Intravenous feeding

Neonatal Nutrition and Metabolism, Second Edition

Volumn 9780521824552, Issue , 2006, Pages 312-331

  Heird, William C ^a  

^a BAYLOR COLLEGE OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84901338327     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511544712.021     Document Type: Chapter

References (120)

1. Dudrick, S. J., Wilmore, D.W., Vars, H. M. Long termtotal parenteral nutrition with growth in puppies and positive nitrogen balance in patients. Surg. Forum. 1967;18:356.
2. Dudrick, S. J., Wilmore, D. W., Vars, H. M., Rhoads, J. E. Long termparenteral nutrition with growth, development, andpositive nitrogen balance. Surgery1968;64:134-42.
3. Wilmore, D. M., Dudrick, S. J. Growth and development of an infant receiving all nutrients by vein. J. Am. Med. Assoc.1968;203:860-4.
4. Wretlind, A. Total parenteral nutrition. Surg. Clin. N. Am.1978;58:1055-70.
5. Wilmore, D. W. The history of parenteral nutrition. In Baker, R.D., Baker, S. S., Davis, A. M., eds. Pediatric ParenteralNutrition. New York, NY: Chapman and Hall; 1997:1-6.
6. Helfrick, F. W., Abelson, N. M. Intravenous feeding of a complete diet in a child: a report of a case. J.Pediatr.1944;25:400-3.
7. Heird, W. C. Parenteral nutrition. In Grand, R. J., Sutphen, J. L., Dietz, W. H., Jr, eds. Pediatric Nutrition: Theory and Practice. Boston, MA: Butterworths; 1987:747-61.
8. Filler, R. M., Eraklis, A. J., Rubin, V. G., Das, J. B. Long-term parenteral nutrition in infants. N. Engl. J.Med.1969; 281: 589-94.
9. Heird, W. C., Winters, R.W. Total parenteral nutrition: the state of the art. J. Pediatr.1975;86:2-16.
10. Keating, J. P., Ternberg, J. L. Amino acid-hypertonic glucose treatment for intractable diarrhea in infants.Am. J. Dis. Child. 1971;122:226-8.
11. Driscoll, J. M. Jr, Heird, W. C., Schullinger, J. N., Gongaware, R.D., Winters, R.W. Total intravenousalimentationin lowbirth weight infants: a preliminary report. J. Pediatr. 1972;81:145-53.
12. Peden, V. H., Karpel, J. T. Total parenteral nutrition in premature infants. J. Pediatr.1972;81:137-44.
13. Ehrenkrantz, R. A., Younes, N., Lemons, J. A. et al. Longitudinal growth of hospitalized very lowbirthweight infants.Pediatrics1999;104:280-9.
14. Heird, W. C. Nutritional support of the pediatric patient. In Winters, R. W., Greene, H. L., eds. Nutritional Support of the Seriously Ill Patient. New York, NY: Academic Press; 1983:157-79.
15. Heird, W. C. Parenteral feeding. InSinclair, J. C., Bracken, M.B., eds. Effective Care of the Newborn Infant. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 1992:141-60.
16. Mulvihill, S. J., Fonkalsrud, E. W. Complication of superior versus inferior vena cava occlusion in infants receiving central Total Parenteral Nutrition. J. Pediatr. Surg.1984;19:752.
17. Shaw, J. C. L. Parenteral nutrition in the management of sick low birth weight infants. Pediatr. Clin. N. Am.1973;20:333-58.
18. Shulman, R. J., Pokorny, W. J., Martin, C. G., Petitt, R., Baldaia, L., Roney, D. Comparison of percutaneous and surgical placement of central venous catheters in neonates. J. Pediatr. Surg. 1986;21:348-50.
19. Nakamura, K. T., Sato, Y., Erenberg, A. Evaluation of a percutaneously placed 27-gauge central venous catheter in neonates weight <1200 grams. J. Parenter. Enteral Nutr.1990;14:295-9.
20. Chathas, M. K., Paton, J. B., Fisher, D. E. Percutaneous central venous catheterization. Am. J. Dis. Child.1990;144:1246-50.
21. Jacobowski, D., Ziegler, M. D., Perreira, G. Complications of pediatric parenteral nutrition: central versus peripheral administration. J. Parenter. Enteral Nutr.1979;3:29.
22. Dunn, L., Hulman, S., Weiner, J., Kliegman, R. Beneficialeffects of early hypocaloric enteral feeding on neonatal gastrointestinal function: preliminary report of a randomized trial. J. Pediatr. 1988;112:622-9.
23. Slagle, T. A., Gross, S. J. Effect of early low-volume enteral substrateonsubsequentfeedingtoleranceinverylowbirthweight infants. J. Pediatr. 1988;113:526-31.
24. Meetze, W. H., Valentine, C., McGuigan, J. E. et al.Gastrointestinal priming prior to full enteral nutrition in very low birth weight infants. J. Pediatr. Gastroenterol. Nutr.1992;15:163-70.
25. Friedman, Z., Danon, A., Stahlman, M. T., Oates, J. A. Rapid onset of essential acid deficiency in the newborn. Pediatrics1976;58:640-9.
26. Friedman, Z., Frolich, C. Essential fatty acids and the major urinary metabolites of the E prostaglandins in thriving neonates and infants receiving parenteral fat emulsions. Pediatr. Res. 1979;13:932-6.
27. Committee on Nutrition, American Academy of Pediatrics. Use of intravenous fat emulsions in pediatric patients. Pediatrics1981;68:738-43.
28. Heller, R. M., Kirchner, S. G., O’Neill, J. A. Jr, et al.Skeletal changes of copper deficiency in infants receiving prolonged total parenteral nutrition. J. Pediatr.1978;92:947-9.
29. Jeejeebhoy, K. N., Chu, R. C., Marliss, E. B., Greenberg, G. R., Bruce-Robertson, A. Chromium deficiency, glucose intolerance, and neuropathy reversed by chromium supplementation, in a patient receiving long-term total parenteral nutrition. Am. J. Clin. Nutr.1977;30:531-8.
30. Kien, C. L., Ganther, H. E. Manifestations of chronic selenium deficiency in a child receiving total parenteral nutrition. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1983;37:319-28.
31. Abumrad, N. N., Schneider, A. J., Steel, D., Rogers, L. S. Amino acid intolerance during prolonged total parenteral nutrition reversed by molybdate therapy. Am. J. Clin. Nutr.1981;34:2551-9.
32. Zlotkin, S. H., Bryan, M.H., Anderson, G. H. Intravenous nitrogen and energy intakes required to duplicate in utero nitrogen accretion in prematurely born human infants. J. Pediatr. 1981;99:115-20.
33. Anderson, T. L., Muttart, C., Bieber, M. A., Nicholson, J. F., Heird, W. C. A controlled trial of glucose vs glucose and amino acids in premature infants. J. Pediatr. 1979;94:947-51.
34. Saini, J., MacMahon, P., Morgan, J. B., Kovar, I. Z. Early parenteral feeding of amino acids. Arch.Dis. Child.1989;64:1362-6.
35. Mitton, S. G., Garlick, P. J. Changes in protein turnover after the introduction of parenteral nutrition in premature infants: comparison of breast milk and egg protein-based amino acid solutions. Pediatr. Res.1992;32:447-54.
36. Rivera, A., Bell, E. F., Bier, D. M. Effect of intravenous amino acids on protein metabolism of preterm infants during the first three days of life. Pediatr. Res.1993;33:106-11.
37. Van Goudoever, J. B., Colen, T., Wattimena, J. L. D. et al.Immediate commencement of amino acid supplementation in preterm infants: effect on serum amino acid concentrations and protein kinetics on the first day of life. J. Pediatr.1995;127:458-65.
38. Thureen, P. J., Melara, D., Fennessey, P. V., Hay, W.W. Jr. Effect of low versus high intravenous amino acid intake on very low birth weight infants in the early neonatal period. Pediatr. Res. 2003;53:24-32.
39. Kashyap, S., Heird, W.C. Protein requirements of low birthweight, very low birthweight, and small for gestational age infants. In Räihä, N. C. R., ed. NestleNutritionWorkshop Series: ProteinMetabolismDuring Infancy. NewYork, NY:Nestec Ltd., Vevey/Raven Press;1994:133-51.
40. Duffy, B., Gunn, T., Collinge, J., Pencharz, P. The effect of varying protein quality and energy intake on the nitrogen metabolism of parenterally fed very low birth weight (1600 g) infants. Pediatr. Res.1981;15:1040-4.
41. Helms, R. A., Christensen, M. L., Mauer, E. C., Storm, M. C. Comparison of a pediatric versus standard amino acid formulation in pretermneonates requiring parenteral nutrition. J. Pediatr.1987;110:466-72.
42. Heird, W. C., Hay, W., Helms, R. A. et al.Pediatric parenteral amino acid mixture in low birth weight infants. Pediatrics1988;81:41-50.
43. Winters, R. W., Heird, W. C., Dell, R. B., Nicholson, J. F. Plasma amino acids in infants receiving parenteral nutrition. In Greene, H. L., Holliday, M. A., Munro, H. N., eds. Clinical NutritionUpdate:AminoAcids. Chicago, IL:AmericanMedical Association; 1977:147-54.
44. Roberts, S. A., Ball, R. O., Filler, R. M., Moore, A. M., Pencharz, P. B. Phenylalanine and tyrosine metabolism in neonates receiving parenteral nutrition differing in pattern of amino acids. Pediatr. Res. 1998;44:907-14.
45. Wykes, L. J., House, J. D., Ball, R. O., Pencharz, P. B. Aromatic amino acid metabolism of neonatal piglets receiving TPN: effect of tyrosine precursors. Am. J. Physiol.1994;267:E672-9.
46. Sturman, J. A., Gaull, G. A., Räihä, N. C. R. Absence of cystathionase in human liver: is cystine essential? Science 1970;169:74-6.
47. Zlotkin, S. H., Anderson, G. H. The development of cystathionase activity during the first year of life. Pediatr. Res.1982;16:65-8.
48. Räihä, N. C. R. Phenylalanine hydroxylase in human liver during development. Pediatr. Res.1973;7:1-4.
49. Chawla, R. K., Berry, C. J., Kutner, M. H., Rudman, D. Plasma concentrations of transsulfuration pathway products during nasoenteral and intravenous hyperalimentation of malnourished patients. Am. J. Clin. Nutr.1985;42:577-84.
50. Zlotkin, S. H., Bryan, M. H., Anderson, G. H. Cysteine supplementation to cysteine-free intravenous feeding regimens in newborn infants. Am. J. Clin. Nutr.1981;34:914-23.
51. Malloy, M. H., Rassin, D. K., Richardson, C. J. Total parenteral nutrition in sick preterm infants: effects of cysteine supplementation with nitrogen intakes of 240&400 mg/kg/d. J.Pediatr. Gastroenterol. Nutr.1984;3:239-44.
52. Van Goudoever, J. B., Sulkers, E. J., Timmerman, M. Amino acid solutions for premature infants during the first week of life: the role of N-acetyl-L-cysteine and N-acetyl-L-tyrosine. J. Parenter. Enteral Nutr.1994;18:404-8.
53. Roberts, S. A., Ball, R. O., Moore, A. M., Filler, R. M., Pencharz, P. B. The effect of graded intake of glycyl-L-tyrosine on phenylalanine and tyrosine metabolism in parenterally fed neonates with an estimation of tyrosine requirement. Pediatr. Res.2001;49:111-19.
54. Souba, W. W., Austgen, T. R. Interorgan glutamine flow following surgery and infection. J. Parenter. Enteral Nutr.1990;14:90S-3S.
55. Lacey, J. M., Wilmore, D.W. Is glutamine a conditionally essential amino acid? Nutr. Rev. 1990;48:297-309.
56. Poindexter, B. B., Ehrenkranz, R. A., Stoll, B. J. et al.Effect of parenteral glutamine supplementation on plasma amino acid concentrations in extremely low-birth-weight infants. Am. J. Clin. Nutr.2003;77:737-43.
57. Poindexter, B. B., Ehrenkrantz, R. A., Stoll, B. J. et al.Parenteral glutamine supplementation in ELBW infants: a multicenter randomized clinical trial. Pediatr. Res.2002;51: 317A.
58. Weinstein, M. R., Oh, W. Oxygen consumption in infants with bronchopulmonary dysplasia. J. Pediatr.1981;99:958-61.
59. Munro, H. N. General aspects of the regulation of protein metabolism by diet and hormone. InMunro, H. N., ed. Mammalian ProteinMetabolism, Vol. I. Biochemical Aspects of Protein Metabolism. New York, NY: Academic Press; 1964:381-481.
60. Pineault, M., Chessex, P., Bisaillon, S., Brisson, G. Total parenteral nutrition in the newborn: impact of the quality of infused energy on nitrogen metabolism. Am. J. Clin. Nutr.1988;47:298-304.
61. Bresson, J. L., Bader, B., Rocchiccioli, F. et al.Proteinmetabolism kinetics and energy-substrate utilization in infants fed parenteral solutions with different glucose-fat ratios. Am. J. Clin. Nutr.1991;54:370-6.
62. Heird, W. C. Lipid metabolism in parenteral nutrition. In Fomon, S. J., Heird, W. C., eds. EnergyandProteinNeedsDuring Infancy. New York, NY: Academic Press; 1986:215-29.
63. Andrew, G., Chan, G., Schiff, D. Lipid metabolism in the neonate. I. The effect of intralipid infusion on plasma triglyceride and free fatty acid concentrations in the neonate. J. Pediatr.1976;88:273-8.
64. Greene, H. L., Hazlett, D., Demaree, R. Relationship between intralipid-induced hyperlipidemia and pulmonary function. Am. J. Clin. Nutr.1976;29:127-35.
65. Pereira, G. R., Fox, W. W., Stanley, C. A., Baker, L., Schwartz, J. G. Decreased oxygenation and hyperlipidemia during intravenous fat infusions in premature infants. Pediatrics1980;66:26-30.
66. Loo, L. S., Tang, J.P., Kohl, S. Theinhibition ofleukocytecellular cytotoxicity to herpes simplex virus in vitro and in vivo by intralipid. J. Infect. Dis. 1982;146:64-70.
67. Cleary, T. C., Pickering, L. K. Mechanisms of intralipid effect on polymorpho-nuclear leukocytes. J. Clin. Lab. Immunol.1983;11:21-6.
68. Odell, G. B., Cukier, J. O., Ostrea, E. M. Jr, Maglalang, A. C., Poland, R. L. The influence of fatty acids on the binding of bilirubin to albumin. J. Lab. Clin. Med.1977;89:295-307.
69. Penn, D., Schmidt-Sommerfeld, E., Pascu, F. Decreased carnitine concentration in newborn infants receiving total parenteral nutrition. Early Hum. Dev. 1979;4:23-8.
70. Schmidt-Sommerfeld, E., Penn, D., Wolf, H. Carnitine deficiency in premature infants receiving total parenteral nutrition: effect of L-carnitine supplementation. J. Pediatr. 1983;102:931-5.
71. Orzali, A., Donzelli, F., Enzi, G., Rubaltelli, F. F. Effect of carnitine on lipid metabolism in the newborn. I. Carnitine supplementation during total parenteral nutrition in the first 48 hours of life. Biol. Neonate.1983;43:186-90.
72. Christensen, M. L., Helms, R. A., Mauer, E. C., Storm, M. C. Plasma carnitine concentration and lipid metabolism in infants receiving parenteral nutrition. J. Pediatr.1989; 115:794-8.
73. Helms, R. A., Whitington, P. F., Mauer, E. C. et al.Enhanced lipid utilization in infants receiving oral L-carnitine during long-termparenteral nutrition. J. Pediatr.1986;109:984-8.
74. Sulkers, E. J., Lafeber, H. N., Degenhart, H. J. et al.Effects of high carnitine supplementation on substrate utilization in low-birth-weight infants receiving total parenteral nutrition. Am. J. Clin. Nutr.1990;52:889-94.
75. Holman, R. T., Johnson, S. B., Hatch, T. F. A case of human linolenic acid deficiency involving neurological abnormalities. Am. J. Clin. Nutr.1982;35:617-23.
76. Bjerve, K. S., Fischer, S., Alme, K. Alpha-linolenic acid deficiency in man: effect of ethyl linolenate on plasma and erythrocyte fatty acid composition and biosynthesis of prostanoids. Am. J. Clin. Nutr.1987b;46:570-6.
77. Brans, Y. W., Andrew, D. S., Carrillo, D. W. et al.Tolerance of fat emulsions in very-low-birth-weight neonates. Am. J. Dis. Child.1988;142:145-52.
78. Koo, W.W. K., Tsang, R. C. Bonemineralization in infants. Prog. Food Nutr. Sci. 1984;8:229-302.
79. Koo, W. W. K., Tsang, R. C. Rickets in infants. In Nelson, N. M., ed. Current Therapy in Neonatal PerinatalMedicine. Philadelphia, PA: BC Decker; 1985:299-304.
80. Ziegler, E. E., O’Donnell, A. M., Nelson, S. E., Fomon, S. J. Body composition of the reference fetus. Growth1976;40:329-41.
81. Koo, W. W. K., Tsang, R. C., Steichen, J. J. et al.Parenteral nutrition for infants: effect of high versus low calcium and phosphorus content. J.Pediatr.Gastroenterol.Nutr.1987;6:96-104.
82. Prestridge, L. L., Schanler, R. J., Shulman, R. J., Burns, P. A., Laine, L. L. Effect of parenteral calcium and phosphorus therapy on mineral retention and bone mineral content in very low birth weight infants. J. Pediatr.1993;122:761-8.
83. Arakaw, T., Tamura, T., Igarasi, Y., Suzuki, M., Sandstead, M. M. Zinc deficiency in two infants during total parenteral alimentation for diarrhea. Am. J. Clin. Nutr.1976;29:197-204.
84. Greene, H. L., Hambidge, K. M., Schanler, R., Tsang, R. C. Guidelines for the use of vitamins, trace elements, calcium, magnesium, and phosphorus in infants and children receiving total parenteral nutrition: report of the subcommittee on pediatric parenteral nutrient requirements from the committee on clinical practice issues of the American Society for Clinical Nutrition. Am. J. Clin. Nutr.1988;48:1324-42.
85. Collins, J. W. Jr, Hoope, M., Brown, K. et al.A controlled trial of insulin infusion in parenteral nutrition in extremely low birth weight infants with glucose intolerance. J. Pediatr.1991;118:921-7.
86. Poindexter, B. B., Karn, C. A., Denne, S. C. Exogenous insulin reduces proteolysis and protein synthesis in extremely low birth weight infants. J. Pediatr.1998;132:948-53.
87. Haumont, D., Deckelbaum, R. J., Richelle, M., et al. Plasmalipid and plasma lipoprotein concentrations in low birth weight infants given parenteral nutrition with 20% compared to 10% Intralipid. J. Pediatr.1989;115:787-93.
88. Fielding, C. J. Human lipoprotein lipase inhibition of activity by cholesterol. Biochim. Biophys. Acta1970;218:221-6.
89. Deckelbaum, R. J., Hamilton, J., Moser, A. et al.Medium chain versus long chain triacylglycerol emulsion hydrolysis by lipoprotein lipase and hepatic lipase: implications for the mechanisms of lipase action. Biochemistry1990;29:1136-42.
90. Park, W., Paust, H., Brösicke, M. S., Knoblach, G., Helge, H. Impaired fat utilization in parenterally fed low-birthweight infants suffering from sepsis. J. Parenter. Enteral Nut. 1986;10:627-30.
91. Goldman, D. A., Martin, W. T., Worthington, J. W. Growth of bacteria and fungi in total parenteral nutrition solutions. Am. J. Surg.1973;126:314-18.
92. McKee, K. T. Jr, Melly, M. A., Greene, H. L., Schaffner, W. Gramnegative bacillary sepsis associated with use of lipid emulsion in parenteral nutrition. Am. J. Dis. Child. 1979;133:649-50.
93. Sosenko, I. R. S., Rodriguez-Pierce, M., Bacalari, E. Effect of early initiation of intravenous lipid administration on the incidence and severity of chronic lung disease in premature infants. J. Pediatr.1993;123:975-82.
94. Carnielli, V. P., Wattimena, J. D. L., Luijendijk, I. H. et al.The very-low-birth-weight premature infant is capable of synthesizing arachidonic and docosahexaenoic acid from linoleic and linolenic acid. Pediatr. Res.1996;40:169-74.
95. Salem, Jr. N., Wegher, B., Mena, P., Uauy, R. Arachidonic and docosahexaenoic acids are biosynthesized from their 18-carbon precursors inhumaninfants. Proc.Natl.Acad. Sci.USA1996;93:49-54.
96. Sauerwald, T. U., Hachey, D. L., Jensen, C. L. et al.Intermediates in endogenous synthesis of C22:6ω3 and C20:4ω6byterm and preterminfants. Pediatr. Res.1997;41:183-7.
97. Uauy, R., Mena, P., Wegher, B., Nieto, S., Salem, N. Jr. Long chain polyunsaturated fatty acid formation in neonates: effect of gestational age and intrauterine growth. Pediatr. Res.2000;47:127-35.
98. Clandinin, M. T., Chappell, J. E., Leong, S. et al.Intrauterine fatty acid accretion rates inhumanbrain: implications for fatty acid requirements. Early Hum. Dev.1980;4:121-9.
99. Martinez, M., Ballabriga, A. Effect of parenteral nutrition with high doses of linoleate on the developing human liver and brain. Lipids1987;22:133-8.
100. Heird, W. C. The role of essential fatty acids in development. In Hay, W.W., Thureen, P., eds. Neonatal Nutrition and Metabolism. 2005.
101. Friedman, Z., Frolich, J. C. Essential fatty acids and the major urinary metabolites of the E prostaglandins in thriving neonates and in infants receiving parenteral fat emulsions. Pediatr. Res.1979;13:926-32.
102. Feldman, E. J., Dowling, R. H., McNaughton, J., Peters, T. J. Effects of oral versus intravenous nutrition on intestinal adaptation after small bowel resection in the dog. Gastroenterology1976;70:712-9.
103. Johnson, L. R., Copeland, E. M., Dudrick, S. J., Lichtenberger, L. M., Castro, G. A. Structural and hormonal alterations in the gastrointestinal tract of parenterally fed rats. Gastroenterology1975;68:1177-83.
104. Lipman, T. O. Bacterial translocation and enteral nutrition in humans: an outsider looks in. J. Parenter. Enteral Nutr.1995;19:156-65.
105. Lucas, A., Bloom, S. R., Aynsley-Green, A. Metabolic and endocrine effects ofdepriving preterminfants of enteral nutrition. Acta Paediatr. Scand.1983;72:245-9.
106. Levine, G. M., Deren, J. J., Steiger, E., Zinno, R. Role of oral intake inmaintenanceofgutmassanddisaccharidaseactivity. Gastroenterology 1974;67:975-82.
107. Castro, G. A., Copeland, E. M., Dudrick, S. J., Johnson, L. R. Intestinal disaccharidase and peroxidase activities in parenterally nourished rats. J. Nutr.1975;105:776-81.
108. Shwachman, H., Lloyd-Still, J. D., Khaw, K. T., Antonowicz, I. Protracted diarrhea of infancy treated with intravenous alimentation. II. Studies of small intestinal biopsy results. Am. J. Dis. Child.1973;125:365-8.
109. Greene, H.L., McCabe, D. R., Merenstein, G.B. Intractablediarrhea and malnutrition in infancy: changes in intestinal morphology and disaccharidase activities during treatment with total intravenous nutrition or oral elemental diets. J. Pediatr.1975;87:695-704.
110. Burrin, D. G., Stoll, B., Chang, X. et al.Parenteral nutrition results in impaired lactose digestion and hexose absorption when enteral feeding is initiated in infant pigs. Am. J. Clin. Nutr.2003;78:461-70.
111. Merritt, R. J. Cholestasis associated with total parenteral nutrition. J. Pediatr. Gastroenterol. Nutr.1980;5:9-22.
112. Black, D. D., Suttle, E. A., Whitington, P. F., Whitington, G. L., Korones, S. D. The effect of short-term total parenteral nutrition on hepatic function in the human neonate: a prospective randomized study demonstrating alteration of hepatic canalicular function. J. Pediatr.1981;99:445-9.
113. Brown, M. R., Thunberg, B. J., Golub, L. et al.Decreased cholestasis with enteral instead of intravenous protein in the very low-birth-weight infant. J. Pediatr. Gastroenterol. Nutr.1989;9:21-7.
114. Forchielli, M.L., Gura, K. M., Sandler, R., Lo, C. AminosynPFor trophamine:whichprovidesmore protection fromcholestasis associated with total parenteral nutrition? J.Pediatr.Gastroenterol. Nutr.1995;21:374-82.
115. Cooke, R. J., Whitington, P. F., Kelts, D. Effect of taurine supplementation on hepatic function during short-term parenteral nutrition in the premature infant. J. Pediatr. Gastroenterol. Nutr. 1984;3:234-8.
116. Tyson, J. E., Kennedy, K. A., Cochrane Neonatal Group. Minimal enteral nutrition for promoting feeding tolerance and preventing morbidity in parenterally fed infants. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 2000;2:CD000504.
117. Owens, L., Burrin, D. G., Berseth, C. L. Minimal enteral feeding induces maturation of intestinal motor function but not mucosal growth in neonatal dogs. J. Nutr.2002;132:2717-22.
118. Schreiner, R. L., Glick, M. R., Nordschow, C. D. et al.An evaluation of methods to monitor infants receiving intravenous lipids. J. Pediatr.1979;94:197-200.
119. Schanler, R. J., Shulman, R. J., Lau, C., Smith, E. O., Heitkemper, M. Feeding strategies for preterm infants: randomized trial of time of initiation and method of feeding. Pediatrics1999;103:434-9.
120. Dice, J. E., Burckart, G. J., Woo, J. T., Helms, R. A. Standardized versus pharmacist-monitored individualized parenteral nutrition in low-birth-weight infants. Am. J. Hosp. Pharm.1981;38:1487-9.