Races on display: French representations of colonized peoples, 1886-1940

Races on Display: French Representations of Colonized Peoples, 1886-1940

Volumn , Issue , 2008, Pages 1-215

  Hale, Dana S ^a  

^a NONE

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References (177)

1. Alice Conklin, A Mission to Civilize: The Republican Idea of Empire in France and West Africa, 1895-1930 (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1997).
2. Robert W. Rydell, All the World's a Fair: Visions of Empire at American International Expositions, 1876-1916 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984).
3. Rydell continued this research with a look at international fairs: World of Fairs: The Centuryof-Progress Expositions (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993).
4. Paul Greenhalgh, Ephemeral Vistas: The Expositions Universelles, Great Exhibitions and World's Fairs, 1851-1939 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1988).
5. See especially Herman Lebovics, True France: The Wars over Cultural Identity, 1900-1945 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1992);
6. William H. Schneider, An Empire for the Masses: The French Popular Image of Africa, 1870-1900 (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1982). These authors also contributed articles to Bancel et al., Zoos humains: Lebovics, "Les zoos de l'Exposition coloniale internationale de Paris en 1931," 367-373;
7. Schneider, "Les expositions ethnographiques du Jardin zoologique d'acclimatation," 72-80.
8. Other writers have analyzed expositions as important events that illuminate our understanding of French politics and society during the Third Republic. These include Sylviane Leprun, Le théâtre des colonies (Paris: L'Harmattan, 1980);
9. Pascal Ory, Les expositions universelles de Paris (Paris: Ramsay, 1982);
10. Catherine Hodeir and Michel Pierre, L'Exposition coloniale de Paris [1931] (Bruxelles: Complexe, 1991);
11. Charles- Robert Ageron, "L'Exposition coloniale de 1931: Mythe républicain ou mythe impérial?" in Les Lieux de mémoire: La République, ed. Pierre Nora (Paris: Gallimard, 1984), 561-591;
12. Shanny Peer, France on Display: Peasants, Provincials, and Folklore in the 1937 Paris World's Fair (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1998).
13. Two early studies on assimilation policy are Michael Crowder, Senegal: A Study in French Assimilation Policy (London: Oxford University Press, 1962);
14. Raymond Betts, Assimilation and Association in French Colonial Theory, 1890-1914 (1961; Lincoln: University of Nebraska, 2005).
15. See William H. Schneider, An Empire for the Masses: The French Popular Image of Africa, 1870-1900 (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1982), 97-109.
16. See William Y. Adams, The Philosophical Roots of Anthropology (Stanford, Calif.: CSLI Publications, 1998).
17. Pascal Ory, Les expositions universelles de Paris (Paris: Ramsay, 1982), 153. Ory states that there were 6,040,000 paying visitors at the 1851 Crystal Palace in London and 5,163,000 paying visitors at the 1855 Exposition universelle in Paris. The Paris exposition, however, had more exhibitors; 24,000 to London's 14,000. The number of exhibitors in Paris grew to 52,200 in 1867, compared to London's 28,700 in 1862.
18. Senator J. B. Krantz, Commissioner General, "Ordre de Service #31," July 1878, Exposition universelle de 1878, Archives Nationales de France (hereafter AN), F12/3227, dossier 6.
19. Andréa Semprini, La Marque (Paris: Presses Universitaires Françaises, 1995), 3-5.
20. David Brion Davis's books on slavery in the western world cover this subject thoroughly. See The Problem of Slavery in Western Culture (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988);
21. The Problem of Slavery in the Age of Revolution, 1770-1823 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999).
22. For a general discussion of the French antislavery movement, see Lawrence C. Jennings, French Reaction to British Slave Emancipation (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1988).
23. See Jan Nederveen Pieterse, White on Black: Images of Africa and Blacks in Western Popular Culture (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1992)
24. William B. Cohen, The French Encounter with Africans: White Response to Blacks, 1530-1880 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1980), particularly chapter 8 on scientific racism.
25. William H. Schneider, An Empire for the Masses: The French Popular Image of Africa, 1870-1900 (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1982), 128-131;
26. Michael A. Osborne, Nature, the Exotic, and the Science of French Colonialism (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1994), 126-127.
27. T. Denean Sharpley- Whiting, Black Venus: Sexualized Savages, Primal Fears, and Primitive Narratives in French (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1999);
28. Sander Gilman, Difference and Pathology: Stereotypes of Sexuality, Race, and Madness (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1985), 83-88.
29. See also Zola Maseko, producer, Life and Times of Sara Baartman the Hottentot Venus, First Run/Icarus Films, 1998;
30. Barbara Chase-Riboud, Hottentot Venus: A Novel (New York: Doubleday, 2003).
31. Schneider, An Empire for the Masses, 147.
32. Jean Devisse and Michel Mollet, The Image of the Black in Western Art, vol. 2, part 2, From the Early Christian Era to the "Age of Discovery." Africans in the Christian Ordinance of the World (Fourteenth to the Sixteenth Century), trans. William Granger Ryan (New York: William Morrow and Co., 1979), 10-14.
33. Chapter 1 deals with the early history of the heraldic Moor image. See also Paul H. D. Kaplan, The Rise of the Black Magus in Western Art (Ann Arbor: UMI Research Press, 1985).
34. Allison Blakely examines similar images of the Moor and representations of blacks in Dutch culture in Blacks in the Dutch World: The Evolution of Racial Imagery in a Modern Society (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1993).
35. See Marie- France Latour, "Subverting Manichean Allegory: Soap, Blackness and the Articulation of Racial Difference in French Advertisements for Hygienic Products, 1900-1930" (BA honors thesis, Harvard College, 1992).
36. Abdul R. JanMohamed, "The Economy of Manichean Allegory: The Function of Racial Difference in Colonialist Literature," in "Race," Writing, and Difference, ed. Henry Louis Gates, Jr. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986).
37. Alfred Picard, Exposition Universelle de 1900, Rapport gén éral administratif et technique (Paris: Imprimerie Nationale, 1903), 7:219. Jean-Baptiste Marchand was a French officer who led the Congo- Nile expedition. His forces reached Fashoda in Sudan and had a standoff with the British, who intended to maintain control of the entire Nile River corridor in East Africa. This episode is known as the Fashoda incident. The French backed down, which averted war between the two countries.
38. Ministère des Affaires étrangères et des Colonies, Le Madagascar, vol. 6 of Exposition Universelle de 1900, Colonies et pays de protectorat (Paris: Alcan- Lévy, 1900), 7.
39. Ministère des Affaires étrangères et des Colonies, Le Madagascar, 12.
40. Charles- Roux, Exposition universelle de 1900, Les Colonies françaises. L'Or ganisation et le Fonctionnement de l'Exposition des Colonies et Pays de Protectorat. Rapport général, 239.
41. Jules Charles-Roux, Exposition universelle de 1900, Les Colonies françaises, Introduction gén éral (Paris: Challalmel, 1901), 32-37.
42. Charles- Roux, Exposition universelle de 1900, Les Colonies françaises. L'Or ganisation et le Fonctionnement de l'Exposition des Colonies et Pays de Protectorat. Rapport général, 159-161.
43. William H. Schneider, "Les expositions ethnographiques du Jardin zoologique d'acclimatation, in Zoos humains: de la Vénus hottentote aux reality shows, ed. Nicolas Bancel et al. (Paris: La Découverte, 2002), 72-80.
44. J.-L. Brunet, Dahomey et Dépendances: Historique gén éral, Organisation, Administration, Ethnographie, Productions, Agriculture, Commerce (Paris: Challamel, 1900), 524-525.
45. Charles- Roux, Exposition universelle de 1900, Les Colonies françaises. L'Or ganisation et le Fonctionnement de l'Exposition des Colonies et Pays de Protectorat. Rapport général, 242.
46. Scellier de Gisors designed this building and several other structures, including the Congo pavilion.
47. See Picard, Exposition Universelle International de 1900, 4:328.
48. Charles- Roux, Exposition universelle de 1900, Les Colonies françaises. L'Or ganisation et le Fonctionnement de l'Exposition des Colonies et Pays de Protectorat. Rapport général, 201.
49. Charles- Roux, Exposition universelle de 1900, Les Colonies françaises. L'Or ganisation et le Fonctionnement de l'Exposition des Colonies et Pays de Protectorat. Rapport général, 220-221.
50. Lucien- Marie Famechon, Exposition Universelle de 1900, Colonies et pays de protectorat, Les Colonies françaises, vol. III, Notice sur la Guinée Française (Paris: Alcan- Lévy, 1900), 174 and 176. (Hereafter Notice sur la Guinée Française.)
51. J.-L. Brunet, Dahomey et Dépendances: Historique gén éral, Organisation, Administration, Ethnographie, Productions, Agriculture, Commerce (Paris: Challamel, 1900), 255-258.
52. Famechon, Notice sur la Guinée française, 182-183.
53. Jean Fonssagrives, Exposition Universelle de 1900. Colonies et pays de protectorat. Les Colonies françaises, Le Dahomey (Paris: Alcan- Lévy, 1900), 393-394.
54. Marcel Guillemot, ed., Notice sur le Congo français (Paris: J. André, 1900), 68-73.
55. Famechon, Notice sur la Guinée française, 177-179.
56. Dr. Lasnet, Auguste Chevalier, A. Cligny, and Pierre Rambaud, Une Mission au Sénégal: ethnographie, botanique, zoologie, géolgie (Paris: Challamel, 1900), 22-23.
57. Guillemot, Notice sur le Congo français, 65.
58. Ministère des Affaires étrangères et des Colonies, Le Madagascar, 55-60.
59. Brunet, Dahomey et Dépendances, 257-258.
60. Schneider, An Empire for the Masses.
61. Joseph Arthur de Gobineau, Essai sur l'inégalité des races humaines, vol. 1, 6th ed. (1853; Paris: Firmin- Didot, 1933), 155.
62. See Alfred Picard, Exposition universelle de 1900, Rapport gén éral administratif et technique (Paris: Imprimerie Nationale, 1903), 4:9-10.
63. Jules Charles-Roux, Exposition universelle de 1900, Les Colonies françaises. L'Organi sation et le Fonctionnement de l'Exposition des Colonies et Pays de Protectorat. Rapport gén éral (Paris: Impremerie Nationale, 1901), 241-243. The passage in Charles- Roux's report refers to the derbouka (a Magrebian drum), the bendaïr (a tambourine- like percussion instrument), and the nouba (a nineteenth- century term for the military music played by North African regiments).
64. Alexis Carraud, Guide bleu du Figaro à l'Exposition de 1900 (Paris: Taride, 1900), 88.
65. Picard, Exposition Universelle International de 1900, 4:308.
66. Ernest Renan, La Réforme intellectuelle et morale (1872; reprint, Paris: Editions Complèxe, 1990), 93.
67. Paul Leroy- Beaulieu, "Le Problème chinois: (II) Le Peuple chinois et ses relations actuelles avec les Européens," Revue des deux Mondes ( January 1899): 43-73.
68. A. Dubois, Les Lolos, trademark registration #125258 (Paris, 1910). Société Anglo- French Textile Compagnie Ltd., London, trademark registration #12775 (Paris, 1904). This trademark had no specific title.
69. Jules Charles-Roux, Exposition universelle de 1900, Les Colonies françaises. L'Organi sation et le Fonctionnement de l'Exposition des Colonies et Pays de Protectorat. Rapport gén éral (Paris: Impremerie Nationale, 1901), 352.
70. The new Chinese concession of Kwang- Chow- Wan, which France acquired in 1898, did not have a local committee.
71. Nicolas, Notice sur l'Indo- Chine, 4.
72. Charles- Roux, Exposition universelle de 1900, Les Colonies françaises. L'Or ganinotessation et le Fonctionnement de l'Exposition des Colonies et Pays de Protectorat. Rapport général, 147-149.
73. Charles- Roux, Exposition universelle de 1900, Les Colonies françaises. L'Or ganisation et le Fonctionnement de l'Exposition des Colonies et Pays de Protectorat. Rapport général, 150;
74. Nicolas, ed., Notices sur l'Indochine, 11.
75. Charles- Roux, Exposition universelle de 1900, Les Colonies françaises. L'Or ganisation et le Fonctionnement de l'Exposition des Colonies et Pays de Protectorat. Rapport général, 137-139, 213;
76. Jules Charles- Roux, Exposition universelle de 1900, Les Colonies françaises, Introduction gén éral (Paris: Challalmel, 1901), 25.
77. Charles- Roux, Exposition universelle de 1900, Les Colonies françaises. L'Or ganisation et le Fonctionnement de l'Exposition des Colonies et Pays de Protectorat. Rapport général, 242-243.
78. Nicolas, ed., Notices sur l'Indo- Chine, 42.
79. Nicolas, ed., Notices sur l'Indo- Chine, 42-43.
80. "Compétitions de la Ville de Paris," Journal officiel de l'Exposition coloniale, Marseille 1922, no. 21 (May 1, 1919).
81. "Paris Contre Marseille: Une Belle Occasion de Solidarité Provinciale," Les Intérêts Economiques du Sud- Est, Midi, Sud- Ouest et Centre, February 16, 1919.
82. Simone Bourlard- Collin, "Galeries de la Charité- Les Expositions coloniales 1906-1922," Marseille no. 130-131 (1982): 19.
83. On this subject, see Jan Niedervan Pieterse, White on Black: Images of Africa and Blacks in Western Popular Culture (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1992).
84. Valérie Mitteaux, "Banania-80 Ans de Sourire gourmand," in Prodimarques,La Revue des Marques ( January 1993): 27. The original Banania trademark was a depiction of an Antillaise in a banana- framed medallion.
85. "Le Palais de l'AFrique Occidentale Française," Journal officiel de l'Exposition, no. 58 (August 31, 1922): 7.
86. Adrien Artaud, Exposition nationale coloniale de Marseille, 1922, Rapport gén éral (Marseille: Imprimerie du Sémaphore, 1924), 140-141.
87. Marcel Olivier, Exposition coloniale internationale de Paris, 1931 (Paris: Imprimerie Nationale, 1933), 5(2):288. The report on the AOF exposition notes that the number of entries from West Africa was moderate relative to its economic importance.
88. Olivier, Exposition coloniale internationale de Paris, 1931, 5(2):279-280 and 299-304.
89. Olivier, Exposition coloniale internationale de Paris, 1931, 5(2):301.
90. Adrien Artaud, Exposition nationale coloniale de Marseille, 1922, Rapport gén éral (Marseille: Imprimerie du Sémaphore, 1924), 155-156.
91. Olivier, Exposition coloniale internationale de Paris, 1931, 5(2):392.
92. "Cannibales authentiques," Exposition coloniale internationale, Bulletin d'Informa tions, no. 6 (October 1930): 7.
93. Olivier, Exposition coloniale internationale de Paris, 1931, 5(2):443-444 and 449.
94. Artaud, Exposition nationale coloniale de Marseille, 1922, Rapport gén éral, 215-218.
95. Olivier, Exposition coloniale internationale de Paris, 1931, 503-506.
96. Jules Gaston Delelée- Desloges, Exposition coloniale internationale de Paris, Commissariat gén éral, Madagascar et dépendances (Paris: Société d'Editions Géographiques, Maritimes et Coloniales, 1931), 51 and 54-55.
97. "Pour les Héros de l'Armée noire," Journal officiel de l'Exposition coloniale, no. 58 (August 31, 1922): 8.
98. On the history of Africans on the French stage, see Sylvie Chalaye, "Théâtre et cabarets: le 'nègre' spéctacle," in Zoos humains: de la vénus hottentote aux reality shows, ed. Nicolas Bancel et. al (Paris: La Découverte, 2002), 295-305.
99. "Comment l'Armée et la Marine participent à l'Exposition," Exposition coloniale internationale, Bulletin d'Information, no. 8 (December 1930): 4.
100. Olivier, Exposition coloniale internationale de Paris, 1931, 5(1):196-199.
101. The preliminary results of this project were modest, but with new funds and the direction of Mme Marchand, the cortèges improved. See Olivier, Exposition coloniale internationale et des pays d'Outre- Mer, 5(1):199-200.
102. Olivier, Exposition coloniale internationale de Paris, 1931, 4:335; and Commissariat des Fêtes, "Programme Officiel de l'Exposition, " Rondel Collection, 8-RT-12797, Bibliothèque Nationale de France, Département des Arts du Spectacle (hereafter BN- ARTS). A filanzane chair is a Malagasy sedan chair that is carried by porters or servants.
103. Olivier, Exposition coloniale internationale de Paris, 1931, 4:325-226.
104. Olivier, Exposition coloniale internationale de Paris, 1931, 5(1):195.
105. Lyautey and Colonial Minister Paul Reynaud made this point during speeches at official exposition events. See Olivier, Exposition coloniale internationale et des pays d'Outre- Mer, 4:376 and 381-384.
106. See Raoul Girardet, Idée coloniale en France, 1871-1962 (Paris: La Table Ronde, 1972).
107. The efforts of the anticolonialists are described in Herman Lebovics, True France: The Wars over Cultural Identity, 1900-1945 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1992);
108. Brett Berliner, Ambivalent Desire: The Exotic Black Other in Jazz- Age France (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2002).
109. Shanny Peer, France on Display: Peasants, Provincials, and Folklore in the 1937 Paris World's Fair (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1998), 23.
110. Labbé, Rapport gén éral, 4:44-45.
111. Labbé, Rapport gén éral, 4:69-71;
112. Charles de Saint- Cyr et al., Guide- Souvenir de l'Exposition "Arts et Techniques" (Paris: Librairie des Provinces de France, 1937), 124.
113. Le Colonel Islert, commander of the firefighters' regiment, to the Commissioner General, October 20, 1937, F12/12386, AN.
114. Labbé, Rapport gén éral, 4:78.
115. Labbé, Rapport gén éral, 4:44-45.
116. Malek Alloula, The Colonial Harem, trans. Myrna Godzich and Wlad Godzich (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1986).
117. Malek Chebel, "L'Image de l'Autochtone maghrébin" in Images et colonies: Iconographie et propagande colonale sur l'Afrique française de 1880 à 1962, ed. Nicolas Bancel, Pascal Blanchard, and Laurent Gervereau ( Nanterre/ Paris: BDIC/ACHAC, 1993), 276-277.
118. Jean Camp and André Corbier, A Lyauteyville: Promenade Humoristique et sentimental à travers l'Exposition coloniale (Paris: Editions N.E.A., 1931).
119. Marcel Olivier, Exposition coloniale internationale de Paris, 1931 (Paris: Imprimerie Nationale, 1933), 5(2):3.
120. Artaud, Exposition nationale coloniale de Marseille, 1922, Rapport gén éral, 85-86.
121. Raymond Recouly, Itinéraires algériens (Paris: Office du Gouvernement général de l'Algérie, 1922), 9.
122. Charles Regismanset, 8 Jours à l'Exposition coloniale de Marseille (Paris: Editions Crès, 1922), 55.
123. Olivier, Exposition coloniale internationale de Paris, 1931, 5(2):37-48.
124. Michael A. Osborne recounts the history of the founders of the Jardin d'Acclimatation in Nature, the Exotic, and the Science of French Colonialism (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1994).
125. André Demaison, Exposition coloniale internationale de 1931, Guide officiel (Paris: Mayeaux, 1931), 87-89.
126. Rondel Collection, 8-RT 12797, BN-ARTS; Olivier, Exposition coloniale international de Paris, 1931, 4:318-319.
127. Shanny Peer, France on Display: Peasants, Provincials, and Folklore in the 1937 Paris World's Fair (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1998).
128. "Des Jeunes Berbères venues du Sahara infini et brûlant brodent et tapissent sous les yeux du public," Programme quotidien officiel de l'Exposition Internationale des Arts et Techniques, July 28, 1937, 7.
129. Labbé, Rapport gén éral, 4:13.
130. Jean Gallotti, "Voyages dans l'île des Cygnes," L'Illustration, May 29, 1937.
131. Charles de Saint- Cyr et al., Guide- Souvenir de l'Exposition "Arts et Techniques" (Paris: Librairie des Provinces de France, 1937), 124-125.
132. Labbé, Rapport gén éral, 4:19-20.
133. Ann Laura Stoler, Carnal Knowledge and Imperial Power: Race and the Intimate in Colonial Rule (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002).
134. Owen White, Children of the French Empire: Miscegenation and Colonial Society in French West Africa, 1895-1960 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999).
135. Adrien Artaud, Exposition nationale coloniale de Marseille, 1922, Rapport gén éral (Marseilles: Imprimerie du Sémaphore, 1924), 160. This passage comes from the commissioner's comments on the Vietnamese (Annamite) race.
136. For descriptions of the temple, see Artaud, Exposition nationale coloniale de Marseille, 1922, Rapport gén éral, 172-174;
137. Exposition Nationale Coloniale, Marseille 1922, Guide Officiel (Marseille: Société du Petit Marseillais, 1922), 33-34.
138. On the significance of the Ecole Française de l'Extreme Orient, see Nora A. Taylor, "Whose Art Are We Studying? Writing Vietnamese Art History from Colonialism to the Present," in Studies in Southeast Asian Art: Essays in Honor of Stanley J. O'Connor, ed. Nora A. Taylor (Ithaca, N.Y.: Southeast Asia Program Publications, Southeast Asia Program, Cornell University, 2000), 146.
139. Sylvain Lévi, Exposition Coloniale Internationale de Paris, 1931, Commissariat Gén éral, Indochine (Paris: Société d'Editions Géographiques, Maritimes et Coloniales, 1931). The source for Lévi's ethnographic information is a chapter on population by Prof. M.-J. Przyluski of the Collège de France.
140. André Demaison, Exposition coloniale internationale, Guide officiel (Paris: Mayeaux, 1931), 60.
141. Marcel Olivier, Exposition coloniale internationale de Paris, 1931 (Paris: Imprimerie Nationale, 1933), 3:219-220.
142. Olivier, Exposition coloniale internationale de Paris, 1931, 2:717-719.
143. Olivier, Exposition coloniale internationale de Paris, 1931, 5(1):199-200.
144. Herman Lebovics, True France: The Wars over Cultural Identity, 1900-1945 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1992), 103. Lebovics discusses the actions of Indochinese students and Communists to disrupt the exposition and the French government's espionage activities against students and others from the colonies who resided in France.
145. Nicola Cooper, France in Indochina (New York: Berg, 2001), 85.
146. Labbé, Rapport gén éral, 4:101.
147. Olivier, Exposition coloniale internationale de Paris, 1931, 4:103.
148. John Tully, France on the Mekong: A History of the Protectorate in Cambodia, 1863-1953 (Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, 2002).
149. Labbé, Rapport gén éral, 4:105.
150. Gouvernement gén éral de l'Indochine, Les Ecoles d'Art de l'Indochine (Hanoi: Imprimerie d'Extreme- Orient, 1937), 35.
151. Labbé, Rapport gén éral, 4:593.
152. Lebovics, True France, 59-62.
153. Labbé, Rapport gén éral, 4:594.
154. See Penny Edwards, "Womanizing Indochina: Colonial Cambodia," in Domesticating the Empire: Race, Gender, and Family Life in French and Dutch Colonialism, ed. Julia Clancy- Smith and Frances Gouda (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1998), 108-130.
155. Labbé, Rapport gén éral, 4:108.
156. Burton Benedict, "International Exhibitions and National Identity," Anthropology Today 7 ( June 1991): 5-9.
157. Jacques Marseilles, Empire colonial et capitalisme français- Histoire d'un divorce (Paris: Albin Michel, 1984).
158. See Artaud, Exposition nationale coloniale de Marseille, 1922, Rapport gén éral, chapter 13.
159. Olivier, Exposition coloniale internationale de Paris, 1931, 1:viii.
160. Olivier, Exposition coloniale internationale de Paris, 1931, 5(1): 9.
161. Paul Greenhalgh, Ephemeral Vistas: The Expositions Universelles, Great Exhibitions and World's Fairs, 1851-1939 (Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 1988).
162. Charles- Roux, Exposition universelle de 1900, Les Colonies françaises. L'Or ganisation et le Fonctionnement de l'Exposition des Colonies et Pays de Protectorat. Rapport général, 265.
163. Maurice Ricord, "Un Humaniste Provençal, Jules Charles- Roux, Armateur Marseillais, apôtre de la colonisation française," unpublished essay (Marseille, 1941), Archives Municipales de Marseille.
164. Herman Lebovics, "Donner à voir l'Empire colonial: L'Exposition coloniale internationale de Paris en 1931," Gradhiva 7 (1989): 25.
165. Olivier, Exposition coloniale internationale de Paris, 1931, 5(2):18.
166. Olivier, Exposition coloniale internationale de Paris, 1931, 5(1):11.
167. André Demaison, Exposition coloniale internationale, Guide officiel (Paris: Mayeaux, 1931), 60.
168. Olivier, Exposition coloniale internationale de Paris, 1931, 4:383-384.
169. Alfred Picard, Exposition Universelle de 1900, Rapport gén éral, administratif, et technique (Paris: Imprimerie Nationale, 1903), 4:353.
170. Olivier, Exposition coloniale internationale de Paris, 1931, 4:453-454.
171. J.-L. Brunet, Dahomey et Dépendances: Historique gén éral, Organisation, Administration, Ethnographie, Productions, Agriculture, Commerce (Paris: Challamel, 1900), 525.
172. Jules Gaston Delelée- Desloges, Exposition coloniale internationale de Paris, Commissariat Gén éral, Madagascar et Dépendances (Paris: Société d'Editions Géographiques, Maritimes et Coloniales, 1931), 57.
173. See Buttinger, Vietnam: A Dragon Embattled, chapter 2; and David Marr, Vietnamese Anticolonialisme, 1885-1925 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971).
174. André Breton et al., "Ne visitez pas l'Exposition coloniale," May 1931, Br 5050, Bibliothèque administrative de la Ville de Paris. Details from the police account of Nguyen Van Tao's arrest and his efforts to help Vietnamese students organize exposition protests are found in
175. Herman Lebovics, True France: The Wars over Cultural Identity, 1900-1945 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1992), 98-99. See also his description of the anti- imperialist exposition, 105-110.
176. See Philippe Dewitte, Mouvements nègres en France, 1919-1939 (Paris: L'Harmattan, 1985). Dewitte discusses opposition to colonialism among students, immigrant workers, and former soldiers living in France.
177. Ministère des Colonies, IIe Salon de la France d'Outre- Mer (Paris: Georges Lang, 1940), 28.