Transformations: Identity construction in contemporary culture

Transformations: Identity Construction in Contemporary Culture

Volumn , Issue , 2008, Pages 1-428

  McCracken, Grant ^a,b  

^a MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY   (United States)

^b HARVARD BUSINESS SCHOOL   (United States)

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EID: 84900880544     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: None     Document Type: Book

References (426)

1. Quoted in William Harris, "Anne Meara Goes on Stage, as a Playwright," New York Times, January 15, 1985: H5.
2. Jonathan Van Meter, "Oprah's Moment," Vogue 188, no. 10 (1998): 329.
3. Kate Bornstein, Gender Outlaw: On Men, Women and the Rest of Us (New York: Routledge, 1994), 3. Ms. Bornstein is a woman who was once a man, who when she published this book was living with a man who was once a woman. This was a heterosexual relationship-but only because both parties switched genders.
4. Quoted in Jennifer Abramsohn, "Helping the Homebound," Wall Street Journal, June 19, 1995: R19.
5. Elias Canetti, Crowds and Power, translated by Carol Stewart (London: Penguin, 1992), 438.
6. Daniel Bell, The Cultural Contradictions of Capitalism (New York: Basic Books, 1976), 53-54.
7. Quoted in Margaret C. Jacob, The Cultural Meaning ofthe Scientific Revolution (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1988), 136.
8. Michael Wolf, The Entertainment Economy (New York: Three Rivers, 2003), 4.
9. Grant McCracken, "Celebrity Culture: Muddles in the Models," post at This Blog Sits at the Intersection of Anthropology and Economics, October 21, 2005, http://www.cultureby.com/trilogy/2005/10/thanks_to_piers.html.
10. D. H. Green, The Beginnings of Medieval Romance: Fact and Fiction, 1150-1220 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 31.
11. Steven Greenblatt, Will in the World (New York: W. W. Norton, 2004);
12. Fohan Huizinga, Homo Ludens: A Study of the Play Element in Culture (Boston: Beacon, 1955);
13. Arnold van Gennep, Rites of Passage, translated by Monika B. Vizedom and Gabrielle L. Caffee (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1960);
14. M. M. Bakhtin, Rabelais and His World (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1984).
15. Neil Postman, Amusing Ourselves to Death: Public Discourse in the Age ofShow Business (New York: Viking, 1985), 3-4.
16. B. Joseph Pine and James H. Gilmore, The Experience Economy: Work Is Theatre and Every Business a Stage (Boston, Mass.: Harvard Business School Press, 1999);
17. Bernd Schmitt, Experiential Marketing (New York: Free Press, 1999).
18. Henry Jenkins, Textual Poachers: Television Fans and Participatory Culture (New York: Routledge, 1992). It is almost impossible to exaggerate how important this book was in offering an opportunity for social scientists to escape their selfimposed theoretical captivity. Certainly, it helped me write the first edition of Plenitude in 1997.
19. Alan Schwarz, "Baseball Is a Game of Numbers, but Whose Numbers Are They?" New York Times, May 16, 2006.
20. Chris Anderson, The Long Tail (New York: Hyperion, 2006).
21. Quoted in Jane Marion, "Celebrity Chef: Joan Lunden's Recipe for Change," TV Guide 21, no. 27 (1997): 18.
22. Sally Brompton, "If Your Birthday Is Today," Globe and Mail, December 20, 1996: C18.
23. Quoted in Kathy Healy, "Behind the Scenes with a Virtuoso Stylist," Allure 2 (September 9, 1992): 140.
24. Gary Hamel and C. K. Prahalad, Competing for the Future (Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 1994), 19;
25. Hal Lancaster, "Quick-Change Artists May Find Fast Route to Executive Positions," Wall Street Journal, May 9, 1995: B1;
26. Michael Hammer and James Champy, Reengineering the Corporation (New York: HarperBusiness, 1993), 1.
27. Quoted in David Livingstone, "Model Behavior," Saturday Night 107 (March 2, 1992): 75.
28. Toivo Pajo, "Space Proves a Delicious Blend," The Strand, February 12, 1997: 9.
29. Quoted in Gary Alan Fine, Shared Fantasy: Role-Playing Games as Social Worlds (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1983), 212.
30. James G. Ballard in Liam Lacey, "Down 'n' Dirty at Cronenberg's Crash Site," Globe and Mail, May 20, 1996: C1.
31. Frank Bruni, "The Literary Agent as Zelig," New York Times Magazine, August 11, 1996: 28.
32. Bharati Mukherjee, "American Dreamer," Mother Jones 22, no. 1 (1997): 35.
33. Quoted in Barbara Lippert, "Our Martha, Ourselves," New York Magazine, May 15, 1995: 32.
34. Ruth Rendell in Sarah Lyall, "Mysteries, of Course, but Ruth Rendell Also Sees Real Evil," New York Times, April 10: B2.
35. Milo Miles, "Michelle Shocked: Kind Hearted Woman," Spin, January 1997: 96.
36. Brendan Malone, former coach of the Toronto Raptors, in Chris Young, "Will Malone Attract Rodman to Raptors?" Toronto Star, June 3, 1995: E1.
37. Mark Leyner, comedian, in John Allemang, "Leyner Writes from Eye of Nihilism," Globe and Mail, February 17, 1997: C1.
38. Quoted in "Surgeon in Sex Change Shocker," South China Morning Post, April 1, 1996: 11.
39. Anthony Giddens, Modernity and Self-Identity: Self and Society in the Late Modern Age (Cambridge: Polity, 1991), 2.
40. Grant McCracken, "Rank and Two Aspects of Dress in Elizabethan England," Culture 2, no. 2 (1982): 53-62.
41. David Frum, How We Got Here: The '70's, the Decade That Brought You Modern Life (For Better or Worse) (New York: Basic Books, 2000).
42. Angela McRobbie, "Postmodernism and Popular Culture," in Postmodernism, edited by Lisa Appignanesi (London: Free Association Books, 1989), 165.
43. Quoted in David Sinclair, "Station to Station," Rolling Stone, no. 658 (June 10, 1993): 80.
44. "Rock Style, 1967-1987." Rolling Stone, April 23, 1987: 82.
45. For an illuminating treatment, see Kevin Sessums, "Love Story: The Long, Strange Trip of Rock Icon Courtney Love," Vanity Fair, June 1996: 106-15, 169-71.
46. Ani DiFranco, "Light of Some Kind," Not a Pretty Girl (Righteous Babe Records, 1995).
47. Quoted in Brantley Bardin, "Ani DiFranco: Taking Me Seriously Is a Big Mistake. I Certainly Wouldn't," Details 12, no. 2 (1997): 130.
48. Quoted in Lorraine Ali, "Ani DiFranco," Rolling Stone, no. 753 (1997): 20.
49. Van Meter, "Righteous Babe," 60.
50. I. Jeanne Dugan, "Someone's in the Kitchen with Martha," Business Week, July 28, 1997: 58.
51. Tom Conner, Is Martha Stewart Living? (New York: HarperCollins, 1995);
52. Tom Conner, Jim Downey, and J. Barry O'Rourke, Martha Stewart's Better Than You at Entertaining (New York: HarperCollins, 1996). Some of the satire on the Web gets very nasty indeed: see http://www.members.tripod.com/~MrsMegaByte/links.html.
53. Grant McCracken, "Homeyness: A Cultural Account of One Constellation of Consumer Goods and Meanings," in Interpretive Consumer Research, ed. Elizabeth Hirschman (Provo, Utah: Association for Consumer Research, 1989), 168-83.
54. Matt Tyrnauer, "The Prisoner of Bedford," Vanity Fair, August 2005: 110-18, 176-80.
55. Erik Larson, "Free Money: The Internet I.P.O That Made Two Women Rich and a Lot of People Furious," New Yorker, October 11, 1999, 76-85.
56. Kelefa Sanneh, "Madonna's Latest Self, a Mix of Her Old Ones," New York Times, May 26, 2004.
57. See also Saroyan and Goldberg, "What's Up with Madonna?" 71. All quotations are from Ms. Jackson's website, at http://www.cindyjackson.co.uk/.
58. Robert Putnam, "Bowling Alone: America's Declining Social Capital," Journal of Democracy 6, no. 1 (1995): 65-78. Mr. Putnam has published a book of the same title, adroitly reviewed by Margaret Talbot in the New York Times Book Review, June 25, 2000.
59. John Lahr, "Making It Real: Mike Nichols' Improvised Life," New Yorker, February 21 and 28, 2000: 198.
60. Jeffrey Sweet, Something Wonderful Right Away: An Oral History of the Second City and the Compass Players (New York: Avon, 1978), 73.
61. Sweet, Something Wonderful Right Away, 71.
62. Victor W. Turner, The Ritual Process: Structure and Anti-structure (New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 1995).
63. Sally F. Moore and Barbara G. Myerhoff, "Secular Ritual: Forms and Meanings," introduction to Secular Ritual (Amsterdam: Van Gorcum, 1977), 16-17.
64. Nancy Munn, "Symbolism in a Ritual Context," in Handbook of Social and Cultural Anthropology, ed. John J. Honigmann (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1973), 605-606.
65. Nicole Belmont, Arnold van Gennep: The Creator of French Ethnography, translated by Derek Coltmann (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979).
66. Arnold van Gennep, The Rites of Passage, translated by Monika B. Vizedom and Gabrielle L. Caffee (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1960).
67. Victor W. Turner, The Anthropology of Performance (New York: PAJ Publications, 1986), 22; and Felicia Hughes-Freeland, introduction to Ritual, Performance, Media (New York: Routledge, 1998), 1-28.
68. Parkin, "Ritual as Spatial Direction," 15, emphasis in the original.
69. Maurice E. F. Bloch, "Symbols, Song, Dance and Features of Articulation," Archives européennes de sociologie 15 (1974): 55-81.
70. Gilbert Lewis, Day of Shining Red: An Essay on Understanding Ritual (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980), 144.
71. Stanley J. Tambiah, "A Performative Approach to Ritual," in Culture, Thought, and Social Action: An Anthropological Perspective (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1985), 132, 161. We might speculate that monarchs may have exceptional powers of innovation precisely because as monarchs they are special agents in the ritual affairs of the community.
72. Barbara G. Myerhoff, "'We Don't Wrap Herring in a Printed Page': Fusion, Fictions, and Continuity in Secular Ritual," in Moore and Myerhoff, Secular Ritual, 199-224.
73. Moore and Myerhoff, "Secular Ritual," 9.
74. For a usefully synoptic view of the full range of possibilities here, see Thomas J. Sienkewicz, Theories of Myth: An Annotated Bibliography (Pasadena, Calif.: Salem, 1997).
75. Quoted in James Clifford, "On Ethnographic Self-Fashioning: Conrad and Malinowski," in Reconstructing Individualism: Autonomy, Individuality and the Self in Western Thought, ed. T. C. Heller, M. Sosna, and D. E. Wellbery (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1986), 141.
76. Stanley Walens, "The Weight of My Name Is a Mountain of Blankets: Potlatch Ceremonies," in Turner, Celebration, 178-88.
77. John J. MacAloon, "Sociation and Sociability in Political Celebrations," in Turner, Celebration, 261.
78. S. Ia Serov, "Guardians and Spirit-Masters of Siberia," in Crossroads of Continents, ed. William W. Fitzhugh and Aron Crowell (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1988), 241-55. (For the hat of a transformed shaman, see figure 334 on p. 247. For a bird-skin coat, see figure 326 on p. 241.) 35. Mark S. Mosko, "The Canonic Formula of Myth and Nonmyth," American Ethnologist 18, no. 1 (1991): 126-51. I am pleased, finally, to have got an equation in the book.
79. Doty, Mythography, 104-106.
80. James G. Frazer, The Golden Bough: A Study in Magic and Religion, 3rd ed. (New York: Macmillan, 1935);
81. Audrey I. Richard, "The Concept of Culture in Malinowski's Work," in Man and Culture: An Evaluation of the Work of Bronislaw Malinowski, ed. Raymond Firth (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1957), 19;
82. Roy A. Rappaport, Pigs for the Ancestors: Ritual in the Ecology of a New Guinea People (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1967).
83. Ford Russell, Northrop Frye on Myth: An Introduction (New York: Garland, 1998).
84. David G. Mandelbaum, The Plains Cree (New York: The American Museum of Natural History, 1940), 210.
85. Dennis Tedlock, "The Spoken Word and the Work of Interpretation in American Indian Religion," in Myth, Symbol, and Reality, ed. Alan M. Olson (Notre Dame, Ind.: University of Notre Dame Press, 1980), 131.
86. Th. P. Van Baaren, "The Flexibility of Myth," in Sacred Narrative: Readings in the Theory of Myth, ed. Alan Dundes (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984), 222, 223, 218. For another statement of anthropology's "reluctance to treat [myths] as possibly recent or changing items," see Raymond Firth, "The Plasticity of Myth: Cases from Tikopia," in Dundes, Sacred Narrative, 209.
87. Kenelm Burridge, Mambu, a Melanesian Millennium (London: Methuen, 1960), 250. The first quoted sentence actually follows the excerpt. A similar play of innovation and tradition is observed in Michel Perrin, "The Myth in the Face of Change: An Anthropologist's View," Social Research 52, no. 2 (1985): 317.
88. A. I. Hallowell, "Ojibwa Ontology, Behavior and World View," in Culture in History: Essays in Honor of Paul Radin, ed. Stanley Diamond (New York: Columbia University Press, 1960), 22, 23
89. J. S. La Fontaine, "Person and Individual: Some Anthropological Reflections," in The Category of the Person: Anthropology, Philosophy, History, ed. Michael Carrithers, Steven Collins, and Steven Lukes (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 137.
90. E. P. Evans-Pritchard, Witchcraft, Oracles and Magic among the Zande (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1937), 194.
91. Clyde Kluckhohn, "Myths and Rituals: A General Theory," in Segal, The Myth and Ritual Theory, 330. Kluckhohn approvingly quotes Harvey Ferguson's assertion that "man dreads both spontaneity and change... he is a worshipper of habit in all its forms" (330) and suggests that myth and ritual "represent the maximum of fixity" (332).
92. Lewis, Day of Shining Red, 212-15.
93. Lévi-Strauss, The Savage Mind, 30-31.
94. Pierre Clastres, "Indians of the South American Forest," in American, African, and Old European Mythologies, compiled by Yves Bonnefoy and translated by Wendy Doniger (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993), 80.
95. Paul Radin, The Trickster: A Study in American Indian Mythology (New York: Philosophical Library, 1956).
96. Karl Kerenyi, "Commentary: The Trickster in Relation to Greek Mythology," in Radin, The Trickster, 185.
97. Lawrence Stone takes this approach in his treatment of early modern England: Lawrence Stone, The Family, Sex and Marriage in England, 1500-1800 (New York: Harper & Row, 1977).
98. Bharati Mukherjee, "American Dreamer," Mother Jones 22, no. 1 (1997): 32.
99. Richard A. Shweder and Edmund J. Bourne, "Does the Concept of the Person Vary Cross-Culturally?" in Culture Theory: Essays on Mind, Self, and Emotion, ed. Richard A. Shweder and Robert A. LeVine (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1984), 190;
100. Louis Dumont, Essays on Individualism (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986) and "Christian Beginnings of Modern Individualism," in Carrithers, Collins, and Lukes, The Category of the Person, 93-122.
101. Clifford Geertz, " 'From the Native's Point of View': On the Nature of Anthropological Understanding," in Shweder and LeVine, Culture Theory, 126.
102. Marshall Sahlins, Stone Age Economics (Chicago: Aldine, 1972), 1-39. For a review of the more recent archaeological literature on what remains "the mystery of how, let alone why, prehistorical people ceased to forage and turned to farming," see David R. Harris, Settling Down and Breaking Ground: Rethinking the Neolithic Revolution (Amsterdam: Twaalfde Kroon-Voordracht, 1990), 29.
103. See Robert Nisbet, Social Change and History: Aspects of the Western Theory ofDevelopment (New York: Oxford University Press, 1969) for a review of the many ideas of change cultivated in the Western tradition.
104. Fernand Braudel, Afterthoughts on Material Civilization and Capitalism, translated by Patricia M. Ranum (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1977), 7.
105. Hugh Trevor-Roper, "The Invention of Tradition: The Highland Tradition of Scotland," in The Invention of Tradition, ed. Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), 15-41.
106. Eric Hobsbawm, "Introduction: Inventing Traditions," in Hobsbawm and Ranger, The Invention ofTradition, 2.
107. Sylvia Lettice Thrupp, The Merchant Class of Medieval England (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1948). I have drawn heavily upon this book.
108. Thomas Fuller, The Holy State and the Profane State, ed. Maximilian Graff Walten (1642; New York: Columbia University Press, 1938), 2:106.
109. Lawrence Stone, The Crisis of the Aristocracy, 1558-1641 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1965), 23.
110. For more on English mobility in the early modern period, see Anthony Esler, The Aspiring Mind of the Elizabethan Younger Generation (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1966), 34-37;
111. J. H. Hexter, "The Myth of the Middle Class in Tudor England," in Reappraisals in History (London: Longmans, 1961), 71-116.
112. For a controversial account of the medieval precedents of this mobility, see Alan Macfarlane, The Origins of English Individualism (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1978).
113. Mildred Campbell, The English Yeoman under Elizabeth and the Early Stuarts (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1942), 379;
114. Albert J. Schmidt, The Yeoman in Tudor and Stuart England (Washington, D.C.: Folger Shakespeare Library, 1961).
115. Raphaell Holinshed, The Firste Volume of the Chronicle of England, Scotlande, and Ireland... (London: Iohn Hunne, 1577), book 3, chapter 1.
116. Old Strowd: "your bought gentility that sits on thee, like peacock's feathres cocked upon a raven," in John Day, The Blind Beggar of Bednall Green, Materialien zur Kunde des älteren englischen Dramas (Louvain: Uystpruyst, 1902), 39.
117. Thomas Fuller, The Holy State and the Profane State, edited with notes by James Nichols (London: Thomas Tegg, 1841), 106.
118. Frances Trollope, Domestic Manners of the Americans, 5th ed. (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1839), 205. Notice the reference here to novels as a template for behavior undertaken in the hope of upward transformation.
119. Austin, How to Do Things with Words, 15-24.
120. James Kernan, Perfect Etiquette: or, How to Behave in Society. A Complete Manual for Ladies and Gentlemen... with Suggestions How to Dress Tastefully (New York: Albert Cogswell, 1877). The details of social transformation are many and exacting. In the words of Goffman, to recite them once more, they consist of "matters of etiquette, dress, deportment, gesture, intonation, dialect, vocabulary, [and] small bodily movements.... In a manner of speaking... a social style." Goffman, "Symbols of Class Status," 300.
121. Richard Braithwait, The English Gentleman and the English Gentlewoman, 3rd ed. (London, 1641), 34-35.
122. Kevin M. Sweeney, "High-Style Vernacular: Lifestyles of the Colonial Elite," in OfConsuming Interests: The Style of Life in the Eighteenth Century, ed. Cary Carson, Ronald Hoffman, and Peter J. Albert (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1994), 9-10.
123. Abraham H. Maslow, Motivation and Personality (New York: Harper & Row, 1970).
124. Richard L. Bushman, The Refinement of America: Persons, Houses, Cities (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1992), 79-80.
125. Karin Calvert, "The Function of Fashion in Eighteenth-Century America," in Carson, Hoffman, and Albert, Of Consuming Interests, 272-73. Note that Bourdieu makes a point very like this one: Bourdieu, In Other Words, 10-11.
126. Baldassarre Castiglione, The Book of the Courtier from the Italian, Done into English by Sir Thomas Hoby, Anno 1561, with an Introduction by Walter Raleigh, Tudor Translations 23 (New York: AMS Press, 1967).
127. Ruth Kelso, The Doctrine of the English Gentleman in the Sixteenth Century, with a Bibliographical List ofTreatises on the Gentleman and Related Subjects Published in Europe to 1625 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1929), 89;
128. M. E. James, A Tudor Magnate and the Tudor State (New York: St. Anthony's, 1966), 8;
129. Jules Lubbock, The Tyranny of Taste: The Politics of Architecture and Design in Britain, 1550-1960 (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1995).
130. Sir Thomas Elyot, The Boke Named the Governour (1531; London: J. M. Dent, 1907), 5;
131. John M. Major, Sir Thomas Elyot and Renaissance Humanism (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1964), 22.
132. Matthew Arnold, Culture and Anarchy and Other Writings, ed. Stefan Collini (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 62.
133. Arthur J. Vidich and Joseph Bensman, Small Town in Mass Society: Class, Power and Religion in a Rural Community, rev. ed. (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1968).
134. Theodore Dreiser, Sister Carrie (1900; New York: The Modern Library, 1997), 89.
135. For a different account of Dreiser's interest in these details, see Rachel Bowlby, Just Looking: Consumer Culture in Dreiser, Gissing and Zola (New York: Methuen, 1985).
136. Milton M. Gordon, Assimilation in American Life: The Role of Race, Religion, and National Origins (New York: Oxford University Press, 1964), 70, 112.
137. Karal A. Marling, As Seen on TV: The Visual Culture of Everyday Life in the 1950s (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1994).
138. David L. Cohn, The Good Old Days: A History of American Morals and Manners as Seen through the Sears, Roebuck Catalogues, 1905 to the Present (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1940). See Cohn's introduction for an impassioned defense of the significance of material culture and a really embarrassing preface from Sinclair Lewis that misses the point altogether. For more on the Sears genre, see Jennifer Scanlon, Inarticulate Longings: The Ladies' Home Journal, Gender, and the Promises of Consumer Culture (New York: Routledge, 1995).
139. For a review of trickle-down diffusion theory, see Grant McCracken, "Consumer Goods, Gender Construction, and a Rehabilitated Trickle-Down Theory," in Culture and Consumption, 93-103.
140. See, for instance, Steven Watson, The Harlem Renaissance: Hub of African-American Culture, 1920-1930 (New York: Pantheon, 1995).
141. Nella Larsen, Quicksand and Passing (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1986), 150, 158.
142. F. James Davis, Who Is African-American? One Nation's Definition (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1991), 13-14. The issue of race, especially the notion that social and cultural characteristics have some biological foundations, is deeply problematical. Gates suggests we think of race as metaphor. Henry L. Gates, "Race," Writing, and Difference (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986). This is right, but we must sometimes engage in more essentialist treatments when they are the language and logic of our respondents. It is an interesting empirical question how many North Americans are prepared to see race as metaphor. I suspect the number is still quite small.
143. Richard Dyer, "Fashioning Change: Gay Men's Style," in Stonewall 25: The Making of the Lesbian and Gay Community in Britain, ed. Emma Healy and Angela Mason (London: Virago, 1994), 179.
144. Roberta Best, "Drag Kings: Chicks with Dicks," Canadian Woman Studies 16, no. 2 (spring 1996): 58-59.
145. Lynda Powless, "Mush-Hole: $900 Million Survivor Suit Sparks Memories," Turtle Island 4, no. 44 (1998): 3.
146. Mary C. Waters, Ethnic Options: Choosing Identities in America (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990).
147. Eric Liu, The Accidental Asian: Notes of a Native Speaker (New York: Random House, 1998), 46, 35.
148. Ray Chang, "Give Me a Punkin' Job," Yolk 2, no. 1 (1995): 14.
149. Melanie McGrath, Motel Nirvana: Dreaming of the New Age in the American Desert (New York: HarperCollins, 1995), 22.
150. For the early modern beginnings of this individualism, see Roy F. Baumeister, Identity: Cultural Change and the Struggle for Self (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), 35-42.
151. Richard M. Merelman, Making Something of Ourselves: On Culture and Politics in the United States (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984), 30.
152. See also Ralph Linton, The Study ofMan (New York: Appleton-Century, 1936). A founding statement of the individual released from historical and cultural definitions appears in Immanuel Kant's essay "An Answer to the Question: What Is Enlightenment," in Foundations of the Metaphysics ofMorals and What Is Enlightenment? (New York: Macmillan, 1990).
153. Richard A. Shweder and Edmund J. Bourne, "Does the Concept of the Person Vary Cross-Culturally?" in Culture Theory: Essays on Mind, Self, and Emotion, ed. Richard A. Shweder and Robert A. LeVine (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1984), 190.
154. Frederic Jameson, "Postmodernism and Consumer Society," in The Antiaesthetic: Essays on Postmodern Culture, ed. Hal Foster (Port Townsend, Wash.: Bay Press, 1983), 114.
155. Lionel Trilling, Sincerity and Authenticity (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1971). Berman's treatment of Montesquieu's treatment of Usbek's unhappiness with the role of master, while different in some particulars, captures what is, from a modernist point of view, the emptiness of performances and relationships defined by roles. Marshall Berman, The Politics of Authenticity: Radical Individualism and the Emergence of Modern Society (New York: Atheneum, 1980), 24-25.
156. John G. Cawelti, Apostles of the Self-Made Man: Changing Concepts of Success in America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1965), 12.
157. M. P. Baumgartner, The Moral Order of a Suburb (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988), 9, 17.
158. Malcolm Bradbury and James Walter McFarlane, "The Name and Nature of Modernism," in Modernism: A Guide to European Literature, 1890-1930, ed. Malcolm Bradbury and James Walter McFarlane (London: Penguin, 1991), 46.
159. Eric Homberger, "Chicago and New York: Two Versions of American Modernism," in Bradbury and McFarlane, Modernism, 158-59.
160. Renato Poggioli, The Theory ofthe Avant-Garde (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1968), 50.
161. Charles Taylor, "Two Theories of Modernity," Hastings Center Report 25, no. 2 (March-April 1995): 24-33.
162. Ted Morgan, Literary Outlaw: The Life and Times ofWilliam S. Burroughs (New York: Holt, 1988), 173. It may be that Vollmer used "lay terms" to let Ginsberg know that she did not feel qualified to use a more technical language.
163. Wallace Fowlie, Rimbaud, the Myth of Childhood (New York: D. Dobson, 1946), 35. This is, from an anthropological point of view, an interesting cultural construct. It assumes that there are truths out there, that it is artists who must go after them, and that they can be got at only by breaking through the constraints of mainstream society.
164. Watson, Birth of the Beat Generation, 39.
165. Donald B. Kuspit, The Cult of the Avant-Garde Artist (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 7-8.
166. Watson, Birth of the Beat Generation, 138.
167. Watson, Birth of the Beat Generation, 21-22.
168. Gerald Nicosia, Memory Babe: A Critical Biography ofJack Kerouac (New York: Grove, 1983), 116, quoted in Watson, Birth of the Beat Generation, 37.
169. William S. Burroughs, Interzone, ed. James Grauerholz (New York: Viking, 1989), 128, quoted in Watson, Birth of the Beat Generation, 244.
170. Watson, Birth of the Beat Generation, 258.
171. Watson, Birth of the Beat Generation, 53.
172. Quoted in John L. Caughey, Imaginary Social Worlds: A Cultural Approach (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1984), 68.
173. Vance Oakley Packard, The Status Seekers: An Exploration ofClass Behavior in America and the Hidden Barriers That Affect You, Your Community, Your Future (New York: D. McKay, 1959).
174. Neil McKendrick, John Brewer, and J. H. Plumb, The Birth ofa Consumer Society:The Commercialization ofEighteenth-Century England (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1982);
175. "Even the Swing of the Doors Is New," Buick ad in Life 36, no. 19 (1954): 13;
176. "Worth Its Price in PRESTIGE," Cadillac ad in Life 36, no. 11 (1954):6-7;
177. "Elegance in Action," Dodge ad in Life 36, no. 3 (1954): inside front cover; Pierre Martineau, "Snob Appeal Losing Ground," Advertising Age 25, no. 43 (1954): 12;
178. "You're Fashion First-With the Last Word in Cars," Buick ad in Life 36, no. 14 (1954): 154;
179. "Here's Wonderful Inside News for You," Chrysler ad in Life 36, no. 18 (1954): 46-47;
180. "High Fashion Note All over America This Year!" Fisher ad in Life 36, no. 9 (1954): 6-7;
181. "New '54 Plymouth: Under the Beauty, Solid Value," ad in Life 36, no. 7 (1954): 55;
182. "This Year Buy a '54 Studebaker," ad in Life 36, no. 2 (1954): 2;
183. "What Kind of 'Hat' Does Your Horsepower Wear?" Chrysler ad in Life 36, no. 22 (1954): 34-35;
184. "Moonlit Drive," Pontiac ad in Time (Canadian edition) 68, no. 32 (1956);
185. "Announcing the Hudson Hornet Special," ad in Life 36, no. 22 (1954): 110;
186. "Extra Dividends at No Extra Cost in the '54 Ford," ad in Life 36, no. 9 (1954): 114;
187. and "Some Sensible Reasons Why It's Still More Fun to Own a Chevrolet," ad in Life 36, no. 22 (1954): 49.
188. "Lincoln Shows How New Your Car Should Be," ad in Life 36, no. 9 (1954): 42-43;
189. "Let Lincoln Show You What Modern Driving Means," ad in Life 36, no. 16 (1954): 94-95;
190. "DeSoto Automatic," ad in Life 36, no. 11 (1954): 88;
191. and "The Thrifty '54 Studebakers Are the Only Really Modern Cars in America," ad in Life 36, no. 11 (1954): inside front cover.
192. Richard Horn, Fifties Style: Then and Now (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1985), 12.
193. "Autos: Step to the Rear," Time 66, no. 22 (1955): 82.
194. John B. Rae, The American Automobile: A Brief History (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1965), 209.
195. That this cultural phenomenon was Western, or at least North American, is suggested by an ad that appeared in the Canadian popular press: "Men Who Guide Canada's Advance Wear Rolex Watches," ad in Time (Canadian edition) 66, no. 22 (1955): 39.
196. Horn, Fifties Style, 34.
197. "Billions for Defense Build Wondrous Weapons," Life 36, no. 1 (1954):12-19
198. and "The U.S. Air Force: The Nation's Youngest Service Has Entered the Supersonic Age," Time 67, no. 10 (1956): 42-51.
199. Raymond Loewy, "Jukebox on Wheels," Atlantic Monthly 195, no. 4 (1955):36-37.
200. Warren I. Susman, "Culture and Communications," in Culture as History:The Transformation of American Society in the Twentieth Century (New York:Pantheon, 1984), 263.
201. Jurgen Habermas, "Modernity-An Incomplete Project," in The Antiaesthetic:Essays on Postmodern Culture, ed. Hal Foster (Port Townsend, Wash.: Bay Press, 1983), 3-15.
202. Matei Calinescu, Five Faces of Modernity (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1987), 66.
203. Matei Calinescu, "From the One to the Many: Pluralism in Today's Thought," in Innovation/Renovation: New Perspectives on the Humanities, ed. Ihab Hassan and Sally Hassan (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1983), 263-88.
204. Peter Osborne, introduction to The Politics of Time: Modernity and Avant-Garde (New York: Verso, 1995), xii.
205. Marion Weinstein, Earth Magic: A Dianic Book of Shadows: A Guide for Witches, 4th ed. (New York: Earth Magic Productions, 1998), 84.
206. Carole Kammen and Jodie Gold, Call to Connection: Bringing Sacred Tribal Values into Modern Life (Salt Lake City, Utah: Commune-A-Key Publishing, 1998), 198.
207. Quoted in Sera L. Tank, "Personalized Vows Provide a Break from Traditional Formula." http://www.spub.ksu.edu/issues/v100/sp/n099/feab-vows-tank. html. Unfortunately, this website is defunct.
208. Kath Weston, Families We Choose: Lesbians, Gays, Kinship (New York: Columbia University Press, 1991), 4.
209. David I. Kertzer, Rituals, Politics, and Power (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1988)
210. and John J. MacAloon, "Sociation and Sociability in Political Celebrations," in Celebration: Studies in Festivity and Ritual, ed. Victor W. Turner (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1982), 255-71.
211. James H. Barnett, The American Christmas: A Study in National Character (New York: Macmillan, 1954)
212. Daniel Miller, ed., Unwrapping Christmas (Oxford:Clarendon, 1993)
213. William B. Waits, The Modern Christmas in America: A Cultural History of Gift Giving (New York: New York University Press, 1993)
214. and Leigh E. Schmidt, Consumer Rites: The Buying and Selling of American Holidays (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1995).
215. Jack Kugelmass and Mariette P. Allen, Masked Culture: The Greenwich Village Halloween Parade (New York: Columbia University Press, 1994). This is a remarkable study.
216. Charles Taylor, Sources of the Self: The Making of the Modern Identity (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1989), 209-302.
217. Lionel Trilling, preface to Beyond Culture: Essays on Literature and Learning (New York: Penguin, 1965), 12.
218. For a postmodernist version of the Trilling agenda, see the treatment in Peter Dews, The Limits of Disenchantment: Essays on Contemporary European Philosophy (London: Verso, 1995).
219. Michèle Lamont, Money, Morals and Manners: The Culture of the French and the American Upper-Middle Class (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992), 116.
220. This is one of the key issues at work in laws that impose dress and grooming standards. John D. Ingram and Ellen R. Domph, "The Right to Govern One's Personal Appearance," Oklahoma City University Law Review 6, no. 2 (1981):339-72.
221. Grant McCracken, Plenitude 2.0, 2nd ed. (Toronto: Periph. Fluide, 1998), 18.
222. Barbara Lippert, "Our Martha, Ourselves," New York Magazine, May 15, 1995: 32. The New Age community is constantly creating new rituals, and I discuss these activities further in the essay entitled "New Age, British Columbia" in this section.
223. Bill Buford, Among the Thugs (London: Secker and Warburg, 1991).
224. William Arens, "Professional Football: An American Symbol and Ritual," in The American Dimension, ed. Susan Montague and William Arens (Port Washington, N.Y.: Alfred, 1976), 3-14.
225. George Gmelch, "Baseball Magic," in Conformity and Conflict:
226. Claude Lévi-Strauss, The Savage Mind (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1966), 32.
227. Campbell and Moyers, The Power of Myth, 82. This tells us that Campbell subscribed to one of our own myths: that culture that comes from commerce cannot be culture. There are less "mythic" accounts.
228. Eric Hobsbawm, "Introduction: Inventing Traditions," in The Invention of Tradition, ed. Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1984), 10.
229. Sheldon Wolin, "Postmodern Politics and the Absence of Myth," Social Research 52, no. 2 (summer 1985): 218, 217, 221.
230. For another reference to the "paradox of self-conscious mythmaking," see David E. Cooper, "Modern Mythology:The Case of 'Reactionary Modernism,' " History of the Human Sciences 9, no. 2 (1996): 26.
231. Marjorie H. Nicolson, The Breaking of the Circle: Studies in the Effect of the "New Science" upon Seventeenth-Century Poetry (New York: Columbia University Press, 1960).
232. Max Weber, "Science as a Vocation," in From Max Weber, ed. H. H. Gerth and C. Wright Mills (New York: Oxford University Press, 1946), 148, 155.
233. See notes on the "myth of mythlessness" in Robert Jewett and John S. Lawrence, The American Monomyth (Garden City, N.J.: Anchor, 1977)
234. and William G. Doty, Mythography: The Study of Myths and Rituals (University: University of Alabama Press, 1986).
235. Barry A. Shain, The Myth of American Individualism: The Protestant Origins of American Political Thought (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1994).
236. David Abram, The Spell of the Sensuous: Perception and Language in a More-Than-Human World (New York: Pantheon, 1996).
237. Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience (New York: Harper & Row, 1990).
238. Michael Lewis, The New New Thing: A Silicon Valley Story (New York:W. W. Norton, 2000), 35. This is a very interesting ethnography.
239. John G. Cawelti, Apostles of the Self-Made Man: Changing Concepts of Success in America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1965), 12.
240. Daniel Bell, The Cultural Contradictions of Capitalism (New York: Basic Books, 1976).
241. Max Weber, Economy and Society, ed. Guenther Roth and Claus Wittich (Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1978), 2:959.
242. Thomas J. Peters, Thriving on Chaos: Handbook for a Management Revolution (New York: Knopf, 1987) and Liberation Management: Necessary Disorganization for the Nanosecond Nineties (New York: Knopf, 1992).
243. De Man is talking about Nietzsche. Paul de Man, "Literary History and Literary Modernity," in Blindness and Insight (New York: Oxford University Press, 1971), 147.
244. Richard A. Shweder and Edmund J. Bourne, "Does the Concept of the Person Vary Cross-Culturally?" in Culture Theory: Essays on Mind, Self, and Emotion, ed. Richard A. Shweder and Robert A. LeVine (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1984), 190.
245. Norman Vincent Peale, Have a Great Day (New York: Ballantine, 1985), 6.
246. Robbins, Awaken the Giant Within, 7.
247. Stephen R. Covey, The Seven Habits of Highly Effective People: Restoring the Character Ethic (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1989).
248. Billy Kluver, A Day with Picasso: Twenty-four Photographs by Jean Cocteau (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1997), 22.
249. There is a third, economic question: "Can this create value?" But it is interesting how often this is a distant, indifferent third for many of the key players.
250. Lévi-Strauss, The Savage Mind, 19.
251. Caroline Chauncey, "Going for the Summit," interview with Candice Carpenter, HBS Bulletin Online (Harvard Business School alumni magazine), April 1998, http://www.alumni.hbs.edu/bulletin/1998/april/carpenter.html.
252. Andrea Petersen, "IVillage's CEO Is Stepping Down; Net Loss Widens," Wall Street Journal, July 28, 2000: B2.
253. Quim Cardona, "A Conversation with Matt Field," Thrasher 17, no. 11 (1997): 56, 61. All the quotations from Field in this and the next paragraph are taken from this article.
254. Deepak Chopra, Ageless Body, Timeless Mind: The Quantum Alternative to Growing Old (New York: Harmony, 1993), 6.
255. Clifford Geertz, " 'From the Native's Point of View': On the Nature of Anthropological Understanding," in Shweder and LeVine, Culture Theory, 126.
256. W. P. Kinsella, Shoeless Joe (Boston: Houghton, Mifflin, 1982).
257. See the Wikipedia article on "New Age," under "Beliefs": http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_age#Beliefs (accessed June 27, 2007).
258. James Redfield and Carol Adrienne, The Celestine Prophecy (New York:Warner, 1995).
259. Keith Thomas, Religion and the Decline ofMagic (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1971). Thomas paints a more complicated picture, one in which religion and magic coexisted before the former's triumph.
260. Matt Tyrnauer, "Married, with Tigers," Vanity Fair, August 1999: 170-81.
261. Peg McNabb wrote this description on the IMDB website for the show:http://us.imdb.com/Plot?0092319.
262. http://us.imdb.com/Title?0154147.
263. Mark Van Proyen, "Matthew Barney's Blarney: Sartoriasis and Self-Spectacle in Contemporary Art," Bad Subjects, no. 38 (May 1998), http://bad.eserver.org/issues/1998/38/vanproyen.html. I am told Trevor Gould has also done work in this area. Thanks are due to Peter White and Gisele Amantea for these references.
264. Donna J. Haraway, "A Cyborg Manifesto: Science, Technology and Socialist-Feminism in the Late Twentieth Century," in Simians, Cyborgs, and Women:The Reinvention ofNature (New York: Routledge, 1991), 151-52.
265. E. M. W. Tillyard, The Elizabethan World Picture (London: Chatto & Windus, 1943).
266. Quoted in Kate Taylor, "A Juno Loss Is in Their Prayers: Non-native Nominee Criticized for Recording Sacred Family Song," Globe and Mail, March 19, 1994: C6.
267. Wolin, "Postmodern Politics," 218. For another reference to the "paradox of self-conscious mythmaking," see Cooper, "Modern Mythology," 26.
268. Irving Howe, "The Self in Literature," in Constructions of the Self, ed. George Levine (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1992), 251.
269. Kaminer, I'm Dysfunctional; You're Dysfunctional; and Melanie McGrath, Motel Nirvana: Dreaming of the New Age in the American Desert (New York:HarperCollins, 1995).
270. The show's website tells us that Otto remains true to the Bus Driver's Pledge: "never crash the bus on purpose." http://www.thesimpsons.com/characters/home.htm.
271. Michael Hot, Holding the Lotus to the Rock: The Autobiography of Skokie-an, America's First Zen Master (New York: Four Walls Eight Windows, 1982), 165.
272. This is brilliantly captured in "Stoner Regales Friends with Tale of This One Bong He Saw in Iowa City Once," The Onion 35, no. 12 (March 31, 1999), http://www.theonion.com/content/node/39096.
273. Andrew Ballantyne, "Becoming Ancient," Times Literary Supplement, August 18, 1995: 11.
274. Is this a minority interest? Colonial Williamsburg says it gets 4 million visitors a year: http://www.williamsburg.com.
275. Jerome S. Bruner, "Myth and Identity," in Myth and Mythmaking, ed. Henry Alexander Murray (New York: G. Braziller, 1960), 284.
276. Ron Popeil is a man who sells things on TV. I must ask you to do your own ethnography: http://www.ronco.com.
277. Johan Huizinga, Homo Ludens: A Study of the Play Element in Culture (Boston: Beacon, 1955), 7.
278. Todd Gitlin, The Sixties: Years of Hope, Days of Rage (New York: Bantam, 1987), 209.
279. For more on the feminization of intellectual labor, see James Eli Adams, Dandies and Desert Saints: Styles ofVictorian Manhood (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1995).
280. Quoted in William Finnegan, "A Reporter at Large: The Unwanted," New Yorker, December 1, 1997: 63, emphasis added to indicate the borrowed phrase.
281. The phrase "snooty society beauty" appeared on the poster for the film, which can be seen accompanying a review of it by Tim Dirks at http://www.filmsite.org/phil.html.
282. I have taken this and the following dialogue from Tim Dirk's impressively detailed account of the film at http://www.filmsite.org/phil.html.
283. Kathy Amatniek, "Funeral Oration Given for the Burial of Traditional Womanhood," a speech given in Washington, D.C. to the main assembly of the Jeannette Rankin Brigade on January 15, 1968, in New York Radical Women, Notes from the First Year, http://scriptorium.lib.duke.edu/wlm/notes/#funeral.
284. Shirley Chisholm, "Equal Rights for Women," a speech read in the U.S. House of Representatives, May 21, 1969, http://scriptorium.lib.duke.edu/wlm/equal/.
285. Nancy Friday, The Power of Beauty (New York: HarperCollins, 1996), 1.
286. Sarah Stickney Ellis, The Daughters of England (London: Charles Griffin, 1842), 147, 148.
287. Quoted in J. Poet, "Ani DiFranco: Independent as She Wants to Be," Pulse, September 1996: 5.
288. Quoted in Poet, "Ani DiFranco," 5.
289. Quoted in Brantley Bardin, "Ani DiFranco: Taking Me Seriously Is a Big Mistake. I Certainly Wouldn't," Details 12, no. 2 (1997): 130.
290. Quoted in Lorraine Ali, "Ani DiFranco," Rolling Stone, no. 753 (1997): 20.
291. Michael Silverstein, "Shifters, Linguistic Categories, and Cultural Description," in Meaning in Anthropology, ed. Keith H. Basso and Henry A. Selby (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1976), 11-55.
292. Johanna Schneller, "Long Cool Daddy," Premier 12, no. 5 (1999): 72, 76, 72, 96, 75.
293. Manohla Dargis, "Russell Crowe's Special Brand of Masculinity," New York Times, March 4, 2001.
294. Jedediah Purdy, For Common Things: Irony, Trust, and Commitment in America Today (New York: A. A. Knopf, 1999).
295. Kate Davy, "Fe/Male Impersonation: The Discourse of Camp," in Critical Theory and Performance, ed. Jannelle G. Reinelt and Joseph R. Roach (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1992), 231-47;
296. Susan Sontag, "Notes on Camp," in Against Interpretation, and Other Essays (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1966), 275-92.
297. Abigail M. Wolfe, "The Politics of Dancing: The Bay Area's Exploding Swing Scene," Left Coast Art Magazine, 1999, http://mag.leftcoastart.com/html/ cult_of_swing.html.
298. Dollar, "Cracker-Rap Losers."
299. Smith, "Among the Mooks."
300. She names Eric Boehlert of Salon Magazine as an exception. DeSantis, "Eminem and His Message of Hate," 5. See also Eric Boehlert, "Helping Eminem Sell Records," Salon, September 14, 2000, http://archive.salon.com/politics/ feature/2000/09/14/eminem_react/index.html.
301. Sex and the City was an HBO production. It aired from 1998 to 2004. See http://www.hbo.com/city for more details.
302. This quotation is from HBO's summary of the first episode, at http://www.hbo.com/city/episode/season1/episode01.shtml.
303. This line is quoted by Simran Khurana on About.com's website for Sex and the City quotations: http://quotations.about.com/cs/tvquotes/a/sex_city_quotes _3.htm.
304. This line is quoted by RiotGrrlie01 on ThinkExist.com: http://thinkexist.com/quotation/maybe_some_women_aren-t_meant_to_be_tame d-maybe/258229.html.
305. John Ellis, Visible Fictions: Cinema, Television, Video (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1982), 43.
306. For a glimpse of the range of products Stewart sells at Kmart, see the Kmart website, http://www.kmart.com.
307. Quoted in Diane Brady, "Martha: Inside the Growing Empire of America's Lifestyle Queen," Business Week, January 17, 2000: 72.
308. Laura Mulvey, Visual and Other Pleasures, Theories of Representation and Difference (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1989).
309. Paul Myer Mazur, American Prosperity: Its Causes and Consequences (New York: Viking, 1928), 24;
310. John O'Neill, "The Productive Body: An Essay on the Work of Consumption," Queen's Quarterly 85, no. 2 (1978): 224;
311. William R. Leach, "Transformations in a Culture of Consumption: Women and Department Stores, 1890-1925," Journal of American History 71 (September 1984): 319-342.
312. Fernand Braudel, Capitalism and Material Life, 1400-1800, translated by Miriam Kochan (New York: Harper and Row, 1973).
313. Lamont, Money, Morals and Manners, 145.
314. Cawelti, Apostles of the Self-Made Man, 61, 80-98.
315. Cara Greenberg, Mid-century Modern: Furniture of the 1950s (New York:Harmony, 1984);
316. Lesley Jackson, The New Look: Design in the Fifties (London:Thames and Hudson, 1991).
317. Gerry Pratt, "The House as an Expression of Social Worlds," in Housing and Identity: Cross-Cultural Perspectives, ed. James S. Duncan (London: Croom Helm, 1981), 135-80.
318. For modernism that takes the form of primitive art, see David Halle, Inside Culture: Art and Class in the American Home (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993).
319. David Riesman, with Nathan Glazer and Reuel Denney, The Lonely Crowd:A Study of the Changing American Character (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1961), esp. 37-38.
320. For comments on this approach to the study of contemporary culture, see McCracken, Plenitude 2.0;
321. Andrew Ross, No Respect: Intellectuals and Popular Culture (New York: Routledge, 1989);
322. Samuel G. Freedman, "Suburbia Outgrows Its Image in the Arts," New York Times, February 28, 1999, section 2, p. 1.
323. David Riesman, "The Suburban Dislocation," in Abundance for What? and Other Essays (1957; Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1964), 242. Why a "small" college, exactly?
324. McCracken, Plenitude 2.0, 105-106.
325. John R. Seeley, R. Alexander Sim, and E. W. Loosley, Crestwood Heights:A Study of the Culture of Suburban Life (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1956), 7.
326. W. L. Warner and Paul S. Lunt, The Social Life of a Modern Community (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1941), 108.
327. Warner, The Living and the Dead, 47.
328. Nelson W. Aldrich, Jr., Old Money: The Mythology of America's Upper Class (New York: Vintage, 1988), 38-39.
329. Aldrich, Old Money, 269.
330. Ron Chernow, The Death of the Banker (New York: Vintage, 1997), 32, 33. Thanks to Nick Hahn for this reference.
331. The circulation figure is from the May 1997 issue of the Las Vegas Review-Journal. I found it at http://www.lvrj.com/lvrj_home/1997/May-30-Fri-1997/ business/5463188.html, but this website is defunct.
332. Cader Books, "1980s Bestsellers," http://www.caderbooks.com/best80.html.
333. The phrase appeared at http://www.americanpresident.org/KoTrain/ Courses/RR/RR_The_First_Lady.htm; unfortunately the website is defunct.
334. This writer is documenting his transformation from "slacker guy to working stiff." I found this account at http://www.widomaker.com/~xiled/journal/121497.html; unfortunately, it has since disappeared.
335. Ralph Lauren Media, "1972," http://about.polo.com/history/history.asp ?year=1972. If this record is accurate, Lauren was well ahead of the trend.
336. David Brooks, Bobos in Paradise: The New Upper Class and How They Got There (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2000).
337. Ebert's review can be found at http://rogerebert.suntimes.com, dated December 11, 1987.
338. Quoted in Brady, "Martha," 66.
339. Bill Geist, "It's a Good Thing," CBS News Sunday Morning, broadcast on December 19, 1999.
340. This is sometimes called a "trickle-up" diffusion pattern, and it has been observed in several places in the literature. George A. Field, "The Status Float Phenomenon: The Upward Diffusion of Innovation," Business Horizons 13, no. 4 (August 1970): 45-52;
341. Paul Blumberg, "The Decline and Fall of the Status Symbol: Some Thoughts on Status in a Post-industrial Society," Social Problems 21, no. 4 (April 1974): 480-98.
342. John Carey, The Intellectuals and the Masses: Pride and Prejudice among the Literary Intelligentsia, 1880-1939 (London: Faber and Faber, 1992), 205.
343. Ellen Moers, The Dandy: Brummell to Beerbohm (New York: Viking, 1960);
344. Sontag, "Notes on Camp";
345. Martin Burgess Green, Children of the Sun: A Narrative of "Decadence" in England after 1918 (New York: Basic Books, 1976);
346. Joris-Karl Huysmans, Against Nature, translated by Robert Baldick (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1971);
347. Domna C. Stanton, The Aristocrat as Art: A Study of the Honnête Homme and the Dandy in Seventeenth- and Nineteenth-Century French Literature (New York:Columbia University Press, 1980). I am grateful to Johanne Sloan and Alison Matthews for several of these references.
348. Lamont, Money, Morals and Manners, 116.
349. Braudel, Capitalism and Material Life, 235-36.
350. Moers, The Dandy, 26, 28.
351. Frederic J. Schwartz, "Cathedrals and Shoes: Concepts of Style in Wolfflin and Adorno," New German Critique 76 (winter 1999): 16, 17. Thanks to Johanne Sloan for this reference.
352. For more on superficiality, see Mariana Valverde, "The Love of Finery:Fashion and the Fallen Woman in Nineteenth-Century Social Discourse," Victorian Studies 32, no. 2 (winter 1989): 169-88;
353. Helene E. Roberts, "The Exquisite Slave: The Role of Clothes in the Making of the Victorian Woman," Signs 2, no. 3 (spring 1977): 554-69.
354. For a discussion of how this circularity was taken up by in the voting rights controversy, see Jeanette C. Lauer and Robert H. Lauer, Fashion Power:The Meaning of Fashion in American Society (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1981). Thanks to Beverly Lemire for the first two references.
355. The obsolescence-creation theory appears in Annette B. Weiner and Jane Schneider, eds., Cloth and the Human Experience (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1989);
356. Roland Barthes, The Fashion System, translated by Mathew Ward and Richard Howard (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990).
357. Pierre Bourdieu, The Logic of Practice, translated by Richard Nice (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1990), 54.
358. Charles W. King, "Fashion Adoption: A Rebuttal to the 'Trickle-Down' Theory," in Toward Scientific Marketing, ed. Stephen A. Greyser (Chicago:American Marketing Association, 1963), 108-25.
359. See also R. Tamar Horowitz, "From Elite Fashion to Mass Fashion," Archives européennes de sociologie 16, no. 2 (1975): 283-95.
360. Strawberry Saroyan and Michelle Goldberg, "What's Up with Madonna?" Salon, October 10, 2000, http://www.salon.com/ent/music/feature/2000/10/10/madonna/index.html.
361. Malcolm Gladwell, "The Coolhunt," New Yorker, March 17, 1997: 78-88.
362. Malcolm Gladwell, The Tipping Point (Boston, Mass.: Little, Brown, 2000).
363. Gladwell uses the contagion model, and the meme theory is from Richard Dawkins, The Selfish Gene, new ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989), 196. I have worked up a more detailed criticism of meme theory in McCracken, Plenitude 2.0.
364. Herbert Blumer, "Fashion: From Class Differentiation to Collective Selection," Sociological Quarterly 10, no. 3 (1969): 275-91.
365. Albert O. Hirschman, Rival Views ofMarket Society and Other Recent Essays (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1992), 78.
366. Marshall David Sahlins, Culture and Practical Reason (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1976).
367. Henry Adams, The Education of Henry Adams (New York: Penguin, 1995), 346.
368. Jeffrey Sweet, Something Wonderful Right Away: An Oral History of the Second City and the Compass Players (New York: Avon, 1978).
369. John Lahr, "Making It Real: Mike Nichols' Improvised Life," New Yorker, February 21 and 28, 2000: 202.
370. Viola Spolin, Improvisation for the Theater: A Handbook of Teaching and Directing Techniques (Evanston, Ill.: Northwestern University Press, 1963). For more detail, see the Spolin Center's website at http://www.spolin.com/.
371. Sweet, Something Wonderful Right Away, 78.
372. Foreman and Martini, Something like a Drug, 183.
373. Many sites sprang up in support of the Sim community, including http:// www.disturbedsims.com; htp://www.simzonline.com; htp://www.7deadlysims.com; htp://www.welldressedsim.com; and http://www.homesims.com.
374. Caughey, Imaginary Social Worlds, 38.
375. Janet Horowitz Murray, Hamlet on the Holodeck: The Future of Narrative in Cyberspace (New York: Free Press, 1997).
376. For commentary on vampires, see Nina Auerbach, Our Vampires, Ourselves (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995).
377. Rushkoff, "Playing Undead."
378. Don Steinberg, "Inside the Noisy World of Online Chat," VirtualCity 1, no. 2 (winter 1996): 35-42;
379. Robert Rossney, "Metaworlds," Wired, June 1996:140-46, 202-12.
380. See also Bernie Roehl's illuminating Playing God: Building Virtual Worlds (Corte Madera, Calif.: Waite Group, 1994).
381. For Magic: The Gathering, see the game's website at http://www.wizards.com/magic/
382. Darcy Steinke, "Masters of Their Domain," Spin 13, no. 5 (1997): 102-106.
383. Tony Horwitz, "In Virtual Mudville, Outlook Is Joyless as Rotisseries Halt," Wall Street Journal, August 11, 1994: A1. Horwitz says that the league is named for the now defunct Manhattan restaurant in which it was founded in 1980.
384. The Hollywood Stock Exchange can be found at http://www.hsx.com.
385. See http://www.murdermystery.com/ for events of this kind.
386. See the Club Med website at http://www.clubmed.com.
387. B. Joseph Pine and James H. Gilmore, The Experience Economy: Work Is Theatre and Every Business A Stage (Boston, Mass.: Harvard Business School Press, 1999).
388. On the "Rembrandt/Not Rembrandt" exhibit at the Metropolitan Museum, see Simon Schama, "Did He Do It? Sleuthing at the Met's Rembrandt Show," New Yorker, November 13, 1995: 114.
389. For an excellent review of the connection between celebrities and fans, see Jackie Stacey, "Feminine Fascinations: Forms of Identification in Star-Audience Relations," in Gledhill, Stardom, 141-63.
390. Quoted in Greil Marcus, Lipstick Traces: A Secret History of the Twentieth Century (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1989), 7.
391. For more on punks, see Jon Savage, England's Dreaming: Sex Pistols and Punk Rock (London:Faber and Faber, 1991).
392. For a treatment of this phenomenon, see Jon Katz, "The Netizen: The Digital Citizen," Wired 5, no. 12 (1997): 68-82, 274-75. Katz talks more about the Internet as an opportunity for political participation, but a good deal of what he says applies to those who participate in culture.
393. Henry Jenkins, Textual Poachers: Television Fans and Participatory Culture (New York: Routledge, 1992). See the excellent chapter "Participatory Culture" in Duncombe, Notes from Underground.
394. Norbert Elias, The History of Manners, translated by Edmund Jephcott (New York: Pantheon, 1978).
395. Lionel Trilling, Sincerity and Authenticity (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1971).
396. Ted Morgan, Literary Outlaw: The Life and Times ofWilliam S. Burroughs (New York: Holt, 1988), 173.
397. Christopher Dewdney, Last Flesh: Life in the Transhuman Era (Toronto:HarperCollins, 1998), 24. Haraway says that the combination of human and machine has already been accomplished. Haraway, "A Cyborg Manifesto," 150.
398. William Gibson, Mona Lisa Overdrive (New York: Bantam, 1988).
399. Burning Man is a festival that takes place each year in the Nevada desert. For more, see the official website at http://www.burningman.com/whatisburningman/.
400. Jean Baudrillard, Simulacra and Simulation, translated by Sheila Glaser (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1994).
401. Homa Bahrami and Stuart Evans, "Flexible Re-Cycling and High-Technology Entrepreneurship," California Management Review 37, no. 3 (spring 1995): 71.
402. Emile Durkheim, The Division of Labor in Society, translated by George Simpson (New York: Free Press, 1933).
403. Stanley M. Davis and Christopher Meyer, Blur: The Speed ofChange in the Connected Economy (Reading: Addison-Wesley, 1998);
404. James Gleick, Faster: The Acceleration of Just About Everything (New York: Pantheon, 1999);
405. Paul Virilio and James Der Derian, The Virilio Reader (Malden, Mass.: Blackwell, 1998).
406. John Lahr, "The Izzard King," New Yorker, April 6, 1998: 82.
407. Geertz, "From the Native's Point of View," 126.
408. Margo Jefferson, "Dennis Rodman: Bad Boy as Man of the Moment," New York Times, January 30, 1997: C13.
409. Elias Canetti, Crowds and Power, translated by Carol Stewart (London:Penguin, 1992), 438.
410. Henry Louis Gates, Jr., Loose Canons: Notes on the Culture Wars (New York:Oxford University Press, 1992).
411. See "Central Park: The Complete Guide," http://www.centralpark.org/ home.html.
412. There are a couple of interesting excursions in this area: Kenneth J. Gergen, The Saturated Self: Dilemmas of Identity in Contemporary Life (New York:Basic Books, 1991);
413. Robert Jay Lifton, The Protean Self: Human Resilience in an Age of Fragmentation (New York: Basic Books, 1993).
414. Geertz, "From the Native's Point of View," 126.
415. Peter Travers, review of The Nutty Professor, Rolling Stone, nos. 738-739 (December 8, 2000), http://www.rollingstone.com/reviews/movie/5948937/ review/5948938/the_nutty_professor.
416. John Ellis, Visible Fictions: Cinema, Television, Video (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1982), 43.
417. Ernst Hartwig Kantorowicz, The King's Two Bodies: A Study in Mediaeval Political Theology (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1957).
418. Ellis, Visible Fictions, 43.
419. Simon Frith, "Beggars Banquet," in Stranded: Rock and Roll for a Desert Island, ed. Greil Marcus (New York: Knopf, 1979), 30.
420. Jamie James, "Yo-Yo Ma May Be a National Institution, but He Continues to Reinvent Himself," New York Times, December 31, 1995: H32.
421. David Brooks, Bobos in Paradise: The New Upper Class and How They Got There (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2000).
422. Calvin O. Schrag, The Self after Postmodernity (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1997), 8, emphasis in the original.
423. Quoted in Malcolm Bradbury and James Walter McFarlane, "The Name and Nature of Modernism," in Modernism: A Guide to European Literature, 1890-1930, ed. Malcolm Bradbury and James Walter McFarlane (London: Penguin, 1991), 47.
424. Daniel Bell, The Cultural Contradictions of Capitalism (New York: Basic Books, 1976), 53-54.
425. Plato, quoted in Arthur O. Lovejoy, The Great Chain of Being: A Study of the History of an Idea (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1950), 52. It should be pointed out that Plato was referring to the natural world, not the social one.
426. Steven Lukes, "Durkheim's 'Individualism and the Intellectuals,' " Political Studies 17, no. 1 (1969): 26.