Imagining the African American west

Imagining the African American West

Volumn , Issue , 2005, Pages 1-162

  Allmendinger, Blake ^a  

^a NONE

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References (381)

1. Guy Logsdon, "Rodeo," in The Reader's Encyclopedia of the American West, ed. Howard R. Lamar (New York: Harper and Row, 1977), 1028.
2. Jim Bob Tinsley, He Was Singin' This Song: A Collection of Forty-eight Traditional Songs of the American Cowboy, with Words, Music, Pictures, and Stories (Orlando: University Presses of Florida, 1981), 192.
3. Mark Arax, "The Black Okies: A Lost Tribe's Journey to a Land of Broken Promises," Los Angeles Times, August 25, 2002, a1, a24-25.
4. Frederick Jackson Turner, "The Significance of the Frontier in American History," in Rereading Frederick Jackson Turner, ed. John Mack Faragher (1893; repr., New York: Henry Holt, 1995), 48. Subsequent references to this edition appear in the text.
5. For information about the number of people of African origin residing in the region from the early sixteenth through the late nineteenth century, see Quintard Taylor, In Search of the Racial Frontier: African Americans in the American West, 1528-1990 (1998; repr., New York: Norton, 1999), 33, 76, 104, 135.
6. Turner, "Significance of the Frontier," 32-33, 36-38.
7. Pleasant published a brief summary of her life in a small journal in 1901. For further information about this important historical figure, see Lynn M. Hudson, "Mining a Mythic Past: The History of Mary Ellen Pleasant," in African American Women Confront the West, 1600-2000, ed. Quintard Taylor and Shirley Ann Wilson Moore (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2003), 56-70.
8. For a penetrating analysis of Turner's use of metaphorical language and imagery, see William R. Handley, Marriage, Violence, and the Nation in the American Literary West (Cambridge: University of Cambridge Press, 2002), 43-66.
9. The memoirs, however, were not published until 1973. See Martin Cole and Henry Welcome, eds., Don Pío Pico's Historical Narrative (Glendale: Arthur H. Clark, 1973).
10. According to Quintard Taylor, In Search of the Racial Frontier: African Americans in the American West, 1528-1990 (1998; repr., New York: Norton, 1999), 47.
11. James P. Beckwourth, The Life and Adventures of James P. Beckwourth, Mountaineer, Scout, and Pioneer, and Chief of the Crow Nation of Indians, Written from His Own Dictation by T. D. Bonner (1856; repr., Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1981), 14. Subsequent references to this edition appear in the text.
12. Gordon B. Dodds, "Beckwourth, Jim [James Pearson]," in The Reader's Encyclopedia of the American West, ed. Howard R. Lamar (New York: Harper and Row, 1977), 85.
13. Based on population statistics in these territories and states in the early and midnineteenth century. See Taylor, Racial Frontier, 54, 76, 81, 94.
14. For information on Rose see Taylor, Racial Frontier, 48-50;
15. Dodds, "Rose, Edward," in Lamar, Reader's Encyclopedia of the American West, 1046-47;
16. Hiram Martin Chittenden, The American Fur Trade of the Far West, 2 vols. (1902; repr., Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1986), 2:675-79;
17. William Loren Katz, The Black West (1987; repr., New York: Touchstone, 1996), 26-28. There is little information on Harris, except on the Internet. See
18. "Black Pioneers" (www.endoftheoregontrail.org /blackbios.html);
19. "Applegate Trail: The Run of the South Road Expedition" (www. webtrail.com/applegate/biography.html);
20. "Moses Harris" (www.usgennet.org /alhnerns/ahorclak/harris.html).
21. Quoted in Katz, The Black West, 24.
22. Lawrence Cortesi, Jim Beckwourth: Explorer-Patriot of the Rockies (New York: Criterion, 1971). The book is a novelization of Beckwourth's autobiography, intended for adolescent readers.
23. Emerson Bennett, The Prairie Flower; or, Adventures in the Far West (1850; repr., Cincinnati: James, 1853), 27.
24. For a discussion of the ways in which the Crow tribe benefited from trade with American fur companies and with African American representatives of those companies, see Chittenden, American Fur Trade, 1:3-17;
25. Frederick E. Hoxie, The Crow (New York: Chelsea, 1989), 54;
26. Hoxie, Parading through History: The Making of the Crow Nation in America, 1805-1935 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 65-70;
27. Keith Algers, The Crow and the Eagle: A Tribal History from Lewis and Clark to Custer (Caldwell: Caxton, 1993), 49-50, 69-70.
28. Robert H. Louie, The Crow Indians (1935; repr., New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1956), 215.
29. Louie, The Crow Indians, 215.
30. Francis Parkman Jr., The Oregon Trail (1849; repr., New York: Penguin, 1983), 178.
31. Lewis Garrard, Wah-to-yah and the Taos Trail, or Prairie Travel and Scalp Dances, with a Look at Los Rancheros from Muleback and the Rocky Mountain Campfire (1850; repr., Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1955), 236-37.
32. For information about Bonner and his collaboration with Beckwourth on the autobiography see Raymond Friday Locke, James Beckwourth: Mountain Man (Los Angeles: Melrose Square, 1995), 171-72;
33. Louise Amelia Knapp Smith Clappe, The Shirley Letters, Being Letters Written in 1851-52 from the California Mines, ed. Carl I. Wheat, vol. 1 (1854-55; repr., San Francisco: Grabhorn, 1933), 147.
34. Noreen Groover Lape, West of the Border: The Multicultural Literature of the Western American Frontiers (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2000), 25.
35. Washington Irving, The Adventures of Captain Bonneville, U.S.A., in the Rocky Mountains and the Far West, ed. Edgeley W. Todd (1837; repr., Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1986), 69.
36. George Frederic Ruxton, Ruxton of the Rockies: Autobiographical Writings by the Author of "Adventures in Mexico and the Rocky Mountains" and "Life in the Far West," ed. LeRoy R. Hafen (1950; repr., Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1982), 227-28.
37. Captain Mayne Reid, The Scalp Hunter (1856; repr., London: Routledge, n.d.), 119-20, 129-30.
38. See George Frederic Ruxton, Life in the Far West (New York: Harper, 1849), 16;
39. Garrard, Wah-to-yah and the Taos Trail, 191, 217;
40. Bennett, The Prairie Flower, 30, 32-34. In The Mountain Man Vernacular: Its Historical Roots, Its Linguistic Nature, and Its Literary Uses (New York: Peter Lang, 1985), Richard C. Poulson fails to mention that the terms "mountain man," "niggur," and "coon" are interrelated.
41. Joseph A. Young, Black Novelist as White Racist: The Myth of Inferiority in the Novels of Oscar Micheaux (New York: Greenwood, 1989), 65.
42. Donald Bogle, Toms, Coons, Mulattoes, Mammies, and Bucks: An Interpretive History of Blacks in American Films (1973; repr., New York: Continuum, 1991), 114-16. For similar critiques of Micheaux's films
43. see John Kisch and Edward Mapp, A Separate Cinema: Fifty Years of Black-Cast Posters (New York: Farrar, Strauss and Giroux, 1992), xvii;
44. Stephen F. Soitos, "Micheaux, Oscar," in The Oxford Companion to African American Literature, ed. William Andrews, Frances Smith Foster, and Trudier Harris (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), 495.
45. Unlike Bogle, J. Ronald Green argues that Micheaux represented the African American "middle class," not the "bourgeoisie." He discusses the pejorative ideological associations that cling to the latter term, reminding readers that most of Micheaux's contemporary audience would have fallen into the first class of viewers.
46. See Straight Lick: The Cinema of Oscar Micheaux (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2000), 31-40.
47. Critics who have contributed to the rehabilitation of Micheaux's reputation include bell hooks, "Micheaux: Celebrating Blackness," Black American Literature and Film 25 (summer 1991): 351-60;
48. Mark A. Reid, Redefining Black Film (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993), 11-14;
49. Jane Gaines and Charlene Regester, "Micheaux, Oscar," in Encyclopedia of African-American Culture and History, ed. Jack Salzman et al., vol. 4 (New York: Macmillan, 1996), 1774;
50. Pearl Bowser and Louise Spence, "Identity and Betrayal: The Symbol of the Unconquered and Oscar Micheaux's 'Biographical Legend,' " in The Birth of Whiteness: Race and the Emergence of U.S. Cinema, ed. Daniel Bernardi (New Brunswick nj: Rutgers University Press, 1996), 57, 71-72;
51. Green, Straight Lick, xv, 34-35;
52. Susan Gillman, "Micheaux's Chestnutt," pmla 114 (October 1999): 1080-88;
53. Soitos, "Micheaux, Oscar," 495.
54. Midnight Ramble: The Story of the Black Film Industry, directed by Bestor Cram and Pearl Bowser (wgbh: Boston, 1994).
55. Pearl Bowser and Louise Spence, Writing Himself into History: Oscar Micheaux, His Silent Films, and His Audience (New Brunswick nj: Rutgers University Press, 2000), 212.
56. Young, Black Novelist as White Racist, 10, ix.
57. Robert Bone, The Negro Novel in America, rev. ed. (1958; New Haven: Yale University Press, 1965), 49.
58. For a fuller account of this conflict as it appears in Garland's work, see Donald Pizer, Hamlin Garland's Early Work and Career (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1960), 2, 38-44.
59. Bowser and Spence, Writing Himself into History, 38.
60. Frederick Jackson Turner, "The Significance of the Frontier in American History," in Rereading Frederick Jackson Turner, ed. John Mack Faragher (1893; repr., New York: Henry Holt, 1995), 47.
61. Houston A. Baker Jr., Long Black Song: Essays in Black American Literature and Culture (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1972), 2.
62. Oscar Micheaux, The Conquest: The Story of a Negro Pioneer (1913; repr., Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1994), 199. Subsequent references to this edition appear in the text.
63. For histories of the Rosebud Reservation in South Dakota and for accounts of the Sioux in particular, see Doane Robinson, A History of the Dakota or Sioux Indians (1904; repr., Minneapolis: Ross and Haines, 1956), 459-69;
64. Robert M. Utley, The Last Days of the Sioux Nation (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1963), 200-230;
65. Herbert S. Schell, History of South Dakota (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1968), 133-34, 253-55, 320-32.
66. Johnson, " 'Stranger in a Strange Land,' " 245.
67. Johnson, " 'Stranger in a Strange Land,' " 248.
68. J. Lee Greene, Blacks in Eden: The African American Novel's First Century (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1996), 6.
69. Oscar Micheaux, The Homesteader: A Novel (1917; repr., Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1994), 163. Subsequent references to this edition appear in the text.
70. Greene, Blacks in Eden, 168.
71. Oscar Micheaux, The Wind from Nowhere (New York: Book Supply Co., 1944), 384-85. Subsequent references to this edition appear in the text.
72. David Grimsted, "Vigilante Chronicle: The Politics of Melodrama Brought to Life," in Melodrama: Stage, Picture, Screen, ed. Jacky Bratton, Jim Cook, and Christine Gledhill (London: British Film Institute, 1994), 200.
73. Bernard W. Bell, The Afro-American Novel and Its Traditions (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1987), 33-36.
74. Also see Bone, Negro Novel in America, 21-25.
75. Bowser and Spence, Writing Himself into History, 24.
76. For an excellent history of the profession, an analysis of the work culture, and interviews with individual porters, see Jack Santino, Miles of Smiles, Years of Struggle: Stories of Black Pullman Porters (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1989).
77. Schell, History of South Dakota, 176.
78. Janis Hebert, "Oscar Micheaux: Black Pioneer," South Dakota Review 11 (1973): 63;
79. see also John Milton, South Dakota: A Bicentennial History (New York: Norton, 1977), 100.
80. Bowser and Spence, Writing Himself into History, 8.
81. Van Epps-Taylor, Oscar Micheaux, 76-77.
82. Jane Gaines, "Fire and Desire: Race, Melodrama, and Oscar Micheaux," in Black American Cinema: Aesthetics and Spectatorship, ed. Manthia Diawara (New York: Routledge, 1993), 66.
83. See also Green, who devotes an entire chapter to a discussion of "two-ness" in Micheaux's (primarily non-western) films (Straight Lick, 41-56).
84. Henry T. Sampson, Blacks in Black and White: A Source Book on Black Films (Lanham md: Scarecrow, 1995), 149;
85. Daniel J. Leab, From Sambo to Superspade: The Black Experience in Motion Pictures (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1975), 75.
86. Bogle, Interpretive History, 110.
87. Quoted in Bowser and Spence, Writing Himself into History, 12.
88. Henry Louis Gates Jr., The Signifying Monkey: A Theory of Afro-American Criticism (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988), 129.
89. See Bowser and Spence, who discuss the use of dialects and folk idioms in Micheaux's novels and films (Writing Himself into History, 206).
90. Quoted in Sampson, Blacks in Black and White, 158.
91. Oscar Micheaux to the Lincoln Motion Picture Company, June 25, 1918, George P. Johnson Collection, ucla.
92. Van Epps-Taylor, Oscar Micheaux, 97-100.
93. Van Epps-Taylor, Oscar Micheaux, 125-26.
94. Leab, From Sambo to Superspade, 190.
95. Young, Black Novelist as White Racist, 70.
96. Van Epps-Taylor, Oscar Micheaux, 7;
97. Leab, From Sambo to Superspade, 166.
98. For contemporary reviews of the film see Thomas Cripps, Making Movies Black: The Hollywood Message Movie from World War II to the Civil Rights Era (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 36, 104.
99. Caruth, Unclaimed Experience, 2-7.
100. The nineteenth-century pattern of African American northern migration has been extensively chronicled. See, e.g., Carter G. Woodson, A Century of Negro Migration (Washington dc: Association for the Study of Negro Life and History, 1918);
101. Leon F. Litwack, North of Slavery: The Negro in the Free States, 1790-1860 (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1961);
102. Carole Marks, Farewell-We're Gone: The Great Black Migration (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1989);
103. Nicholas Lemann, The Promised Land: The Great Black Migration and How It Changed America (New York: Knopf, 1991). For a discussion of literary representations of the migration experience
104. see Farah Jasmine Griffin, "Who Set You Flowin'?" The African-American Migration Narrative (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995).
105. For a history of nineteenth-century African American emigration movements, their founders, and leaders, see William H. Pease and Jane H. Pease, Black Utopia: Negro Communal Experiments in America (Madison: State Historical Society of Wisconsin, 1963), 3, 8-9;
106. Howard Brotz, introduction to Negro Social and Political Thought, 1850-1920, ed. Brotz (New York: Basic Books, 1966), 1-33;
107. Edwin S. Redkey, Black Exodus: Black Nationalist and Back-to-Africa Movements, 1890-1910 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1969);
108. George M. Fredrickson, The Black Image in the White Mind: The Debate on Afro-American Character and Destiny, 1817-1914 (New York: Harper and Row, 1971), 130-64;
109. Sterling Stuckey, introduction to The Ideological Origins of Black Nationalism, ed. Stuckey (Boston: Beacon, 1972), 1-29;
110. Wilson Jeremiah Moses, The Golden Age of Black Nationalism, 1850-1925 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1978), 19-26;
111. Philip S. Foner, History of Black Americans: From the Compromise of 1850 to the End of the Civil War, vol. 3 (Westport ct: Greenwood, 1983), 126-81;
112. Gary Ashwill, "Emigration," in The Oxford Companion to African American Literature, ed. William Andrews, Frances Smith Foster, and Trudier Harris (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), 256.
113. Oscar Micheaux, The Conquest: The Story of a Negro Pioneer (1913; repr., Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1994), 227.
114. Works devoted to the study of African Americans in specific western professions include Philip Durham and Everett L. Jones, The Negro Cowboys (1965; repr., Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1983);
115. William H. Leckie, The Buffalo Soldiers: A Narrative of the Negro Cavalry in the West (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1967);
116. Rudolph M. Lapp, Blacks in Gold Rush California (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1977). For a survey of various professional roles that African Americans played in the region during this period
117. see William Loren Katz, The Black West (1987; repr., New York: Touchstone, 1996);
118. Quintard Taylor, In Search of the Racial Frontier: African Americans in the American West, 1528-1990 (New York: Norton, 1998).
119. The Exoduster movement has been treated most thoroughly by Nell Irvin Painter, Exodusters: Black Migration to Kansas after Reconstruction (1977; repr., New York: Norton, 1992);
120. Robert G. Athearn, In Search of Canaan: Black Migration to Kansas, 1879-80 (Lawrence: Regents Press of Kansas, 1978). The following works cover African American migration to Oklahoma in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries:
121. August Meier, Negro Thought in America, 1880-1915: Racial Ideologies in the Age of Booker T. Washington (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1963), 63;
122. Redkey, Black Exodus, 99-151;
123. Katz, The Black West, 245-64;
124. Taylor, Racial Frontier, 143-51. For case histories of three African American communities in Kansas and Oklahoma
125. see Kenneth Marvin Hamilton, Black Towns and Profit: Promotion and Development in the Trans-Appalachian West, 1877-1915 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1991), 5-42, 99-119, 120-37.
126. For accounts of legislation aimed at blacks, and for problems with racism in east Texas specifically, see Weston Joseph McConnell, Social Cleavages in Texas: A Study of the Proposed Division of the State (New York: Columbia University Press, 1925), 156-70;
127. Lawrence D. Rice, The Negro in Texas, 1874-1900 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1971), 3-5, 13-33;
128. Arnoldo De León, "Region and Ethnicity: Topographical Identification in Texas," in Many Wests: Place, Culture, and Regional Identity, ed. David M. Wrobel and Michael C. Steiner (Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1997), 266.
129. James M. SoRelle, "The 'Waco Horror': The Lynching of Jesse Washington," Southwestern Historical Quarterly 86 (April 1983): 519.
130. Eugene H. Berwanger, The Frontier against Slavery: Western Anti-Negro Prejudice and the Slavery Extension Controversy (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1967), 5.
131. "Kansas versus New Jersey," Colored American Magazine 2 (February 1901): 314-15.
132. Elizabeth Ammons, "Afterword:Winona, Bakhtin, and Hopkins in the Twenty- first Century," in The Unruly Voice: Rediscovering Pauline Elizabeth Hopkins, ed. John Cullen Gruesser (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1996), 215-16.
133. Pauline Hopkins, Winona: A Tale of Negro Life in the South and Southwest, in The Magazine Novels of Pauline Hopkins, ed. Hazel V. Carby (1902; repr., New York: Oxford University Press, 1988), 315. Further references to this edition appear in the text.
134. For an account of Griggs's career as a publisher, see Robert Bone, The Negro Novel in America, rev. ed. (1958; New Haven: Yale University Press, 1965), 32;
135. Arlene A. Elder, "Griggs, Sutton E.," in Andrews, Foster, and Harris, Oxford Companion to African American Literature, 328.
136. Addison Gayle Jr. suggests that by exercising "control over his material, Griggs was immune to censorship and more prone to honesty than his fellow novelists" (The Way of the World: The Black Novel in America [Garden City ny: Anchor, 1975], 60).
137. Moses, Golden Age of Black Nationalism, 170.
138. Sutton E. Griggs, Imperium in Imperio (1899; repr., New York: ams, 1975), 126. Further references to this edition appear in the text.
139. Bernard W. Bell, The Afro-American Novel and Its Tradition (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1987), 63.
140. For accounts of the early years of the Colored American Magazine and the various positions Hopkins held at the journal, see Abby Arthur Johnson and Ronald Maberry Johnson, Propaganda and Aesthetics: The Literary Politics of Afro-American Magazines in the Twentieth Century (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1979), 1-5;
141. Penelope L. Bullock, The Afro-American Periodical Press, 1838-1909 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1981), 65-68, 106-18;
142. Walter C. Daniel, Black Journals of the United States (Westport ct: Greenwood, 1982), 123-26;
143. Hazel V. Carby, Reconstructing Womanhood: The Emergence of the Afro-American Woman Novelist (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987), 125-27.
144. "Editorial and Publishers' Announcements," Colored American Magazine 1 (May 1900): 60.
145. Female cross-dressing was not an uncommon occurrence in the region during this time. For more on the subject see Evelyn A. Schlatter, "Drag's a Life: Women, Gender, and Cross-Dressing in the Nineteenth-Century West," in Writing the Range: Race, Class, and Culture in the Women's West, ed. Elizabeth Jameson and Susan Armitage (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1997), 334-53.
146. For biographical information on Griggs, see Arlene A. Elder, The "Hindered Hand": Cultural Implications of Early African American Fiction (Westport ct: Greenwood, 1978), 70-71;
147. Elder, "Griggs, Sutton E.," 328.
148. Alwyn Barr, Black Texans: A History of Negroes in Texas, 1528-1971 (Austin: Jenkins, 1973), 67-68.
149. For a history of the Baptist Church and of African American congregants in Texas in the mid- and late nineteenth century, see Milton C. Sernett, Black Religion and American Evangelicalism: White Protestants, Plantation Missions, and the Flowering of Negro Christianity, 1787-1865 (Metuchen nj: Scarecrow, 1975), 110-15;
150. Edward L. Wheeler, Uplifting the Race: The Black Minister in the New South, 1865-1902 (Lanham md: University Press of America, 1986), 8-9, 17, 39, 48;
151. William C. Montgomery, Under Their Own Vine and Fig Tree: The African-American Church in the South, 1865-1900 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1993), 108, 113, 191-252. In Imperium in Imperio, Griggs mentions the Baptist religion just once, in relation to segregation. At the beginning of chapter 2 he notes that Belton and Bernard go to "the colored school," which was formerly "a house of worship for the white Baptists of Winchester" (8).
152. Bone, Negro Novel in America, 32.
153. There is little biographical information on Hopkins available. For the best sources see Ann Allen Shockley, "Pauline Elizabeth Hopkins: A Biographical Excursion into Obscurity," Phylon 33 (spring 1972): 22-26;
154. Dorothy B. Parker, "Hopkins, Pauline Elizabeth," in Dictionary of American Negro Biography, ed. Rayford W. Logan and Michael R. Winston (New York: Norton, 1982), 325-26;
155. Jane Campbell, "Pauline Elizabeth Hopkins," in Dictionary of Literary Biography, vol. 50, African-American Writers before the Harlem Renaissance, ed. Trudier Harris (Detroit: Gale Research, 1986), 182-89;
156. Jane Campbell, "Hopkins, Pauline Elizabeth," in Black Women in America: An Historical Encyclopedia, ed. Darlene Clark Hine (Brooklyn: Carlson, 1993), 577-79;
157. Claudia Tate, "Hopkins, Pauline E.," in Andrews, Foster, and Harris, Oxford Companion to African American Literature, 366-67;
158. Carby, Reconstructing Womanhood, 121-29.
159. W. E. B. DuBois, John Brown (Philadelphia: George W. Jacobs, 1909), 140.
160. Hillel Schwartz, Century's End: A Cultural History of the Fin de Siècle from the 990s through the 1990s (New York: Doubleday, 1990), 9-10.
161. Tate, "Hopkins, Pauline E.," 366;
162. Parker, "Hopkins, Pauline Elizabeth," 325.
163. Bone, Negro Novel in America, 33.
164. Jane Campbell, Mythic Black Fiction: The Transformation of History (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1986), 52.
165. Bell, The Afro-American Novel, 63.
166. Gayle, The Way of the World, 61.
167. Carby, Reconstructing Womanhood, 129.
168. See Lieutenant Braxton, "Company L in the Spanish-American War," Colored American Magazine 1 (May 1900): 19-25;
169. Rienzi B. Lemus, Company K, 25th Infantry, "The Enlisted Man in Action: Or, the Colored American Soldier in the Philippines," Colored American Magazine 5 (May 1902): 46-54.
170. For a survey of views on the subject, see Edward A. Johnson, History of Negro Soldiers in the Spanish-American War (Raleigh: Capitol Printing, 1899);
171. George P. Marks III, comp. and ed., The Black Press Views American Imperialism, 1898-1900 (New York: Arno, 1971);
172. Willard B. Gatewood Jr., "Smoked Yankees" and the Struggle for Empire (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1971);
173. Gatewood, Black Americans and the White Man's Burden, 1898-1903 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1975);
174. Nell Irvin Painter, Standing at Armageddon: The United States, 1877-1919 (New York: Norton, 1987).
175. Frederick Jackson Turner, "The Significance of the Frontier in American History," in Rereading Frederick Jackson Turner, ed. John Mack Faragher (1893; repr., New York: Henry Holt, 1995), 38.
176. Houston Baker, Long Black Song: Essays in Black American Literature and Culture (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1972), 3.
177. Nathan Irvin Huggins, introduction to Voices from the Harlem Renaissance, ed. Huggins (New York: Oxford University Press, 1976), 7.
178. Claude McKay, A Long Way from Home (New York: Lee Furman, 1937), 95.
179. Wallace Thurman, The Blacker the Berry . . . (1929; repr., New York: Scribner, 1996), 214. Further references to this edition appear in the text. The comparison between residents of modern skyscrapers and high-rise apartments with Native American cliff dwellers extends back at least to 1893, with the publication of Henry Blake Fuller's novel The Cliff-Dwellers.
180. James Weldon Johnson, Black Manhattan (1930; repr., New York: Arno, 1968), xiv, 155. For an account of the post-World War I black migration to Harlem see Lewis, When Harlem Was in Vogue, 3-24.
181. Claude McKay, Harlem: Negro Metropolis (New York: Dutton, 1940), 18, 21.
182. Charles S. Johnson, "The New Frontage on American Life," in Locke, The New Negro, 297.
183. Eugene Kinckle Jones, "Interracial Frontiers: Extracts from the Annual Report of the National Urban League," Opportunity 9 (March 1931): 75.
184. Amy Helene Kirschke, Aaron Douglas: Art, Race, and the Harlem Renaissance (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1995), xiv.
185. Lizzetta LeFalle-Collins and Judith Wilson, Sargent Johnson: African American Modernist (San Francisco: Museum of Modern Art, 1998), 9-10, 27-30.
186. Taylor Gordon, Born to Be (1929; repr., Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1995), 17. Further references to this edition appear in the text.
187. Robert Hemenway, "Introduction to the 1975 Edition," in Taylor Gordon, Born to Be (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1975), x, xxvii-xxviii. Hemenway's close reading of the autobiography and his reconstruction of the author's life is based on his consultation of Gordon's correspondence, unfinished manuscripts, and other archival material.
188. Thadious M. Davis, "Introduction to the Bison Books Edition," in Gordon, Born to Be, xii;
189. Hemenway, "Introduction," xxiv.
190. Hemenway, "Introduction," xxvi-vii.
191. Review of Born to Be, Crisis 37 (April 1930): 129.
192. Wallace Thurman, "Quoth Brigham Young: This Is the Place," Messenger 8 (August 1926), reprinted in These "Colored" United States: African American Essays from the 1920s, ed. Tom Lutz and Susanna Ashton (New Brunswick nj: Rutgers University Press, 1996), 265-67.
193. For a discussion of other parallels between Thurman and his semi-autobio- graphical heroine, see Eleanore van Notten, Wallace Thurman's Harlem Renaissance (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1994), 214-23.
194. Eunice Hunton Carter, review of The Blacker the Berry . . . , Opportunity 7 (May 1929): 162.
195. Gerald Haslam, "Wallace Thurman: A Western Renaissance Man," Western American Literature 6 (spring 1971): 59.
196. Thurman, "Quoth Brigham Young," 264.
197. Langston Hughes, Not without Laughter (1930; repr., New York: Scribner, 1995), 23, 50. Further references to this edition appear in the text.
198. Langston Hughes, The Big Sea (New York: Knopf, 1940), 16. Arnold Rampersad discusses this draft, as well as another aborted effort entitled "Scarlet Flowers: The Autobiography of a Young Poet," in The Life of Langston Hughes, vol. 1, "I, Too, Sing America" (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), 112, 114.
199. For comparisons between Hughes's relatives and Aunt Hager's family in Not without Laughter, see The Big Sea, 5-16;
200. Mark Scott, "Langston Hughes of Kansas," Journal of Negro History 66 (spring 1981): 1-9;
201. Faith Berry, Langston Hughes: Before and Beyond Harlem (Westport ct: Lawrence Hill, 1983), 95.
202. Hughes, The Big Sea, 303.
203. V. F. Calverton, review of Not without Laughter, Nation, August 6, 1930, 157-58, reprinted in Critical Essays on Langston Hughes, ed. Edward J. Mullen (Boston: G. K. Hall, 1986), 59-60.
204. Eric J. Sundquist, "Who Was Langston Hughes?" Commentary 102 (December 1997): 57.
205. Lewis, When Harlem Was in Vogue, 251.
206. Robert Bone, Down Home: A History of Afro-American Short Fiction from Its Beginnings to the End of the Harlem Renaissance (New York: Putnam, 1975), 240.
207. For studies of the Hughes family and its connection to Kansas, see Scott, "Langston Hughes of Kansas," 1-9. Much of the same information appears in another article published by Scott, under the same title, in Kansas History 3 (spring 1980): 3-25.
208. See also Cary D. Wintz, "Langston Hughes: A Kansas Poet in the Harlem Renaissance," Kansas Quarterly 7 (summer 1975): 58-71.
209. Rampersad, The Life of Langston Hughes, 1:8.
210. Frederick Jackson Turner, "The Middle West," International Monthly, December 1901, reprinted in Turner, The Frontier in American History (New York: Holt, 1920), 129, 154. For related scholarship on the debate over the terms "West" and "Midwest," Turner's purpose in using these terms, and Kansas's role in the reformation of region
211. see James H. Madison, "Diverging Trails: Why the Midwest Is Not the West," in Frontier and Region: Essays in Honor of Martin Ridge, ed. Robert C. Ritchie and Paul Andrew Hutton (Albuquerque and San Marino: University of New Mexico Press and Huntington Library Press, 1997), 45-46;
212. Walter Nugent, Into the West: The Story of Its People (New York: Vintage, 2001), 8-9.
213. Ralph Ellison, Shadow and Act (1953; repr., New York: Vintage, 1995), xiii, xvi, 5.
214. Ralph Ellison, Invisible Man (1952; repr., New York: Vintage, 1995), 159. Further references to this edition appear in the text.
215. Ellison, Shadow and Act, xv-vi.
216. For an insightful analysis of this scene, see Martin Bucco, "Ellison's Invisible West," Western American Literature 10 (fall 1975). Bucco argues that black nationalism, like white westward expansion, springs from "racial arrogance" and misguided idealism. "The Great Migration of the Negro masses . . . is as phantasmagoric as the earlier covered-wagon treks toward a freedom impossible under the old regime" (238).
217. Gregory Stephens, On Racial Frontiers: The New Culture of Frederick Douglass, Ralph Ellison, and Bob Marley (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 13-14. Busby concurs, calling Ellison's frontier a borderland where "various forces" meet, interact, and amalgamate ("Ralph Ellison," 521-22).
218. Ralph Ellison, "Going to the Territory" (1980), reprinted in Ellison, Going to the Territory (New York: Random House, 1986), 131-33.
219. Ralph Ellison, as quoted in Ishmael Reed, Quincy Troupe, and Steve Cannon, "The Essential Ralph Ellison," in Conversations with Ralph Ellison, ed. Maryemma Graham and Amritjit Singh (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1995), 372. Also see Ellison's interview with Hollie West, in which he repeats: "The people who went out there [to Oklahoma Territory] were trying to determine their fate" ("Growing Up Black in Frontier Oklahoma . . . from an Ellison Perspective," in Speaking For You: The Vision of Ralph Ellison, ed. Kimberly W. Benston [Washington dc: Howard University Press, 1987], 11).
220. Ralph Ellison, "Remembering Richard Wright" (1971), reprinted in Ellison, Going to the Territory, 198.
221. Ellison, "Going to the Territory," 134.
222. Ellison, "Harlem Is Nowhere" (1948), reprinted in Going to the Territory, 296-97.
223. For a comparison of the conditions under which each writer worked, see, e.g., Sundquist, "Who Was Langston Hughes?" 56;
224. Huggins, Voices from the Harlem Renaissance, 10;
225. John M. Reilly, introduction to Twentieth-Century Interpretations of "Invisible Man," ed. Reilly (Englewood Cliffs nj: Prentice-Hall, 1970), 2.
226. Daryl Jones, The Dime Novel Western (Bowling Green: Bowling Green State University Press, 1978), 76, 82.
227. Christine Bold, Selling the West: Popular Western Fiction, 1860 to 1960 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987), 13.
228. Edward L. Wheeler, Deadwood Dick as Detective: A Story of the Great Carbonate Region (New York: Beadle and Adams, 1879), 10.
229. Edward L. Wheeler, Deadwood Dick's Doom; or, Calamity Jane's Last Adventure (New York: Beadle and Adams, 1881), 12.
230. Edward L. Wheeler, Deadwood Dick's Dream; or, The Rivals of the Road (New York: Beadle and Adams, 1881), 2.
231. Edward L. Wheeler, Deadwood Dick's Device; or, The Sign of the Double Cross (New York: Beadle and Adams, 1879), 6, 10.
232. Michael Denning, Mechanic Accents: Dime Novels and Working-Class Culture in America (1987; repr., London: Verso, 1998), 30, 210. On the subject of class politics in the dime novel
233. see also Henry Nash Smith, Virgin Land: The American West as Symbol and Myth (1960; repr., Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1971), 100;
234. Philip Durham, introduction to Edward L. Wheeler, Deadwood Dick on Deck; or, Calamity Jane, the Heroine of Whoop-Up (1878; repr., New York: Odyssey, 1966), x;
235. Marcus Klein, Easterns, Westerns, and Private Eyes: American Matters, 1870-1900 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1994), 100-101.
236. Nat Love, The Life and Adventures of Nat Love, Better Known in the Cattle Country as "Deadwood Dick" (1907; repr., Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1995), 1. Subsequent references to this edition appear in the text.
237. Nicole Tonkovich, "Guardian Angels and Missing Mothers: Race and Domesticity in Winona and Deadwood Dick on Deck," Western American Literature 32 (November 1997): 243. I have offered an alternative reading, as well as a lengthy analysis of Love's autobiography, in Ten Most Wanted: The New Western Literature (New York: Routledge, 1998), 17-31.
238. For example, see Philip Durham and Everett L. Jones, The Negro Cowboys (1965; repr., Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1983), 3.
239. Mary A. Dempsey, "The Bronze Buckaroo Rides Again: Herb Jeffries Is Still Keepin' On," American Visions 12 (August-September 1997): 22-26.
240. Dempsey, "Bronze Buckaroo Rides Again," 23.
241. Thomas Cripps, Slow Fade to Black: The Negro in American Film (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 338.
242. Jim Pines, "Blacks," in The bfi Companion to the Western, ed. Edward Buscombe (New York: Atheneum, 1988), 69.
243. Two-Gun Man from Harlem, starring Herbert Jeffrey [sic], written and directed by Richard C. Kahn (International Studios, 1938).
244. The Bronze Buckaroo, starring Herbert Jeffrey [sic], written and directed by Richard C. Kahn (Hollywood Productions, 1938).
245. Harlem Rides the Range, starring Herbert Jeffrey [sic], written by Spencer Williams Jr. and F. E. Miller, directed by Richard C. Kahn (Hollywood Productions, 1939).
246. Look-Out Sister, starring Louis Jordan, written by John E. Gordon, directed by Bud Pollard (Astor Pictures, 1946).
247. See Ishmael Reed, Shrovetide in Old New Orleans (Garden City ny: Doubleday, 1978), 133-34;
248. Michel Fabre, "Postmodern Rhetoric in Ishmael Reed's Yellow Back Radio Broke-Down," in The Critical Response to Ishmael Reed, ed. Bruce Allen Dick (Westport ct: Greenwood, 1999), 22.
249. In Playing Cowboys: Low Culture and High Art in the Western (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1992), 127-33, Robert Murray Davis argues that parodies such as Blazing Saddles honor the conventions of the Western while mocking them. In this case, the sheriff confounds expectations because he is a racial minority, but in every other respect he fulfills the role of the hero.
250. Peter Nazareth, "An Interview with Ishmael Reed," reprinted in Conversations with Ishmael Reed, ed. Bruce Dick and Amritjit Singh (Jackson: University of Mississippi Press, 1995), 191.
251. Robert Elliot Fox, Conscientious Sorcerers: The Black Postmodernist Fiction of LeRoi Jones/Amiri Baraka, Ishmael Reed, and Samuel R. Delaney (Westport ct: Greenwood, 1987), 46.
252. Ishmael Reed, Yellow Back Radio Broke-Down (1969; repr., New York: Atheneum, 1988), 53. Subsequent references to this edition appear in the text.
253. Reed, Shrovetide in Old New Orleans, 134.
254. David Anthony Durham, Gabriel's Story (New York: Doubleday, 2001), 35. Subsequent references to this edition appear in the text.
255. For a history of the evolution of West Coast rap see Nelson George, Hip Hop America (New York: Penguin, 1998), 129-30;
256. Alex Ogg with David Upshal, The Hip Hop Years: AHistory of Rap (1999; repr., New York: Fromm International, 2001), 111-21.
257. For a defense of the film's conventional characteristics see Tania Modleski, "A Woman's Gotta Do . . . What a Man's Gotta Do? Cross-Dressing in the Western," Signs 22 (spring 1997): 520.
258. Frederick Douglass, Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave (1845; repr., New York: Penguin, 1987), 47-48.
259. Douglass, Narrative, 137.
260. Lydia Maria Child, "Introduction by the Editor," in Linda Brent, Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl (1861; repr., New York: Oxford University Press, 1988), 8.
261. Brent, "Preface by the Author," in Incidents, 5.
262. Rudolph Fisher, The Conjure-Man Dies: A Mystery Tale of Dark Harlem (1932; repr., Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1992), 37.
263. Fisher, The Conjure-Man Dies, 3.
264. John A.Williams, "My Man Himes: An Interview with Chester Himes," in Amistad 1, ed. Williams and Charles F. Harris (New York: Random House, 1970), 50.
265. Chester Himes, The Quality of Hurt: The Autobiography of Chester Himes; The Early Years (New York: Paragon, 1971), 63.
266. Williams, "My Man Himes," 49.
267. Chester Himes, The Real Cool Killers (1959; repr., New York: Vintage, 1988), 65.
268. Peter J. Rabinowitz, "Chandler Comes to Harlem: Racial Politics in the Thrillers of Chester Himes," in The Sleuth and the Scholar: Origins, Evolution, and Current Trends in Detective Fiction, ed. Barbara A. Rader and Howard G. Zettler (Westport ct: Greenwood, 1988), 22. Greg Forter claims that these competing pressures have the representational effect "of cleaving the hero in two," i.e., creating the need for contrasting and complementary heroes in Himes (Murdering Masculinities: Fan- tasies of Gender and Violence in the American Crime Novel [New York: New York University Press, 2000], 193).
269. For an analysis of violence as a form of social protest in Himes, see David Schmid, "Chester Himes and the Institutionalization of Multicultural Detective Fiction," in Multicultural Detective Fiction: Murder from the "Other" Side, ed. Adrienne Johnson Gosselin (New York: Garland, 1999), 288;
270. Lee Horsley, The Noir Thriller (Hampshire: Palgrave, 2001), 180.
271. Raymond Chandler, "The Simple Art of Murder," in The Simple Art of Murder (New York: Vintage, 1988), 17.
272. Mike Davis, City of Quartz: Excavating the Future in Los Angeles (1990; repr., New York: Vintage, 1992), 15.
273. Davis, City of Quartz, 43.
274. Nathanael West, The Day of the Locust (1939; repr., New York: New Directions, 1989), 60.
275. Chester Himes, If He Hollers Let Him Go (1945; repr., New York: Thunder's Mouth, 1986), 8-9. Subsequent references to this edition appear in the text.
276. Raymond Chandler, The Big Sleep (1939; repr., New York: Vintage, 1988), 139.
277. In this discussion of the car and the concept of spatial mobility I quote from an earlier essay in which I compare Chandler and Himes. See "All About Eden" in Reading California: Art, Image, and Identity, 1900-2000, ed. Stephanie Barron, Sheri Bernstein, and Ilene Susan Fort (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000), 121-22.
278. Himes, The Real Cool Killers, 41.
279. For an analysis of the way Marlowe enables the reader to make sense of Los Angeles see William Alexander McClung, Landscapes of Desire: Anglo Mythologies of Los Angeles (2000; repr., Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002), 192-93;
280. Richard Lehan, The City in Literature: An Intellectual and Cultural History (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998), 252.
281. Fredric Jameson suggests that Marlowe provides the reader with a "cognitive map" of Los Angeles in "On Raymond Chandler," Southern Review 6 (summer 1970): 629.
282. Walter Mosley, Devil in a Blue Dress (1990; repr., New York: Pocket, 1995), 27. Subsequent references to this edition appear in the text.
283. In "Interview with Walter Mosley," the author acknowledges the influence that Hammett has had on his work. See Samuel Coale, The Mystery of Mysteries: Cultural Differences and Designs (Bowling Green: Bowling Green State University Popular Press, 2000), 201-2.
284. John Cullen Gruesser, "An Un-Easy Relationship:Walter Mosley's Signifyin(g) Detective and the Black Community," in Gosselin, Multicultural Detective Fiction, 240.
285. Theodore O. Mason Jr., "Walter Mosley's Easy Rawlins: The Detective and Afro-American Fiction," Kenyon Review 14 (fall 1992): 179-80. Gruesser describes the hero "as a signifying detective, adept at juggling linguistic and social codes to deceive and outwit both white and black characters" ("An Un-Easy Relationship," 235).
286. Walter Mosley, White Butterfly (1992; repr., New York: Pocket, 1993), 213.
287. Walter Mosley, A Red Death (1991; repr., New York: Pocket, 1992), 143.
288. For an extended treatment of this theme see William R. Nash, " 'Maybe I Killed My Own Blood': Doppelgangers and the Death of Double Consciousness in Walter Mosley's A Little Yellow Dog," in Gosselin, Multicultural Detective Fiction, 303-23.
289. Mosley, White Butterfly, 145.
290. Gary Phillips, Violent Spring (1994; repr., New York: Berkley, 1996), 59, 86, 104, 118.
291. Gary Phillips, The Jook (Los Angeles: Really Great Books, 1999), 79.
292. John Ridley, Everybody Smokes in Hell (1999; repr., New York: Ballantine, 2000), 163. Subsequent references to this edition appear in the text.
293. Andrew Pepper, The Contemporary American Crime Novel: Race, Ethnicity, Gender, Class (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2000), 11.
294. Gar Anthony Haywood, All the Lucky Ones Are Dead (1999; repr., New York: Berkley, 2000), 41, 73, 124.
295. Robert Greer, The Devil's Red Nickel (1997; repr., New York: Warner, 1998), 161. Subsequent references to this edition appear in the text.
296. Robert Greer, The Devil's Backbone (1998; repr., New York:Warner, 1999), 81.
297. Robert Greer, The Devil's Hatband (New York: Mysterious Press, 1996), 13, 30.
298. Paula L. Woods, Inner City Blues (1999; repr., New York: Ballantine, 2000), 148.
299. In reference to this distinction between African American male and female detectives, see Nicole Décuré, "In Search of Our Sisters' Mean Streets: The Politics of Sex, Race, and Class in Black Women's Crime Fiction," in Diversity and Detective Fiction, ed. Kathleen Gregory Klein (Bowling Green: Bowling Green State University Popular Press, 1999), 162-66. For a full-length study
300. see Priscilla L. Walton and Marina Jones, Detective Agency:Women Rewriting the Hard-Boiled Tradition (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999).
301. Terris McMahan Grimes, Somebody Else's Child (New York: Onyx, 1996), 31. Subsequent references to this edition appear in the text.
302. Penny Mickelbury, Where to Choose (1999; repr., New York: St. Martin's, 2001), 18.
303. Pepper, Contemporary American Crime Novel, 90.
304. Williams, "My Man Himes," 48-49.
305. Chandler, The Big Sleep, 2.
306. Pepper, Contemporary American Crime Novel, 91.
307. Woods, Spooks, Spies, and Private Eyes, xv.
308. By 1970, according to the United States census, California had surpassed Texas as the western state with the largest African American population. In 1990 the census reported for the first time that Los Angeles was the most populous city, followed by Houston and Dallas. See Quintard Taylor, In Search of the Racial Frontier: African Americans in the American West, 1528-1990 (1998; repr., New York: Norton, 1999), 279, 314.
309. Robert Richardson, "Eyewitness Account: 'Get Whitey,' Screams Blood-Hungry Mobs," Los Angeles Times, August 14, 1965, 1.
310. Nicolaus Mills, The Crowd in American Literature (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1986), 6.
311. Also see Eric J. Hobsbawm, Primitive Rebels: Studies in Archaic Forms of Social Movement in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1959), 111.
312. Gerald Horne, Fire This Time: The Watts Uprising and the 1960s (New York: Da Capo, 1997), 329-30.
313. "Dance Company Will Present 'L.A. Riots,' " Sacramento Observer, October 21, 1992, f2.
314. Diane Haithman, "Have the Arts Helped Heal L.A.?" Los Angeles Times, April 27, 1993, f1.
315. Rowanne Marie Henry, "Performance and the Los Angeles Uprising: Art as Social Change" (master's thesis, University of California, Los Angeles, 1993), 10.
316. Eldridge Cleaver, Soul on Ice (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1968), 27.
317. Susan A. Phillips, Wallbangin': Graffiti and Gangs in L.A. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999), 298.
318. For a history of Watts and its gradual decay see Paul Bullock, Watts: The Aftermath (New York: Grove, 1969), 14-15;
319. Nathan Cohen, "The Los Angeles Riot Study," in The Los Angeles Riots: A Socio-Psychological Study, ed. Cohen (New York: Praeger, 1970), 5-11;
320. David O. Sears and John B. McConahay, The Politics of Violence: The New Urban Blacks and the Watts Riot (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1973), 56-60;
321. Ronald N. Jacobs, Race, Media, and the Crisis of Civil Society: From Watts to Rodney King (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 16.
322. "Violence in the City: A Report by the Governor's Commission on the Los Angeles Riots," reprinted in Mass Violence in America: The Los Angeles Riots, comp. Robert M. Fogelson (1968; repr., Salem: Ayer, 1988), 4, 85.
323. Robert Conot, Rivers of Blood, Years of Darkness (New York: Bantam, 1967), 3.
324. Jerry Cohen and William S. Murphy, Burn, Baby, Burn! The Los Angeles Race Riot, August, 1965 (New York: Dutton, 1966), 44.
325. See, e.g., Julian Hartt, "Guard Force from 40th Armored," Los Angeles Times, August 14, 1965, 1, 15;
326. "Anarchy Must End," unsigned editorial, Los Angeles Times, August 14, 1965, 1;
327. Art Berman, "Negro Riots Rage On; Death Toll 25," Los Angeles Times, August 15, 1965, 1.
328. Fogelson, Mass Violence in America, 1.
329. Quoted in Horne, Fire This Time, 64.
330. Robert M. Fogelson, Violence as Protest: A Study of Riots and Ghettos (Garden City ny: Doubleday, 1971), 16.
331. Cohen, "Los Angeles Riot Study," 3.
332. Fogelson, Violence as Protest, 16.
333. Budd Schulberg, introduction to From the Ashes: Voices of Watts, ed. Schulberg (New York: New American Library, 1967), 2, 5. Subsequent references to this edition appear in the text.
334. Maya Angelou, A Song Flung Up to Heaven (New York: Random House, 2002), 80.
335. Quoted in Horne, Fire This Time, 331.
336. Milton McFarlane, "To Join or Not to Join," in Watts Poets: A Book of New Poetry, ed. Quincy Troupe (Los Angeles: House of Respect, 1968), 3-4. Subsequent references to this edition appear in the text.
337. The Watts Prophets, Rappin' Black in a White World, produced by Mike Thorne (Full Frequency Range Recordings, 1971).
338. Robert Epstein, "Watts Writers Workshop: A Blueprint to Fit Today's Needs?" Los Angeles Times, May 5, 1992, f1.
339. Susan Anderson, "A City Called Heaven: Black Enchantment and Despair in Los Angeles," in Scott and Soja, The City, 357-58.
340. Warren Christopher et al., Report of the Independent Commission on the Los Angeles Police Department (Los Angeles: The Commission, 1991), iii-iv, 21-22.
341. Ira Reiner quoted in Marc Lacey and Shawn Hubler, "Rioters Set Fires, Loot Stores, 4 Reported Dead," Los Angeles Times, April 30, 1992, a1.
342. Joan Petersilia and Allan Abrahamse, "A Profile of Those Arrested," in The Los Angeles Riots: Lessons for the Urban Future, ed. Mark Baldassare (Boulder:Westview, 1994), 140.
343. Peter A. Morrison and Ira S. Lowry, "A Riot of Color: The Demographic Setting," in Baldassare, The Los Angeles Riots, 19-20.
344. See, e.g., Victor Merina and John Mitchell, "Opportunists, Criminals Get Blame for Riots," Los Angeles Times, May 1, 1992, a1;
345. Ashley Dunn, "Years of '2-Cent' Insults Added Up to Rampage," Los Angeles Times, May 7, 1992, a1; versus
346. Stephen Braun and Ron Russell, "Riots Are Violent Reruns for the Veterans of Watts," Los Angeles Times, May 4, 1992, a1.
347. Darnell M. Hunt, Screening the Los Angeles "Riots": Race, Seeing, and Resistance (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), 166.
348. Andrew Goodman, "Truth, Justice, and Videotape," in Inside the L.A. Riots: What Really Happened-And Why It Will Happen Again, ed. Don Hazen (New York: Institute for Alternative Journalism, 1992), 122.
349. Lynell George, No Crystal Stair: African-Americans in the City of Angels (London: Verso, 1992), 10. Subsequent references to this edition appear in the text.
350. Anna Deavere Smith, Talk to Me: Listening between the Lines (New York: Random House, 2000), 36.
351. Twilight: Los Angeles, starring Anna Deavere Smith, directed by Marc Levin (pbs Pictures, 1999).
352. Frank Clifford and David Ferrell, "L.A. Strongly Condemns King Verdicts, Riots," Los Angeles Times, May 6, 1992, a1.
353. Sam Eisenstein, "Riot/art," High Performance 12 (summer 1992): 49. Subsequent references to this issue appear in the text.
354. Modleski, "Doing Justice to the Subjects," 71.
355. Suzan-Lori Parks, Getting Mother's Body (New York: Random House, 2003), 87, 93. Subsequent references to this edition appear in the text.
356. Pearl Cleage, "Playwright's Note," in Flyin' West and Other Plays (New York: Theatre Communications Group, 1999), 6. Subsequent references to this edition appear in the text.
357. Nell Irvin Painter, Exodusters: Black Migration to Kansas after Reconstruction (1977; repr., New York: Norton, 1992), vii-viii.
358. Freda Scott Giles, "The Motion of Herstory: Three Plays by Pearl Cleage," African American Review 31 (winter 1997): 709.
359. Kenneth Marvin Hamilton, Black Towns and Profit: Promotion and Development in the Trans-Appalachian West, 1877-1915 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1991), 6.
360. Hamilton, Black Towns and Profit, 1.
361. Giles, "The Motion of Herstory," 709.
362. Esther Beth Sullivan, "The Dimensions of Pearl Cleage's Flyin' West," Theatre Topics 7 (March 1997): 11, 14.
363. Norman L. Crockett, The Black Towns (Lawrence: Regents Press of Kansas, 1979), xiv. For more information about the number of African American townships in Oklahoma at the turn of the century, the people who settled there, and their reasons for migrating
364. see also Hamilton, Black Towns and Profit, 102-5;
365. Jimmie Lewis Franklin, Journey toward Hope: A History of Blacks in Oklahoma (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1982), 16-19.
366. Toni Morrison, Paradise (New York: Knopf, 1997), 112. Subsequent references to this edition appear in the text.
367. Crockett, The Black Towns, 56, 63-64.
368. Michiko Katukani, "Worthy Women, Unredeemable Men," New York Times, January 6, 1998, e8.
369. Geoffrey Brent, "Less Than Divine: Toni Morrison's Paradise," Southern Review 35 (1999): 146-47.
370. Louis Menand, "The War between Men and Women," New Yorker, January 12, 1998, 82.
371. For a statistical account of the damages caused by the riot see Scott Ellsworth, Death in a Promised Land (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1982), 65-72;
372. Tim Madigan, The Burning: Massacre, Restoration, and the Tulsa Race Riot of 1921 (New York: Thomas Dunne/St. Martin's, 2001), 221.
373. Jewell Parker Rhodes, Magic City (1997; repr., New York: Harper Perennial, 1998), 16. Subsequent references to this edition appear in the text.
374. Quoted in Kevin E. Quashie, "Mining Magic, Mining Dreams: A Conversation with Jewell Parker Rhodes," Callaloo 20 (spring 1997): 435.
375. Octavia E. Butler, Parable of the Sower (1993; repr., New York:Warner, 1995), 9. Subsequent references to this edition appear in the text.
376. Quoted in Frances M. Beal, "Black Women and the Science Fiction Genre," Black Scholar 17 (March-April 1986): 14.
377. Octavia E. Butler, Parable of the Talents (New York: Seven Stories, 1998), 101. Subsequent references to this edition appear in the text.
378. Quashie, "Mining Magic, Mining Dreams," 431.
379. Pierre-Damien Mvuyekure, "Jewell Parker Rhodes," in Contemporary African American Novelists: A Bio-Bibliographical Critical Sourcebook, ed. Emmanuel S. Nelson (Westport ct: Greenwood, 1999), 402.
380. For a discussion of storytelling as historiography, comparing Morrison's narrative technique with the methodology of Ruby's unofficial historian, see Rob Davidson, "Racial Stock and 8-Rocks: Communal Historiography in Toni Morrison's Paradise," Twentieth-Century Literature 43 (fall 2001): 355-61.
381. Quoted in Beal, "Black Women and the Science Fiction Genre," 14.