Mass., 1997), 234.
233. William McNally, Evils and Abuses in the Naval and Merchant Services Exposed; With Proposals for Their Remedy and Redress (Boston, 1839), 44-47.
234. Donald R. Adams, Jr., "Wage Rates in the Early National Period: Philadelphia, 1785-1830," Journal of Economic History, 28 (1968), 406, 424
235. Donald R. Adams, Jr., "Some Evidence on English and American Wage Rates, 1790- 1830," Journal of Economic History, 30 (1970), 512.
236. Allan A. Arnold, "Merchants in the Forecastle: The Private Ventures of New England Mariners," American Neptune, 41 (1981), 165-187.
237. Arnold, "Merchants in the Forecastle," 177-183
238. Jacob Nagle, The Nagle Journal: A Diary of the Life of Jacob Nagle, Sailor, from the Year, 1775 to 1841, ed. John C. Dann (New York, 1988), 296
239. Samuel Kelly, Samuel Kelly: An Eighteenth Century Seaman, ed. Crosbie Garstin (New York, 1925), 187, 223.
240. Judith Fingard, Jack in Port: Sailortowns of Eastern Canada (Toronto, 1982), 216-220, 229-232, 234-241
241. Glenn Gordinier, "Faith, Sailortowns, and the Character of Seaman's Benevolence in Nineteenth-Century America," in Labaree et al., America and the Sea, 252-255.
242. Stanley Lebergott, Manpower in Economic Growth: The American Record Since 1800 (New York, 1964), 154-158
243. Robert A. Margo, "The Labor Force in the Nineteenth Century," in Cambridge Economic History of the United States, 3 vols., ed. Stanley L. Engerman and Robert E. Gallman (Cambridge, 1996-2000), 2:221-222.
244. Douglass C. North, "Sources of Productivity Change in Ocean Shipping, 1600-1850," Journal of Political Economy, 76 (1968), 953-970
245. C. Knick Harley, "Ocean Freight Rates and Productivity, 1740-1913: The Primacy of Mechanical Invention Reaffirmed," Journal of Economic History 48 (1988), 860-862, 867-870
246. Stanley L. Engerman and Kenneth L. Sokolo, "Technology and Industrialization, 1790-1914," in Engerman and Gallman, Cambridge Economic History of the United States, 2:370-377
247. Jeremy Atack, Fred Bateman, and William N. Parker, "The Farm, The Farmer, and the Market," Engerman and Gallman, Cambridge Economic History of the United States, 2:259.
248. A. Frank Hitchins and Stephen W. Phillips, ed., Ship Registers of Salem and Beverly, 1780-1900 (Salem, Mass., 1906), 95
249. Paul Gootenberg, Between Silver and Guano: Commercial Policy and the State in Postindependence Peru (Princeton, 1989), 36, 164.
250. Richard J. Cleveland, In the Forecastle, or Twenty-Five Years a Sailor (1842; rpt. New York, ca. 1870), 14, 26, 27.
251. Thomas Philbrick, Introduction to Dana, Two Years Before the Mast, 21-24.
252. Federal Cases, Comprising Cases Argued and Determined in the Circuit and District Courts of the United States . . ., 30 vols., 17:894-895.
253. Eric Sager, Seafaring Labor: The Merchant Marine of Atlantic Canada, 1820-1914 (Kingston, 1989), 113-114.
254. Maris A. Vinovskis, "Mortality Rates and Trends in Massachusetts Before 1860," Journal of Economic History, 32 (1972), 206-207.
255. Edwin Haviland Miller, Salem Is My Dwelling Place: A Life of Nathaniel Hawthorne (Iowa City, 1991), 23-25, 27
256. Benjamin Browne, "Youthful Recollections of Salem," EIHC, 49 (1913), 206-207, 289.
257. J. Foster Smith, "Stage Point and Thereabouts," EIHC, 66 (1930), 2-3, 6.
258. C. H. Webber and W. S. Nevins, Old Naumkeag: An Historical Sketch of the City of Salem, and the Towns of Marblehead, Peabody, Beverly, Danvers, Wenham, Manchester, Topsfield, and Middleton (Boston, 1877), 205
259. Charles S. Osgood and H. M. Batchelder, Historical Sketch of Salem, 1826-1879 (Salem, Mass., 1879), 230
260. Ralph D. Paine, The Ships and Sailors of Old Salem: The Record of a Brilliant Era of American Achievement (New York, 1909), 639-640, 642.
261. Richard Henry Dana, Jr., Two Years Before the Mast: A Personal Narrative of Life at Sea (Harmondsworth, 1981), 463-464.
262. Morris, Government and Labor, 228-229.
263. Compare its 27 articles in Mass. Recs., 4 (2):388-393,
264. Monumenta Juridica: The Black Book of the Admiralty, 4 vols., ed. Sir Travers Twiss (London, 1871-1876), 2:433-481
265. Federal Cases, Comprising Cases Argued and Determined in the Circuit and District Courts of the United States . . ., 30 vols., 30:1203-1216,
266. Gerard Malynes, Consuetudo, vel, Lex Mercatoria: or, The Ancient Law-Merchant (London, 1686), 97-140,
267. Charles Molloy, De Jure Maritimo et Navale or A Treatise of Affaires Maritime and of Commerce in Three Books, 2d. ed. (London, 1677), 177.
268. Ralph Davis, Rise of the English Shipping Industry in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries (London, 1962), 159-174
269. Twiss, Black Book of the Admiralty, 2:433-437, 441-445, 457,
270. Title Eighth, in Federal Cases, 30:1210-1211, 1215.
271. Mass. Recs., 4 (2):391-392.
272. Twiss, Black Book of the Admiralty, 4:278
273. Hanse Towns, Article 9, in Federal Cases, 30:1198
274. Mass. Recs., 4 (2):390-391.
275. Mass. Recs., 4 (2):390-391, 393.
276. Margaret Creighton, Rites and Passages: The Experience of American Whaling, 1830-1870 (Cambridge, 1995), 87-99.
277. Richard B. Morris, "largely determined by a venerable tradition," "was the principle of obedience."
278. Morris, Government and Labor, 262-278
279. Judith Fingard, Jack in Port: Sailortowns of Eastern Canada (Toronto, 1982),
280. Marcus Rediker, Between the Devil and the Deep Blue Sea: Merchant Seamen, Pirates, and the Anglo-American Maritime World, 1700-1750 (Cambridge, 1987), 120-121
281. Dana, Two Years Before the Mast, 463-464.
282. Robert J. Steinfeld, The Invention of Free Labor: The Employment Relation in English and American Law and Culture, 1350-1870 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1991), 25-34, 40.
283. Christopher L. Tomlins, Law, Labor, and Ideology in the Early American Republic (Cambridge, 1993), 239-258
284. Paul Craven and Douglas Hay, "The Criminalization of 'Free' Labor: Master and Servant in Comparative Perspective," Slavery and Abolition 15 (1994), 82-90.
285. Charles Abbott, A Treatise of the Law Relative to Merchant Ships and Seamen in Four Parts; Enlarged With an Addenda Relative to Some Laws and Customs of the United States (Philadelphia, 1802), 107
286. Mass. Recs., 4 (2):390-393.
287. Richard Henry Dana, Jr., The Seaman's Friend: A Treatise on Practical Seamanship (Boston, 1879; rpt., Mineola, N.Y., 1997), 134-138.
288. Malynes, Lex Mercatoria, 104
289. Twiss, Black Book of the Admiralty, 2:447-449, 4:272
290. Abbott, Treatise, 108
291. Richard B. Morris, ed., Select Cases of the Mayor's Court of New York City, 1674-1784 (Washington, D.C., 1935; rpt., Millwood, N.Y., 1975), 661
292. Myra Glenn, Campaigns Against Corporal Punishment: Prisoners, Sailors, Women, and Children in Antebellum America (Albany, N.Y., 1984), 8-9
293. Steinfeld, Invention of Free Labor, 25-26, 31.
294. "chastise" and "beat," see OED Online (2d ed., 1989).
295. Morris, Government and Labor, 247, 256-260
296. Mass. Recs., 4 (2):390, 392-393
297. Steinfeld, Invention of Free Labor, 26, 27-33
298. Tomlins, Law, Labor, and Ideology, 241-249
299. Morris, Government and Labor, 434-443.
300. Robert C. Ritchie, Captain Kidd and the War Against the Pirates (Cambridge, Mass., 1986), 141-154
301. Abbott, Treatise, 111-116.
302. Rediker, Between the Devil and the Deep Blue Sea, 281-285.
303. Morris, Government and Labor, 268-272, 461-470
304. Abbott, Treatise, 108.
305. Abbott, Treatise, 109.
306. Elwell v. Martin (1824), Federal Cases, 8:587
307. Sheridan V. Furber et al. (1834), Federal Cases, 21:1267.
308. Daniel Vickers, Farmers and Fishermen: Two Centuries of Work in Essex County, Massachusetts, 1630-1850 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1994), 151-152.
309. Rediker, Between the Devil and the Deep Blue Sea, 77-115.
310. Dorothy S. Towle, ed., Records of the Vice-Admiralty Court of Rhode Island, 1716-1752 (Washington, D.C., 1936), 123-125.
311. Hooper v. Harris, 1:198 (Mass. Vice-Admiralty, 1725)
312. Broughton v. Atkins, 2:25 (Mass. Vice-Admiralty, 1727)
313. Wills v. Segall, 2:36 (Mass. Vice-Admiralty, 1727)
314. Rex v. Owen, 1:187 (Mass. Vice-Admiralty, 1724)
315. Hopkins v. Fennel, 3:97-124 (S. Carolina Vice-Admiralty, 1737)
316. Morris, Cases of the Mayor's Court, 660-662
317. Libel, Collis v. Smith (n.d.), in Reports of Cases in the Vice Admiralty of Province of New York, 1715-1788, ed. Charles Merrill Hough (New Haven, 1925), 262-264.
318. Benton v. Whitney (1841)
319. Federal Cases, 3:258.
320. Sellman v. Gardner (1727/8)
321. Towle, Records of the Vice-Admiralty Court of Rhode Island, 123-125.
322. Lawrence William Towner, A Good Master Well Served: Masters and Servants in Colonial Massachusetts, 1620-1750 (New York, 1998), 168-169
323. George Francis Dow and Mary G. Thresher, eds., Records and Files of the Quarterly Courts of Essex County, Massachusetts, 1636-1686, 9 vols. (Salem, Mass., 1911-1975), 8:91-92
324. Essex Co. Court Recs., 8:91-92.
325. Paul Griffiths, Youth and Authority: Formative Experiences in England, 1560-1640 (Oxford, 1996), 313-347
326. Towner, A Good Master Well Served, 184-185
327. Edmund Morgan, The Puritan Family, Religion and Domestic Relations in Seventeenth-Century New England (Boston, 1944; rpt., New York, 1966), 116
328. Morris, Government and Labor, 470-500
329. Terri L. Snyder, "'As if There was not Master or Woman in the Land': Gender, Dependency, and Household Violence in Virginia, 1646-1720," in Over the Threshold: Intimate Violence in Early America, ed. Christine Daniels and Michael V. Kennedy (New York, 1999), 219-236.
330. Douglas Hay, "Patronage, Paternalism, and Welfare: Masters, Workers, and Magistrates in Eighteenth-Century England," International Labor and Working-Class History, 53 (1998), 27-48
331. Douglas Hay, "Master and Servant in England: Using the Law in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries," in Private Law and Social Inequality in the Industrial Age: Comparing Legal Cultures in Britain, France, Germany, and the United States, ed. Willibald Steinmetz (Oxford, 2000), 232-239.
332. Morris, Government and Labor, 232-233
333. Fingard, Jack in Port, 187-188
334. Jerry Bannister, The Rule of the Admirals: Law, Custom, and Naval Government in Newfoundland, 1699-1832 (Toronto, 2003), 242-245.
335. Saunders v. Buckup (1831)
336. Federal Cases, 21:528
337. Gould v. Christianson (1836)
338. Federal Cases, 8:584-588
339. Forbes v. Parsons (1839)
340. Federal Cases, 9:419
341. Jarvis v. the Claiborne (1808)
342. Federal Cases, 13:373
343. Magee v. the Moss (1831)
344. Harold D. Langley, Social Reform in the United States Navy (Urbana, Ill., 1967), 139-206.
345. Dean v. Huffington, 21:177 (U.S., 1st Dist., 1837).
346. Steinfeld, Invention of Free Labor, 147-172
347. Michel Foucault, "Two Lectures," in Power/Knowledge: Selected Interviews and Other Writings, 1972-1977, ed. Colin Gordon (New York, 1980), 104.
348. Butler v. McClellan et al. (1831)
349. Federal Cases, 4:907
350. Elwell v. Martin et al. (1824)
351. Federal Cases, 8:587-588
352. Sheridan v. Furber (1834)
353. Federal Cases, 21:1267-1268
354. The William Harris (1837)
355. Federal Cases, 29:1307.
356. Wood et al. v. the Nimrod (1829)
357. Federal Cases, 30:471
358. Butler v. McClellan et al. (1831)
359. Federal Cases, 4:909
360. The Rovena (1836)
361. Federal Cases, 20:1277
362. Sheridan v. Furber et al. (1834)
363. Federal Cases, 21:1268
364. The Mentor (1825)X
365. Cloutman v. Tunison (1833)
366. Federal Cases, 5:1093
367. Elwell v. Martin et al. (1824)
368. Federal Cases, 8:588
369. The Moslem (1846)
370. Federal Cases, 17:896
371. Snell et al. v. the Independence (1830)
372. Federal Cases, 22:718
373. Smith v. Treat (1845)
374. Federal Cases, 22:688.
375. Molloy, De Jure Maritimo, 209
376. Malynes, Lex Mercatoria, 102.
377. William Falconer, An Universal Dictionary of the Marine (London, 1769; new ed. London, 1780), 191
378. William Falconer, Nouveau Commentaire sur l'Ordonnance de la marine de mois d'Août, 1681, 2 vols. (La Rochelle, 1776), 1:509-560.
379. Pérez-Mallaína, Spain's Men of the Sea: Daily Life on the Indies Fleets in the Sixteenth Century, trans. Carla Rahn Phillips (Baltimore, 1998), 192
380. Rediker, Between the Devil and the Deep Blue Sea, 213.
381. Marcus Rediker deals with some of these issues in Between the Devil and the Deep Blue Sea, 219, 315-316
382. Rediker, "The Common Seaman in the Histories of Capitalism and the Working Class," International Journal of Maritime History, 1, no. 2 (1989), 342-343
383. Greg Dening, Mr. Bligh's Bad Language: Passion, Power, and Theatre on the Bounty (Cambridge, 1992), 113-132
384. Gary B. Nash, The Urban Crucible: Social Change, Political Consciousness, and the Origins of the American Revolution (Cambridge, Mass., 1979), 410
385. James B. Lydon, "North Shore Trade in the Early Eighteenth Century," American Neptune, 28 (1968), 264-265.
386. Edward Barlow, Barlow's Journal of His Life at Sea in King's Ships, East and West Indiamen, and Other Merchantmen, 1659-1703, ed. Basil Lubbock, 2 vols. (London, 1934), 2:451-453.
387. Peter Earle, "English Sailors, 1570-1775," in "The Emblems of Hell"? European Sailors and the Maritime Labour Market, 1570-1780, ed. Paul C. Van Royen, Jaap R. Bruijn, and Jan Lucassen (St. John's, Nfld., 1997), 90.
388. John Cremer, Ramblin' Jack: The Journal of Captain John Cremer, 1700-1774, ed. R. Reynell Bellamy (London, 1936), 138.
389. Pierre-Sébastien Boulay Paty, Cours de Droit Maritime, cited in Butler v. McClellan et al. (1831)
390. Mahoney v. Nickerson, 17:70-71 (U.S., 1st Dist., 1829)
391. Williams v. Crosby, 17:172 (U.S., 1st Dist., 1829)
392. Stanley v. Lincoln, 12:424 (U.S., 1st Dist., 1821)
393. Parker v. Bursley 17:215 (U.S., 1st Dist., 1829)
394. Rex v. Harrison, 4 (part 2):49-50 (S. Carolina Vice-Admiralty, 1758).
395. Cremer, Ramblin' Jack, 124, 138, 157-158, 224-225, 227
396. Jacob Nagle, The Nagle Journal: A Diary of the Life of Jacob Nagle, Sailor, from the Year, 1775 to 1841, ed. John C. Dann (New York, 1988), 177-178
397. Charles Tyng, Before the Wind: The Memoir of an American Sea Captain, 1808-1833, ed. Susan Fels (New York, 1999), 18, 22-23, 89, 133, 135-136, 152, 177, 179, 225
398. Gorham Low, The Sea Made Men: The Story of a Gloucester Lad, ed. Elizabeth L. Alling (New York, 1937), 125-126.
399. Samuel Kelly, Samuel Kelly: An Eighteenth Century Seaman, ed. Crosbie Garstin (New York, 1925), 27
400. William McNally, Evils and Abuses in the Merchant Service Exposed; With Proposals for their Remedy and Redress (Boston, 1839), 62-79, 180.
401. Edward Coxere, Adventures by Sea, ed. E. H. W. Meyerstein (New York, 1946), 6
402. Cremer, Ramblin' Jack, 50
403. Kelly, Samuel Kelly, 74, 226.
404. Philip Chadwick Foster Smith, ed., The Journals of Ashley Bowen (1728-1813) of Marblehead, 2 vols. (Colonial Society of Massachusetts, Publications, 44-45 [Boston, 1973]), 44:14-18
405. Tyng, Before the Wind, 19, 22-23.
406. Nagle, Journal, 288.
407. Black Jacks; and David Cecelski, The Waterman's Song: Slavery and Freedom in Maritime North Carolina (Chapel Hill, N.C., 2001).
408. Parker v. Burseley, 17:214-216 (U.S., 1st Dist., 1829).
409. Williams v. Crosby, 17:172 (U.S., 1st Dist., 1829)
410. Mahoney v. Nickerson, 17:68 (U.S., 1st Dist., 1829)
411. Carleton v. Davis (1844)
412. Federal Cases, 5:68
413. U.S. v. Peterson et al. (1846)
414. Federal Cases, 27:515-520
415. Harkell v. Wortman, 17:132 (U.S., 1st Dist., 1829).
416. Benjamin Bangs, Diary, vol. 1, 1742-1749,
417. Edward Beck, The Sea Voyages of Edward Beck in the 1820s, ed. Michael Hay and Joy Roberts (Edinburgh, 1996), 5-37.
418. Janet Kinloch, "Working Conditions of Scottish East Coast Seamen," International Journal of Maritime History, 9, no. 2 (1997), 161-163, 165
419. Paul Van Royen, "Personnel of the Dutch and English Mercantile Marine (1700-1850): An Introductory Paper," in AngloDutch Mercantile Marine Relations, 1700-1850, ed. J. R. Bruijn and W. F. J. Mörzer Bruyns (Leiden, 1991), 105.
420. Rediker, Between the Devil and the Deep Blue Sea, 213-243,
421. A. J. R. Russell-Wood, "Seamen Ashore and Afloat: The Social Environment of the Carreira da India, 1550-1750," Mariners' Mirror, 69 (1983): 35-52
422. F. S. Gaastra and J. R. Bruijn, "The Dutch East India Company's Shipping, 1602-1795, in a Comparative Perspective," in Ships, Sailors, and Spices: East India Companies and Their Shipping in the 16th, 17th, and 18th Centuries, ed. J. R. Bruijn and F. S. Gaastra (Amsterdam, 1993), 202
423. Evan Cotton, East Indiamen: The East India Company's Maritime Service, ed. Sir Charles Fawcett (London, 1949), 60-61, 93-94.
424. Nathaniel Ames, Nautical Reminiscences (Providence, R.I., 1832), 35
425. Nathaniel Ames, A Mariner's Sketches, Originally Published in the Manufacturers and Farmers Journal (Providence, R.I., 1830), 102
426. Richard Henry Dana, Jr., Cruelty to Seamen, being the Case of Nichols & Couch (1839; rpt. Berkeley, Calif., 1937), 6, 9.
427. Healey v. Martin (1823),
428. Federal Cases, 11:957-960.
429. Yrjö Kaukiainen, "Finnish Sailors, 1750-1870"
430. Van Royen Bruijn, and Lucassen, "The Emblems of Hell"? 227
431. Heide Gerstenberger, "The Disciplining of German Seamen," International Journal of Maritime History, 13, no. 2 (2001), 47-48.
432. Nathaniel Ames, An Old Sailor's Yarns (New York, 1835), 53
433. Herman Melville, Moby-Dick; or, The Whale (Harmondsworth, 1972), 246, 259
434. Dana, Two Years Before the Mast, 382.