Unsettling the literary west: Authenticity and authorship

Unsettling the Literary West: Authenticity and Authorship

Volumn , Issue , 2003, Pages 1-297

  Lewis, Nathaniel ^a  

^a NONE

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References (626)

1. Sam Shepard, True West, in Seven Plays (New York: Bantam Books, 1981), 30, 35.
2. Neil Campbell, who cites the play to open his discussion of "New West Postmodernism and Urbanism," argues that Shepard "deconstructs" tired binaries: "here there is no single truth," Campbell writes, "only people living in the landscape and creating their own New West" (The Cultures of the American New West [Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn, 2000], 130).
3. Lyon's own words are from The Literary West: An Anthology of Western American Literature (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 3, 2.
4. Krista Comer, Landscapes of the New West: Gender and Geography in Contemporary Women's Writing (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1999), 2.
5. Richard H. Brodhead, Cultures of Letters: Scenes of Reading and Writing in Nineteenth-Century America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993), 8-9.
6. Lionel Trilling, Sincerity and Authenticity (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1971), 120.
7. Jacob Golomb, In Search of Authenticity: From Kierkegaard to Camus (New York: Routledge, 1995), 12, 7.
8. Charles Taylor, The Ethics of Authenticity (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1991), 31, 29.
9. Charles Taylor, "The Politics of Recognition," in Multiculturalism: Examining the Politics of Recognition, ed. Amy Gutmann (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994), 30.
10. Taylor, Ethics, 26.
11. Miles Orvell, The Real Thing: Imitation and Authenticity in American Culture, 1880-1940 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1989), xv.
12. Hillel Schwartz, The Culture of the Copy: Striking Likenesses, Unreasonable Facsimiles (New York: Zone Books, 1996), 11.
13. See Frank Zappa, "Cosmik Debris," on Apostrophe. rcd 10519.
14. Philip J. Deloria, Playing Indian (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998), 101.
15. Schwartz, Culture of the Copy, 373.
16. Deloria, Playing Indian, 101.
17. Umberto Eco, "Travels in Hyperreality," in Travels in Hyperreality, trans. William Weaver (New York: Harcourt, 1986), 16, 4.
18. Comer, Landscapes, 5.
19. Jean-François Lyotard, The Postmodern Explained: Correspondence 1982-1985, trans. Don Barry et al., ed. Julian Pefanis and Morgan Thomas (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1992), 7.
20. (Patricia Limerick, The Real West [Denver: Civic Center Cultural Complex, 1996]).
21. Thomas McGuane, An Outside Chance: Essays on Sport (New York: Penguin, 1982), 221.
22. Don D. Walker, "Can the Western Tell What Happens?" in Interpretive Approaches to Western American Literature, ed. Daniel Alkofer et al. (Pocatello: Idaho State University Press, 1972), 33.
23. Quoted in Paul Gilmore's "The Indian in the Museum: Henry David Thoreau, OkahTubbee, and Authentic Manhood," Arizona Quarterly 54, no. 2 (1998): 25.
24. Owen Wister, Red Men and White (New York: Garrett Press 1969), ix.
25. Henry David Thoreau, "Walking," in Thoreau: Collected Essays and Poems, ed. Elizabeth Hall Witherell (New York: Library of America, 2001), 235.
26. Francis Parkman, Francis Parkman: The Oregon Trail and The Conspiracy of Pontiac, ed. William R. Taylor (New York: Library of America, 1991), 176-77.
27. Charles Neider, The Authentic Death of Hendry Jones (Reno: University of Nevada Press, 1993), viii.
28. K. Anthony Appiah, "Identity, Authenticity, Survival: Multicultural Societies and Social Reproduction," in Multiculturalism: Examining the Politics of Recognition, ed. Amy Gutmann (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994), 152.
29. Don W. Walker, "Criticism of the Cowboy Novel: Retrospect and Reflections," Western American Literature 11, no. 4 (1977): 291.
30. William Dean Howells, "Mark Twain: An Inquiry," in Selected Literary Criticism: Volume III: 1898-1920, ed. Ronald Gottesman et al. (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1993), 44.
31. Nicolas S. Witschi "Claims to realism in relation to the American West" ([Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2002], 2).
32. William Kittredge, Owning It All (St. Paul mn: Graywolf Press, 1987), 171, 177.
33. Walker, "Can the Western Tell What Happens?" 35.
34. Jackson K. Putnam, "Historical Fact and Literary Truth: The Problem of Authenticity in Western American Literature," Western American Literature 15, no. 1 (1980): 18.
35. Walker, "Can the Western Tell What Happens?" 33.
36. Putnam, "Historical Fact," 17-18.
37. Max Westbrook, "The Authentic Western," Western American Literature 13, no. 3 (1978): 215.
38. Putnam, "Historical Fact," 18.
39. Westbrook, "Authentic Western," 214.
40. For a fine overview of these debates, see Harry F. Thompson, "History, Historicity, and the Western American Novel: Frederick Manfred's Scarlet Plume and the Dakota War of 1862," Western American Literature 37, no. 1 (2002): 48-82.
41. Mark Poster, Cultural History and Postmodernity: Disciplinary Readings and Challenges (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997), 9.
42. Henry Louis Gates Jr., "'Authenticity,' or the Lesson of Little Tree," New York Times, 24 November 1991.
43. Ward Churchill, Fantasies of the Master Race: Literature, Cinema and the Colonization of American Indians, rev. ed. (San Francisco: City Lights, 1998), 8.
44. Jean Baudrillard, Simulacra and Simulation, trans. Sheila Faria Glaser (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1994), 6.
45. Timothy Egan, Lasso the Wind: Away to the New West (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1998), 10.
46. Frank Lentricchia, Criticism and Social Change (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1983), 19.
47. "Mixed Messages: Authority and Authorship in Mourning Dove's Cogewea, The Half-Blood: A Depiction of the Great Montana Cattle Range" (American Literature 67, no. 3 [1995])
48. "The Authenticity Game: 'Getting Real' in Contemporary American Indian Literature" (True West, University of Nebraska Press, forthcoming). I am indebted to her work and borrow her felicitous phrase with gratitude.
49. James Hall, Sketches of History, Life, and Manners in the West; Containing Accurate Descriptions of the Country and Modes of Life, in the Western States and Territories of North American (Cincinnati: Hubbard and Edmands, 1834), 9.
50. Hall, Sketches (Philadelphia: H. Hall, 1835), n.p. (see preface).
51. Hall, Sketches (1834), 12.
52. Richard H. Brodhead (The School of Hawthorne)
53. Nina Baym (Novels, Readers, and Reviewers; Feminism and American Literary History)
54. Judith Fetterley (Provisions: A Reader from 19th Century American Women)
55. David Reynolds (Beneath the American Renaissance)
56. Jackson Wilson (Figures of Speech: American Writers and the Literary Marketplace, from Benjamin Franklin to Emily Dickinson)
57. Kenneth Dauber (The Idea of Authorship in America: Democratic Poetics from Franklin to Melville).
58. Steven Fink (Prophet in the Marketplace: Thoreau's Development as a Professional Writer)
59. Lawrence Buell (The Environmental Imagination: Thoreau, Nature Writing, and the Formation of American Culture)
60. David Reynolds (Walt Whitman's America).
61. Joseph B. Longacre and James Herring, eds., The National Portrait Gallery of Distinguished Americans (Philadelphia: H. Perkins, 1834-39), 1 : n.p.
62. See Nina Baym, Novels, Readers, and Reviewers: Responses to Fiction in Antebellum America (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1984), 249-58.
63. James Hall, review of Tales of the Glauber Spa, by "Several American Authors," in Western Monthly Magazine (January 1833): 45.
64. Mark Rose, "The Author as Proprietor: Donaldson v. Becket and the Genealogy of Modern Authorship," Representations 23 (summer 1998): 75.
65. Martha Woodmansee, "On the Author Effect: Recovering Collectivity," in The Construction of Authorship: Textual Appropriation in Law and Literature, ed. Martha Woodmansee and Peter Jaszi (Durham: Duke University Press, 1994), 15.
66. As Meredith L. McGill has argued, American copyright law, "rather than confirming the author as the owner of a text," established "going-into-print as the moment when individual rights give way to the demands of the social."
67. Meredith L. McGill, "The Matter of the Text: Commerce, Print Culture, and the Authority of the State in American Copyright Law," American Literary History 9, no. 1 (1997): 23.
68. See Ralph Leslie Rusk, The Literature of the Middle Western Frontier (New York: Columbia University Press, 1925), 2:12-23.
69. Timothy Flint, Recollections of the Last Ten Years (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1932), 5.
70. Timothy Flint, "Editor's Address," Western Monthly Review (May 1827): 9-10.
71. James Hall, "To the Reader," Western Monthly Magazine (January 1833): 1.
72. Hall, "To the Reader," 1-2.
73. James Hall, "Literary Notice," Western Monthly Magazine (August 1833): 384. This notice is unsigned.
74. Rusk, Literature of the Middle Western Frontier, 1 :272.
75. Timothy Flint, Biographical Memoir of Daniel Boone, The First Settler of Kentucky (Cincinnati: N. and G. Guilford and Co. 1833), iii.
76. See Ronald J. Zboray, A Fictive People: Antebellum Economic Development and the American Reading Public (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 198-99.
77. Edwin Fussell, whose book Frontier: American Literature and the American West (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1965)
78. Flint, Recollections, 5.
79. Flint, Recollections, 6-7.
80. Amos A. Parker, Trip to the West and Texas, Comprising a Journey of Eight Thousand Miles, through New-York, Michigan, Illinois, Missouri, Louisiana and Texas, in the Autumn and Winter of 1834-5: Interspersed with Anecdotes, Incidents, and Observations (Concord nh: White and Fisher, 1835), 3
81. Samuel Parker, Journal of an Exploring Tour beyond the Rocky Mountains (Ithaca ny: By the author, 1838), iii
82. Charles Augustus Murray, Travels in North America during the Years 1834, 1835, and 1836. Including a Summer Residence with the Pawnee Tribe of Indians, in the Remote Prairies of the Missouri, and a Visit to Cuba and the Azore Islands, 2 vols. (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1839), dedication page
83. William H. Keating, Narrative of an Expedition to the Source of St. Peter's River, Lake Winnepeek, Lake of the Woods, &c. &c. Performed in the Year 1823 (Philadelphia: H. C. Carey and I. Lea, 1824), vii
84. James Hildreth, Dragoon Campaigns to the Rocky Mountains. By a Dragoon (New York: Wiley and Long, 1836), 5.
85. Calvin Colton, Tour of the American Lakes, and among the Indians of the North-West Territory (London: Frederick Westley and A. H. Davis, 1833), 1: xi.
86. Nathan Hoskins Jr., Notes upon the Western Country. Contained within the States of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, and the Territory of Michigan: Taken on a Tour through that Country in the Summer of 1832 (Greenfield ma: James P. Fogg, 1833).
87. See Baym, Novels, Readers, and Reviewers, 160-72.
88. Tilly Buttrick Jr., Voyages, Travels and Discoveries of Tilly Buttrick, Jr. (Cleveland: Arthur H. Clark Co., 1904), 19.
89. Timothy Flint, "Editor's Preface" to James O. Pattie, The Personal Narrative of James O. Pattie of Kentucky during an Expedition from St. Louis, through the vast regions between that place and the Pacific Ocean, and thence back through the City of Mexico to Vera Cruz, during journeying of six years, etc., ed. Reuben Gold Thwaites (1833; rpt., Cleveland: Arthur H. Clark Co., 1905), 25.
90. Zenas Leonard, Narrative of the Adventures of Zenas Leonard, a Native of Clearfield County, PA, Who Spent Five Years Trapping for Furs, Trading with the Indians, &c., &c., of the Rocky Mountains: Written by Himself (Clearfield pa: D. W. Moore, 1839), iv.
91. Hall, Legends of the West (Cincinnati: Robert Clarke, 1885), n.p. (see preface).
92. Hall, Sketches (1834), 11.
93. Parker, Journal of an Exploring Tour, iii.
94. Caleb Atwater, Remarks Made on a Tour to Prairie du Chien; thence to Washington City, in 1829 (Columbus oh: Isaac N. Whiting, 1831), v.
95. Edmund Flagg, The Far West: or, A Tour beyond the Rockies (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1838), 1 : vi.
96. Flint, Recollections, 4.
97. Flagg, Far West, vii;
98. Charles Fenno Hoffman, A Winter in the West, by a New-Yorker (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1835), n.p. (see preface).
99. John A. M'Clung, Sketches of Western Adventure: Containing an Account of the Most Interesting Incidents Connected with the Settlement of the West, from 1755-1794 (Philadelphia: Grigg and Elliot, 1832), vii-viii.
100. Quoted in Rusk, Literature of the Middle Western Frontier, 1 :272.
101. See review (unsigned) of Hope Leslie, by Catharine M. Sedgwick, Western Monthly Review (April 1827): 290.
102. Edgar Allan Poe, "The Philosophy of Composition," in Edgar Allan Poe: Essays and Reviews, ed. G. R. Thompson (New York: Library of America, 1984), 13
103. Ralph Waldo Emerson, "The American Scholar," in Ralph Waldo Emerson: Essays and Lectures, ed. Joel Porte (New York: Library of America, 1983), 58.
104. See also Stephen Fender's treatment of the "scientific modes in Hall, Flint," and others in Plotting the Golden West: American Literature and the Rhetoric of the California Trail (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981), 181.
105. Western Monthly Review (April 1827): 294-95.
106. Timothy Flint, Francis Berrian, or The Mexican Patriot (Boston: Cummings, Hilliard, and Co., 1826), 1 : iii
107. James Kirke Paulding, Westward Ho! A Tale (New York: J. and J. Harper, 1832), 4
108. James S. French, Elkswatawa; or, The Prophet of the West (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1836), 1 : ix
109. James Hall, The Western Souvenir, a Christmas and New Year's Gift for 1829 (Cincinnati: N. and G. Guilford, 1829), iii
110. Hall, Legends, n.p. (see preface).
111. Hall, Sketches (1834), vii.
112. Patrick Gass, A Journal of the Voyages and Travels of a Corps of Discovery, under the Command of Capt. Lewis and Capt. Clarke (Pittsburgh: David M'Keehan, 1807), viii
113. Fortescue Cuming, Sketches of a Tour to the Western Country, through the States of Ohio and Kentucky; a Voyage down the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers and a Trip through the Mississippi Territory and Part of West Florida (Cleveland: Arthur H. Clark Co., 1904), 24
114. Edwin James, Account of an Expedition from Pittsburgh to the Rocky Mountains, 3 vols. (London: Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme, and Brown, 1823), 1 : 1.
115. Nancy K. Anderson, "'Curious Historical Artistic Data': Art History and Western American Art," in Discovered Lands, Invented Pasts: Transforming Visions of the American West, ed. Jules D. Prown et al. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992), 6-7.
116. William Charvat, The Profession of Authorship in America, 1800-1870, ed. Matthew J. Bruccoli (Columbia: Ohio State University Press, 1968), 72.
117. Murray, Travels in North America, v-vi.
118. Flint, "Editor's Preface," 26-27.
119. Hildreth, Dragoon Campaigns, 5.
120. Hildreth, Dragoon Campaigns, 6-7.
121. Estwick Evans, A Pedestrious Tour, of Four Thousand Miles, through the Western States and Territories, during the Winter and Spring of 1818 (Cleveland: Arthur H. Clark Co., 1904), 103.
122. Evans, Pedestrious Tour, 115.
123. Washington Irving, A Tour on the Prairies (New York: Pantheon, 1967), 10.
124. Quoted in Peter Antelyes, Tales of Adventurous Enterprise: Washington Irving and the Poetics of Western Expansion (New York: Columbia University Press, 1990), 45.
125. Hoffman, Winter in the West, n.p. (see preface).
126. Hall, Sketches (1835), 8.
127. James Freeman Clarke, North American Review (1837): 235.
128. French, Elkswatawa, 1 : ix.
129. Colton, Tour of the American Lakes, 1 : xii-xiii.
130. Michael J. Colacurcio, "Idealism and Independence," in Columbia Literary History of the United States, ed. Emory Elliott (New York: Columbia University Press, 1988), 215.
131. Quoted in Fussell, Frontier, 157.
132. Walter Benjamin, Illuminations, ed. Hannah Arendt, trans. Harry Zohn (New York: Schocken, 1969), 232.
133. Hall, Sketches (1835), 7.
134. James Hall, Statistics of the West, at the Close of the Year 1836 (Cincinnati: J. A. James and Co., 1836), vii.
135. Hall, Sketches (1835), 7.
136. Hall, Sketches (1835), 6.
137. Mann Butler, Review of Sketches of History, Life, and Manners, in the West, by James Hall, Western Messenger 1, no. 10 (May 1836): 677.
138. Butler, Review of Sketches of History, 680.
139. James Freeman Clarke, North American Review 42 (July 1836): 4, 5.
140. Hall, Statistics of the West, vii.
141. Hall, Statistics of the West, xiv.
142. James Freeman Clarke, Review of Statistics of the West, by James Hall, in North American Review 45 (July 1837): 239.
143. Hall, Statistics, vii.
144. Washington Irving, Astoria, or Anecdotes of an Enterprize beyond the Rocky Mountains, ed. Richard Dilworth Rust (Boston: Twayne, 1976), 4.
145. Caroline M. Kirkland, A New Home, Who'll Follow? or Glimpses of Western Life, ed. Sandra A. Zagarell (New Brunswick nj: Rutgers University Press, 1990), 3.
146. Paul Lauter, Canons and Contexts (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), 125.
147. Ronald J. Zboray, A Fictive People: Antebellum Economic Development and the American Reading Public (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 115.
148. See Zagarell, A New Home, 203n
149. William S. Osborne, ed., A New Home-Who'll Follow? (New Haven ct: College and University Press, 1965), 13.
150. Judith Fetterley, Provisions: A Reader f rom 19th Century American Women (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1985), 119
151. Annette Kolodny, The Land Before Her: Fantasy and Experience of the American Frontiers, 1630-1860 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1984), 132, 155.
152. David Leverenz, Manhood and the American Renaissance (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1989), 156.
153. See also Marcia B. Kline, Beyond the Land Itself: Views of Nature in Canada and the United States (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1970).
154. Kolodny, Land Before Her, 132
155. Basil Hall, Travels in North America, in the Years 1827 and 1828 (Edinburgh: Cadell and Co., 1829), 1 :128-29.
156. Kolodny, Land Before Her, 133
157. Edgar Allan Poe, "Caroline M. Kirkland," in Edgar Allan Poe: Essays and Reviews, ed. G. R. Thompson (New York: Library of America, 1984), 1181.
158. Poe, "Caroline M. Kirkland," 1181.
159. Edgar Allan Poe, The Journal of Julius Rodman, in Edgar Allan Poe: Poetry and Tales, ed. Patrick F. Quinn (New York: Library of America, 1984), 1187.
160. Quoted in Edwin Fussell, Frontier: American Literature and the American West (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1965), 132.
161. Quoted in Fussell, Frontier, 132.
162. Kenneth Silverman, Edgar A. Poe: Mournful and Never-ending Remembrance (New York: HarperCollins, 1991), 147.
163. Burton R. Pollin, intro., The Journal of Julius Rodman, in The Imaginary Voyages: Edgar Allan Poe, ed. Burton R. Pollin (Boston: Twayne, 1981), 508.
164. Jameson, Fredric, Postmodernism, or, The Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism (Durham: Duke University Press, 1991).
165. See also John J. Teunissen and Evelyn J. Hinz, "Poe's Journal of Julius Rodman as Parody"; the authors argue that the Journal is "parody rather than plagiarism" (317).
166. Nineteenth-Century Fiction 27 (1972): 317-38.
167. Pollin, intro., Imaginary Voyages, 4.
168. Pollin, intro., Rodman, 512.
169. Stephen Rachman, "'Es lässt sich nicht schreiben': Plagiarism and 'The Man of the Crowd,'" in The American Face of Edgar Allan Poe, ed. Shawn Rosenheim and Stephen Rachman (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995), 83.
170. Edgar Allan Poe, The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym, in Edgar Allan Poe: Poetry and Tales, 1007-8.
171. Meredith L. McGill, "Poe, Literary Nationalism, and Authorial Identity," in Rosenheim and Rachman, American Face of Edgar Allan Poe, 283.
172. Gerald Vizenor, Manifest Manners: Narratives on Postindian Survivance (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1994), vii.
173. Jean Baudrillard, Simulacra and Simulation, trans. Sheila Faria Glaser (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1994), 1.
174. Baudrillard, Simulacra, 6. Unless otherwise noted, all quotations from Baudrillard's phases are found on page 6 of his essay.
175. Lee Clark Mitchell, Westerns: Making the Man in Fiction and Film (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996), 4.
176. Mitchell, Westerns, 6.
177. Niall Lucy, Postmodern Literary Theory: An Introduction (Malden ma: Blackwell, 1997), 228.
178. Baudrillard, Simulacra, 7.
179. Quoted in Pollin, intro., Rodman, 511.
180. Pollin credits the discovery of this passage to David K. Jackson, in Poe Studies 7 (December 1974): 47-48.
181. Poe, Essays and Reviews, 1458.
182. Poe, Essays and Reviews, 479.
183. Poe, Essays and Reviews, 480.
184. Mark Twain, Roughing It, in Mark Twain: The Innocents Abroad, Roughing It, ed. Guy Cardwell (New York: Library of America, 1984), 527.
185. Lee Clark Mitchell, "Naming the West and Making a Name: The Reputations of Bierstadt and Twain," Prospects: An Annual of American Cultural Studies 14 (1989): 119.
186. Susan Gillman, Dark Twins: Imposture and Identity in Mark Twain's America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989), 1.
187. Richard S. Lowry, "Littery Man": Mark Twain and Modern Authorship (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996), 9.
188. James M. Cox, Mark Twain: The Fate of Humor (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1966), 97.
189. Louis A. Renza, "Poe's Secret Autobiography," in The American Renaissance Reconsidered, ed. Walter Benn Michaels and Donald E. Pease (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1985), 63.
190. Renza, "Poe's Secret Autobiography," 60, 83.
191. Renza, "Poe's Secret Autobiography," 82.
192. Renza, "Poe's Secret Autobiography," 78.
193. Mark Twain, "Petrified Man," in Early Tales and Sketches, 1851-1864, vol. 15 of The Works of Mark Twain, ed. Edgar Marquess Branch and Robert H. Hirst (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1979), 169.
194. Everett Emerson, The Authentic Mark Twain: A Literary Biography of Samuel L. Clemens (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1984), 20.
195. Mark Twain to Mary Mason Fairbanks, 20 February 1868, in Mark Twain's Letters, vol. 2: 1867-1868, ed. Harriet Elinor Smith and Richard Bucci (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990), 189.
196. Emerson, Authentic Mark Twain, x.
197. Louis J. Budd, Our Mark Twain: The Making of His Public Personality (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1983), 24.
198. Randall Knoper, Acting Naturally: Mark Twain in the Culture of Performance (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), 2.
199. Knoper, Acting Naturally, 74-75.
200. Knoper, Acting Naturally, 2.
201. Andrew Hoffman, Inventing Mark Twain: The Lives of Samuel Langhorne Clemens (New York: William Morrow, 1997), x, xii-xiii.
202. Judith Butler, Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity, tenth anniversary ed. (New York: Routledge, 1999), 43.
203. Butler, Gender Trouble, 43.
204. Butler, Gender Trouble, 175.
205. Lowry, "Littery Man," 13.
206. Mark Twain, "A Couple of Sad Experiences," in The Galaxy (June 1870), reprinted in Contributions to The Galaxy, 1868-1871, ed. Bruce R. McElderry Jr. (Delmar ny: Scholars Facsimiles, 1977), 48.
207. Twain, "Couple of Sad Experiences," 47.
208. Twain, "Couple of Sad Experiences," 48.
209. Don Florence, Persona and Humor in Mark Twain's Early Writings (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1995), 33-34.
210. Branch and Hirst, Twain's Early Tales and Sketches, 157.
211. Lowry, "Littery Man," 43.
212. Lowry, "Littery Man," 67.
213. Lowry, "Littery Man," 67.
214. Harold K. Bush Jr., "Our Mark Twain? Or, Some Thoughts on the 'Autobiographical Critic,'" New England Quarterly 73, no. 1 (2000): 102.
215. Gary Scharnhorst, Bret Harte: Opening the American Literary West (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2000), xiii.
216. Miles Orvell, The Real Thing: Imitation and Authenticity in American Culture, 1880-1940 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1989), xv.
217. Jean Baudrillard, Simulacra and Simulation, trans. Sheila Faria Glaser (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1994), 1.
218. Orvell, Real Thing, 39
219. Leo Braudy, The Frenzy of Renown: Fame and Its History (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), 506.
220. See, for example, Louise L. Stevenson, The Victorian Homefront: American Thought and Culture, 1860-1880 (New York: Twayne, 1991), 42-44
221. T.J. Jackson Lears, "The Ad Man and the Grand Inquisitor: Intimacy, Publicity, and the Managed Self in America, 1880-1940," in Constructions of the Self, ed. George Levine (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1992) 107-20
222. William Leach, Land of Desire: Merchants, Power, and the Rise of a New American Culture (New York: Vintage, 1993), 93.
223. "Joaquin Miller on American Literature," Literary Digest, 25 March 1899, 338.
224. Tenny Nathanson, Whitman's Presence (New York: New York University Press, 1992)
225. David S. Reynold, Walt Whitman's America (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1995)
226. Karen Halttunen, Confidence Men and Painted Women: A Study of Middle-Class Culture in America, 1830-1870 (New Haven ct: Yale University Press, 1982), 198.
227. See A. H. Saxon, P. T. Barnum: The Legend and the Man (New York: Columbia University Press, 1989), 306.
228. Joaquin Miller, Pacific Poems (London: Whittingham and Wilkins, 1871), viii-ix.
229. Joaquin Miller's Poems (San Francisco: Whitaker and Ray, 1909), 2 : 91.
230. Oscar Wilde, The Artist as Critic: Critical Writing of Oscar Wilde, ed. Richard Ellmann (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1969), 54.
231. "Joaquin Miller on American Literature," 338.
232. Orvell, Real Thing, 34.
233. See Stuart P. Sherman, preface and intro., The Poetical Works of Joaquin Miller (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1923), 27
234. Martin Severin Peterson, Joaquin Miller, Literary Frontiersman (Palo Alto ca: Stanford University Press, 1937), 79.
235. Nathanael West, Miss Lonelyhearts & The Day of the Locust (Norfolk, Conn: J. Laughlin, 1962), 77.
236. Joaquin Miller's Poems, 1:2.
237. Walter Bagehot, Literary Studies (London: Longmans, Green, and Co., 1895), 2: 330.
238. See Alison Byerly's essay "The Uses of Landscape: The Picturesque Aesthetic and the National Park System," in The Ecocriticism Reader: Landmarks in Literary Ecology, ed. Cheryll Glotfelty and Harold Fromm (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1996).
239. Lillie Langtry, The Days I Knew (New York: George H. Doran, 1925), 94
240. Harr Wagner, Joaquin Miller and His Other Self (San Francisco: Harr Wagner Publishing, 1929), vi;
241. Literary Digest, 338
242. Mark Twain in Eruption: Hitherto Unpublished Papers about Men and Events, ed. Bernard De Voto (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1940), 332-33
243. Peterson, Joaquin Miller, 113
244. Sherman, Poetical Works of Joaquin Miller, 3, 39.
245. Quoted in Richard Ellmann, Oscar Wilde (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1988), 111.
246. Beaumont Newhall, The History of Photography (New York: Museum of Modern Art, 1964), 57.
247. Braudy, Frenzy of Renown, 492.
248. Alan Trachtenberg, Reading American Photographs: Images as History, Mathew Brady to Walker Evans (New York: Hill and Wang, 1989), 27, 28.
249. Walter Benjamin, Illuminations, ed. Hannah Arendt, trans. Harry Zohn (New York: Schocken, 1969), 224.
250. T. J. Jackson Lears, No Place of Grace: Antimodernism and the Transformation of American Culture, 1880-1920 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981), 36-37.
251. Peterson, Joaquin Miller, vi.
252. Lears, No Place, 37.
253. O. W. Frost, Joaquin Miller (New York: Twayne, 1967), 64.
254. Joaquin Miller's Poems, 1 :79.
255. Joaquin Miller's Poems, 2 :90-91.
256. Sherman, Poetical Works of J oaquin Miller, iii.
257. Benjamin, Illuminations, 221.
258. See Carey McWilliams, Ambrose Bierce: A Biography (New York: Archon Books, 1967), 206.
259. See M. M. Marberry, Splendid Poseur: Joaquin Miller-American Poet (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell, 1953), 253.
260. T. J. Jackson Lears, "From Salvation to Self-Realization: Advertising and the Therapeutic Roots of the Consumer Culture, 1880-1920," in The Culture of Consumption: Critical Essays in American History, 1880-1980, ed. Richard Wightman Fox and T. J. Jackson Lears (New York: Pantheon, 1983), 6
261. Amy Kaplan, The Social Construction of American Realism (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988), 9.
262. William Dean Howells, "Recent Literature," review of Songs of the Sierras, Atlantic Monthly 28 (December 1871): 771.
263. Joaquin Miller's Romantic Life Amongst the Red Indians (London: Saxon, 1890), vi-vii.
264. See also, My Own Story (Chicago: Belford-Clarke, 1890).
265. See Peterson, Joaquin Miller, 50.
266. Miller himself provides these reviews in his 1909 Poems (1 : 148, 128-29).
267. Van Wyck Brooks, The Times of Melville and Whitman (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1947), 307.
268. Joaquin Miller, Light: A Narrative Poem (Boston: Herbert B. Turner, 1907), v.
269. Joaquin Miller's Poems, 1 :108.
270. Joaquin Miller's Poems, 1 : 110.
271. Quoted in Marberry, Splendid Poseur, 158.
272. Joaquin Miller's Poems, 1 : 27.
273. Frost, Joaquin Miller, 21
274. Peterson, Joaquin Miller, 128
275. Sherman, Poetical Works of Joaquin Miller, 39.
276. Joaquin Miller's Poems, 1 : 69
277. Life Amongst the Modocs: Unwritten History (London: Bentley, 1873), 36-37
278. Joaquin Miller's Poems, 1 :68.
279. See Joaquin Miller's Poems, 1 : 216
280. Peterson, Joaquin Miller, 78
281. Joaquin Miller's Poems, 4 :154-55.
282. See Marberry, Splendid Poseur, 140.
283. Juanita Miller, About "The Hights"-Joaquin Miller Park-Then and Now (Oakland: Tooley-Towne Printers, 1946), n.p.
284. Joaquin Miller's Poems, 1:1.
285. See Marberry, Splendid Poseur, 137.
286. Joaquin Miller's Poems, 1 :79.
287. Joaquin Miller's Poems, 1 : 58, 2.
288. Joaquin Miller's Poems, 1:2.
289. Joaquin Miller's Poems, 1 : 61.
290. Joaquin Miller, Songs of the Mexican Seas (Boston: Roberts Brothers, 1887), n.p. (see prefatory note).
291. Joaquin Miller's Poems, 1 :90.
292. Joaquin Miller's Poems, 1 : 215.
293. Joaquin Miller's Poems, 1:215-16.
294. Joaquin Miller's Poems, 1:219-20.
295. Joaquin Miller's Poems, 1 :220.
296. Joaquin Miller's Poems, 1 :222, 223.
297. Joaquin Miller's Poems, 1 :225.
298. Joaquin Miller's Poems, 4 : 131.
299. Peterson, Joaquin Miller, 88.
300. Joaquin Miller's Poems, 1 :26.
301. Juanita Miller, About "The Hights," n.p.
302. Baudrillard, Simulacra, 6.
303. Baudrillard, Simulacra, 19.
304. Richard B. Woodward, "The Truth Is Out: How Realists Could Be So Realistic," New York Times, 25 November 2001.
305. Nicolas S. Witschi, Traces of Gold: California's Natural Resources and the Claim to Realism in Western American Literature (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2002), 8.
306. Jean-François Lyotard, The Postmodern Explained: Correspondence 1982-1985, ed. Julian Pefanis and Morgan Thomas, trans. Don Barry et al. (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1992), 5.
307. Henry David Thoreau, "Walking," in Thoreau: Collected Essays and Poems, ed. Elizabeth Hall Witherell (New York: Library of America, 2001), 235.
308. Lyotard, Postmodern Explained, 5.
309. David E. Shi, Facing Facts: Realism in American Thought and Culture, 1850-1920 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 3.
310. I refer to the title of Michael Davitt Bell's The Problem of American Realism: Studies in the Cultural History of a Literary Idea (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993).
311. Barrett Wendell, A Literary History of America (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1901), 502, 513.
312. James H. Maguire, "Introduction: Encountering the West," in A Literary History of the American West, ed. J. Golden Taylor (Fort Worth: Texas Christian University Press, 1987), 3.
313. Max Nordau, Degeneration, trans. from the German; intro. George L. Mosse (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1993), 2.
314. Tom Lutz, American Nervousness, 1903: An Anecdotal History (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1991), 5.
315. John Muir, Our National Parks (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1901), 1.
316. Mark Seltzer, Bodies and Machines (New York: Routledge, 1992), 149-50.
317. Quoted in Seltzer, Bodies and Machines, 149.
318. Frank Norris, Frank Norris: Novels and Essays, ed. Donald Pizer (New York: Library of America, 1986), 1185.
319. Owen Wister, Owen Wister Out West: His Journals and Letters, ed. Fanny Kemble Wister (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1958), 35.
320. Castle Freeman Jr. writes that, when Wister went west in 1885, his "real life was about to begin." Castle Freeman Jr., "Owen Wister: Brief Life of a Western Mythmaker: 1860-1938," Harvard Magazine 104, no. 6 (2002): 42.
321. Frederic Remington, The Collected Writings of Frederic Remington, ed. Peggy and Harold Samuels (Garden City ny: Doubleday, 1979), 551.
322. Francis Parkman, Francis Parkman: The Oregon Trail and The Conspiracy of Pontiac, ed. William R. Taylor (New York: Library of America, 1991), 176-77.
323. William Kittredge, Owning It All (Saint Paul: Graywolf Press, 1987), 62.
324. Joan Didion, Slouching Towards Bethlehem (New York: Noonday Press, 1990), 172.
325. Bill Brown, Reading the West: An Anthology of Dime Westerns (New York: Bedford Books, 1997), 30-31.
326. Quoted in Thomas Beer, The Mauve Decade: American Life at the End of the Nineteenth Century (New York: Octagon Books, 1980), 92.
327. Hamlin Garland, Crumbling Idols, ed. Jane Johnson (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1960), 16.
328. Wister, Owen Wister Out West, 11-12.
329. Frank Norris, "The National Spirit as It Relates to the 'Great American Novel,' " in The Literary Criticism of Frank Norris, ed. Donald Pizer (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1964), 118.
330. Owen Wister, Red Men and White (New York: Garrett Press, 1969), ix.
331. Wister, Red Men and White, viii.
332. Perriton Maxwell, "Frederic Remington, Most Typical of American Artists," Pearson's 18 (October 1907): 4.
333. Quoted in G. Edward White, The Eastern Establishment and the Western Experience: The West of Frederic Remington, Theodore Roosevelt, and Owen Wister (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1989), 109.
334. Garland, Crumbling Idols, 121.
335. Garland, Crumbling Idols, 13.
336. See Christine Bold, Selling the Wild West: Popular Western Fiction, 1860-1960 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987)
337. Michael Denning, Mechanic Accents: Dime Novels and Working-Class Culture in America (New York: Verso, 1987).
338. Denning, Mechanic Accents, 20, 24.
339. The Complete Poetical Works of Joaquin Miller (San Francisco: Whitaker and Ray, 1897), xiii.
340. Wister, Owen Wister Out West, 223.
341. Garland, Crumbling Idols, 120.
342. Quoted in Bell, Problem of American Realism, 115.
343. qtd. in White, Eastern Establishment, 100).
344. Bell, Problem of American Realism, 116.
345. Shi, Facing Facts, 230.
346. Garland, Crumbling Idols, 130.
347. Garland, Crumbling Idols, 134, 135.
348. Joseph R. McElrath Jr., Frank Norris Revisited (Boston: Twayne, 1992), 17.
349. Frank Norris, "Shorty Stack, Pugilist," in The Third Circle, vol. 4 of The Complete Works of Frank Norris (New York: Kennikat Press, 1967), 28.
350. Norris, "Shorty Stack," 29.
351. Norris, "Shorty Stack," 34. Norris often puns on the de-evolutionary transformation (and on the tainted sexuality) of his characters, including Vandover, who also ends up hunched over.
352. Donald Pizer, The Novels of Frank Norris (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1966), 33.
353. Kevin Starr, Americans and the California Dream, 1850-1915 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1973), 197.
354. Don Graham, "Frank Norris," in A Literary History of the American West, ed. J. Golden Taylor (Fort Worth: Texas Christian University Press, 1987), 370.
355. Patricia Nelson Limerick, The Legacy of Conquest: The Unbroken Past of the American West (New York: Norton, 1987), 49.
356. Nordau, Degeneration, 3.
357. See Critical Essays on Frank Norris, ed. Don Graham (Boston: G. K. Hall, 1980), 18, 16.
358. Quoted in Franklin Walker, Frank Norris: A Biography (New York: Russell and Russell, 1963), 145-46.
359. Quoted in Franklin Walker, Frank Norris, 154.
360. Frank Norris, Blix, vol. 3 of Complete Works of Frank Norris, 10.
361. Frank Norris, "Dying Fires," in The Third Circle, vol. 4 of Complete Works of Frank Norris, 115, 114.
362. John Haines, "The Writer as Alaskan," in This Incomperable Lande: A Book of American Nature Writing, ed. Thomas J. Lyon (New York: Penguin, 1989), 366.
363. Haines, "Writer as Alaskan," 369, 372.
364. William Kittredge, Hole in the Sky: A Memoir (New York: Vintage, 1992), 5.
365. T. J. Jackson Lears, "From Salvation to Self-Realization: Advertising and the Therapeutic Roots of the Consumer Culture, 1880-1920," in The Culture of Consumption: Critical Essays in American History, 1880-1980, ed. Richard Wightman Fox and T. J. Jackson Lears (New York: Pantheon, 1983), 9.
366. George Levine, "Introduction: Constructivism and the Reemergent Self," in Constructions of the Self, ed. George Levine (New Brunswick nj: Rutgers University Press, 1992), 1.
367. Charles Taylor, The Ethics of Authenticity (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1991), 28-29.
368. Philip J. Deloria, Playing Indian (New Haven ct: Yale University Press, 1998), 100-101.
369. Lionel Trilling, Sincerity and Authenticity (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1971), 12.
370. Regina Bendix, In Search of Authenticity: The Formation of Folklore Studies (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1997), 16.
371. Trilling, Sincerity and Authenticity, 93.
372. Charles Taylor, Ethics of Authenticity, 94.
373. Trilling, Sincerity and Authenticity, 127-28.
374. See Lawrence Buell, Writing for an Endangered World: Literature, Culture, and Environment in the U.S. and Beyond (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2001), 6.
375. See N. Katherine Hayles, "Searching for Common Ground," in Reinventing Nature? Responses to Postmodern Deconstruction, ed. Michael E. Soulé and Gary Lease (Washington dc: Island Press, 1995).
376. Greta Gaard, Ecofeminism: Women, Animals, Nature (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1993), 2.
377. Edward O. Wilson, "Biophilia and the Conservation Ethic," in The Biophilia Hyphothesis, ed. Stephen R. Kellert and Edward O. Wilson (Washington dc: Island Press, 1993), 31.
378. Stephen R. Kellert, intro., Kellert and Wilson, Biophilia Hypothesis, 20-21.
379. Anita Barrows, "The Ecopsychology of Child Development," in Ecopsychology: Restoring the Earth/Healing the Mind, ed. Theodore Roszak, Mary E. Gomes, and Allen D. Kanner (San Francisco: Sierra Club Books, 1995), 103.
380. Terry Tempest Williams, Refuge: An Unnatural History of Family and Place (New York: Vintage, 1991), 50.
381. Theodore Roszak, intro., Roszak, Gomes, and Kanner, Ecopsychology: Restoring the Earth/Healing the Mind, 5.
382. See also Barry Lopez, "Yukon Charley: The Shape of Wilderness," in Crossing Open Ground (New York: Vintage, 1989).
383. Vera Norwood, Made From This Ear th: American Women and Nature (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1993), 265-66.
384. Terry Tempest Williams, An Unspoken Hunger: Stories from the Field (New York: Vintage, 1994), 65.
385. Williams, Unspoken Hunger, 86.
386. Williams, Unspoken Hunger, 57.
387. See The Oxford Book of Nature Writing (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 232.
388. Wallace Stegner, Wolf Willow (New York: Viking, 1962), 21.
389. Gretel Ehrlich, The Solace of Open Spaces (New York: Penguin, 1985), 2.
390. Wayne Franklin and Michael Steiner, Mapping American Culture (Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 1992), 5.
391. Yi-Fu Tuan, Topophilia: A Study of Environmental Perception, Attitudes, and Values (New York: Columbia University Press, 1974), 246.
392. Tuan, Topophilia, 75.
393. Tuan, Topophilia, 246.
394. Donald E. Pease, "Author," in Critical Terms for Literary Study, ed. Frank Lentricchia and Thomas McLaughlin (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995), 112.
395. Richard H. Brodhead, Cultures of Letters: Scenes of Reading and Writing in Nineteenth-Century America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993), 9, 8.
396. Gary Snyder, The Practice of the Wild (New York: North Point Press, 1990), 25.
397. Donna J. Haraway, "A Cyborg Manifesto: Science, Technology, and Socialist Feminism in the Late Twentieth Century," in Contemporary Literary Criticism, ed. Robert Con Davis and Ronald Schleifer, 4th ed. (New York: Addison Wesley Longman, 1998), 698.
398. William Cronon, intro., Uncommon Ground: Rethinking the Human Place in Nature, ed. William Cronon (New York: Norton, 1996), 34, 35.
399. Neil Evernden, The Social Construction of Nature (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992), 89.
400. Alexander Wilson, The Culture of Nature: North American Landscape from Disney to the Exxon Valdez (Cambridge ma: Blackwell, 1992), 13, 12.
401. Susan Kollin, Nature's State: Imagining Alaska as the Last Frontier (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001), 28.
402. Alison Byerly, "The Uses of Landscape: The Picturesque Aesthetic and the National Park System," in The Ecocriticism Reader: Landmarks in Literary Ecology, ed. Cheryll Glotfelty and Harold Fromm (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1996), 53.
403. In 1995 Michael E. Soulé and Gary Lease brought out Reinventing Nature? Responses to Postmodern Deconstruction (Washington dc: Island Press, 1995)
404. Gary Snyder, "Nature as Seen from Kitkitdizze Is No 'Social Construction,'" Wild Earth 6, no. 4 (winter 1996-97): 8.
405. Thomas J. Lyon, "A Taxonomy of Nature Writing," in This Incomperable Lande: A Book of American Nature Writing (New York: Penguin, 1989), 16.
406. See Stephen Trimble, Words from the Land: Encounters with Natural History Writing, expanded ed. (Reno: University of Nevada Press, 1995), 372.
407. Barry Lopez, "Landscape and Narrative," in Crossing Open Ground, 65.
408. Henry David Thoreau, Walden, in Henry David Thoreau, ed. Robert F. Sayre (New York: Library of America, 1985), 394.
409. John Muir, The Story of My Boyhood and Youth (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1913), 49-50.
410. Muir, Story of My Boyhood, 49.
411. Muir, Story of My Boyhood, 63.
412. Muir, Story of My Boyhood, 286-87.
413. Snyder, Practice of the Wild, 4-5.
414. See Snyder, Practice of the Wild, 18.
415. David W. Orr, Earth in Mind: On Education, Environment, and the Human Prospect (Washington dc: Island Press, 1994), 146-47.
416. Edward Abbey, Down the River (New York: Penguin, 1982), 111.
417. Abbey, Down the River, 3.
418. Terry Tempest Williams, Pieces of White Shell: A Journey to Navajoland (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1984), 1.
419. Thoreau, Walden, 401.
420. Williams, Refuge, 29.
421. Williams, Unspoken Hunger, 82.
422. Quoted in Trimble, Words from the Land, 3.
423. Barry Lopez, Arctic Dreams: Imagination and Desire in a Northern Landscape (New York: Scribner's, 1986), 277-78.
424. Gary Snyder, "Language Goes Two Ways," in A Place in Space: Ethics, Aesthetics, and Watersheds (Washington dc: Counterpoint, 1995), 174.
425. Here in the words of Myra Jehlen, summarizing Karl Mannheim. Myra Jehlen, "Introduction: Beyond Transcendence," in Ideology and Classic American Literature, ed. Sacvan Bercovitch and Myra Jehlen (New York: Cambridge University Press 1986), 12.
426. Tuan, Topophilia, 246.
427. Lopez, Crossing Open Ground, 81.
428. Mary Austin, Earth Horizon: Autobiography (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1991), 71.
429. Quoted in Esther Lanigan Stineman, Mary Austin: Song of a Maverick (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989), 119.
430. Stineman, Mary Austin, 53.
431. Stineman, Mary Austin, 95.
432. Stineman, Mary Austin, 124.
433. Bendix, In Search of Authenticity, 47.
434. Melody Graulich, "A Book You Could Walk Around In," afterword to Earth Horizon: Autobiography, by Mary Austin (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1991), 379.
435. Stineman, Mary Austin, 207.
436. Marjorie Pryse, intro., Mary Austin, Stories from the Country of Lost Borders (New Brunswick nj: Rutgers University Press, 1987), xix.
437. Mary Austin, The Land of Little Rain (New York: Penguin, 1988), 61.
438. Lawrence Buell, The Environmental Imagination: Thoreau, Nature Writing, and the Formation of American Culture (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1995), 175.
439. Deloria, Playing Indian, 101.
440. Mary Austin, The American Rhythm (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1930), 14.
441. Austin, American Rhythm, 54.
442. Michael J. McDowell, "The Bakhtinian Road to Ecological Insight," in The Ecocriticism Reader: Landmarks in Literary Ecology, ed. Cheryll Glotfelty and Harold Fromm (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1996), 372.
443. Susan J. Rosowski, "Willa Cather's Ecology of Place," Western American Literature 30, no. 1 (1995): 42.
444. Stineman, Mary Austin, 23.
445. Stineman, Mary Austin, 136.
446. Stineman, Mary Austin, 134.
447. Buell, Environmental Imagination, 178.
448. Buell, Environmental Imagination, 2.
449. Irene Diamond, Fertile Ground: Women, Earth, and the Limits of Control (Boston: Beacon Press, 1994), 30.
450. Jack Turner, The Abstract Wild (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1996), xiv.
451. Doug Peacock, Grizzly Years: In Search of the American Wilderness (New York: Henry Holt, 1990), 5.
452. See Wes Jackson, Becoming Native to This Place (Washington dc: Counterpoint, 1996).
453. Max Oelschlaeger, The Idea of Wilderness: From Prehistory to the Age of Ecology (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1991), 301.
454. Gregory Bateson, Mind and Nature: A Necessary Unity (New York: Dutton, 1979), 11.
455. Buell, Environmental Imagination, 2.
456. Kollin, Nature's State, 177.
457. Neil Evernden, The Natural Alien: Humankind and Environment [Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1985], 124).
458. Donna J. Haraway, Simians, Cyborgs, and Women: The Reinvention of Nature (New York: Routledge, 1991) 150, 151.
459. Umberto Eco, "Travels in Hyperreality," in Travels in Hyperreality, trans. William Weaver (New York: Harcourt, 1986), 30-31.
460. Don D. Walker, "Can the Western Tell What Happens?" in Interpretive Approaches to Western American Literature, ed. Daniel Alkofer et al. (Pocatello: Idaho State University Press, 1972), 33, 34.
461. Mark Poster, Cultural History and Postmodernity: Disciplinary Readings and Challenges (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997), 9.
462. Michael Hames-García, "Dr. Gonzo's Carnival: The Testimonial Satires of Oscar Zeta Acosta," American Literature 72, no. 3 (2000): 464.
463. See Satya P. Mohanty, Literary Theory and the Claims of History: Postmodernism, Objectivity, Multicultural Politics (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1997), 229, 230.
464. See also Brandon Taylor's "argument for realism" in Modernism, Post-Modernism, Realism (Winchester uk: Winchester School of Art Press, 1987).
465. Lee Clark Mitchell, Westerns: Making the Man in Fiction and Film (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996), 6.
466. Jean Baudrillard, Simulacra and Simulation, trans. Sheila Faria Glaser (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1994), 12.
467. Christopher Norris, What's Wrong with Postmodernism? Critical Theory and the Ends of Philosophy (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990), 174.
468. Fredric Jameson, The Cultural Turn: Selected Writings on the Postmodern, 1983-1998 (New York: Verson, 1998), 20.
469. Baudrillard, Simulacra, 1.
470. Jorge Luis Borges, "Tlön, Uqbar, Orbis Tertius," in Ficciones, ed. Anthony Kerrigan (New York: Grove, 1962), 32.
471. Borges, "Tlön, Uqbar, Orbis Tertius," 34.
472. Fredric Jameson, Postmodernism, or, The Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism (Durham: Duke University Press, 1991), 18.
473. Krista Comer, Landscapes of the New West: Gender and Geography in Contemporary Women's Writing (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1999), 5.
474. Thomas Pynchon, The Crying of Lot 49 (New York: Harper and Row, 1986), 78.
475. Forrest G. Robinson, "Clio Bereft of Calliope: Literature and the New Western History," in The New Western History: The Territory Ahead, ed. Forrest G. Robinson (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1997), 82.
476. Michael Kowalewski, "Writing in Place: The New American Regionalism," American Literary History 6, no. 1 (1994): 171.
477. Kowalewski, "Writing in Place," 175.
478. Michel Foucault, "What Is an Author?" in The Foucault Reader, ed. Paul Rabinow (New York: Pantheon, 1984), 105.
479. Foucault, "What Is an Author?" 119.
480. Martin Padget, "Claiming, Corrupting, Contesting: Reconsidering 'The West' in Western American Literature," American Literary History 10, no. 2 (summer 1998): 380-81.
481. Comer, Landscapes of the New West, 13.
482. Foucault, "What Is an Author?" 110.
483. Jerome Klinkowitz and James Knowlton, Peter Handke and the Postmodern Transformation: The Goalie's Journey Home (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1983), 3.
484. Jameson, Postmodernism, 368.
485. Jameson, Postmodernism, 369.
486. Comer, Landscapes of the New West, 11.
487. Richard Ford, interview by Gregory L. Morris, in Talking Up a Storm: Voices of the New West, ed. Gregory L. Morris (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1994), 112.
488. Morris, Talking Up a Storm, 112-13.
489. Martin Padget, "Claiming, Corrupting, Contesting," 382.
490. Norma C. Wilson, The Nature of Native American Poetry (Albuquerque: University New Mexico Press, 2001), ix.
491. Simon Ortiz, interview by Laura Coltelli, in Winged Words: American Indian Writers Speak, ed. Laura Coltelli (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1990), 115.
492. Arnold Krupat, "Scholarship and Native American Studies: A Response to Daniel Littlefield, Jr."
493. Arnold Krupat, "Scholarship and Native American Studies: A Response to Daniel Littlefield, Jr.," American Studies 34, no. 2 (1993): 81.
494. Gerald Vizenor, Fugitive Poses: Native American Indian Scenes of Absence and Presence (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1998), 14.
495. Jana Sequoya-Magdaleno, "Telling the différance: Representations of Identity in the Discourse of Indianness," in The Ethnic Canon: Histories, Institutions, and Interventions, ed. David Palumbo-Liu (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1995), 88.
496. Louis Owens, Other Destinies: Understanding the American Indian Novel (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1992), 4.
497. Vizenor, Fugitive Poses, 15.
498. Gerald Vizenor, Manifest Manners: Narratives on Postindian Survivance (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1994), vii.
499. Vizenor, Fugitive Poses, 27.
500. Lisa Aldred, "Plastic Shamans and Astroturf Sun Dances: New Age Commercialization of Native American Spirituality," American Indian Quarterly: Journal of American Indian Studies 24, no. 3 (2000): 329.
501. Aldred, "Plastic Shamans," 343.
502. Sherman Alexie, "The Unauthorized Autobiography of Me," in Here First: Autobiographical Essays by Native American Writers, ed. Arnold Krupat and Brian Swann (New York: Modern Library, 2000), 10.
503. D.H. Lawrence, Studies in Classic American Literature (New York: Viking, 1961), 36
504. Vizenor, Fugitive Poses, 41.
505. Arnold Krupat, The Turn to the Native (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1996), 19.
506. Louis Owens, Mixedblood Messages: Literature, Film, Family, Place (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1998), 44.
507. Susan Bernardin, "The Authenticity Game: 'Getting Real' in Contemporary American Indian Literature," in True West (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, forthcoming).
508. Michael Yellow Bird, "What We Want to Be Called: Indigenous Peoples' Perspectives on Racial and Ethnic Identity Labels," American Indian Quarterly: Journal of American Indian Studies 23, no. 2 (spring 1999): 1-21.
509. Owens, Mixedblood Messages, 9.
510. Owens, Mixedblood Messages, 42.
511. In Indian Nation: Native American Literature and Nineteenth-Century Nationalisms (Durham: Duke University Press, 1997)
512. Susan Berry Brill de Ramírez, Contemporary American Indian Literatures and the Oral Tradition (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1999), 1.
513. Elizabeth Cook-Lynn, interview by Gregory L. Morris, in Talking Up a Storm, 37-38.
514. David Palumbo-Liu, intro., The Ethnic Canon: Histories, Institutions, and Interventions, ed. David Palumbo-Liu (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1995), 13.
515. Sequoya-Magdaleno, "Telling the différance," 93-94.
516. Owens, Other Destinies, 169.
517. Owens, Other Destinies, 169-70.
518. Paula Gunn Allen, "Special Problems in Teaching Leslie Marmon Silko's Ceremony," American Indian Quarterly: Journal of American Indian Studies 14, no. 4 (1990): 383.
519. Krupat, Turn to the Native, 22.
520. Allen, "Special Problems," 384.
521. Philip J. Deloria, Playing Indian (New Haven ct: Yale University Press, 1998), 101.
522. Elizabeth Cook-Lynn, Why I Can't Read Wallace Stegner and Other Essays (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1996), 96.
523. Walker, Indian Nation, 16.
524. Harold Bloom, Kabbalah and Criticism (New York: Continuum, 1984), 100.
525. Gerald Vizenor, "A Postmodern Introduction," in Narrative Chance: Postmodern Discourse on Native American Indian Literatures, ed. Gerald Vizenor (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1993), 5.
526. Krupat, Turn to the Native, 17.
527. Elizabeth Cook-Lynn, "How Scholarship Defames the Native Voice . . . and Why," Wicazo Sa Review: A Journal of Native American Studies 15, no. 2 (2000): 91.
528. Krupat, Turn to the Native, 11-13
529. Palumbo-Liu, Ethnic Canon, 2.
530. Palumbo-Liu, Ethnic Canon, 3.
531. Daniel F. Littlefield Jr., "American Indians, American Scholars and the American Literary Canon," American Studies 33, no. 2 (1992): 104.
532. Bernardin, "Authenticity Game." 80.
533. Palumbo-Liu, Ethnic Canon, 12.
534. Arnold Krupat, Ethnocriticism: Ethnography History Literature (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992), 25.
535. Arnold Krupat and Brian Swann, intro., Here First: Autobiographical Essays by Native American Writers, ed. Arnold Krupat and Brian Swann (New York: Modern Library, 2000), xii, xiii.
536. Larry McMurtry, "Chopping Down the Sacred Tree," in Sacagawea's Nickname: Essays on the American West (New York: New York Review of Books, 2001), 45.
537. Ward Churchill, Fantasies of the Master Race: Literature, Cinema and the Colonization of American Indians, rev. ed. (San Francisco: City Lights, 1998), 102.
538. Churchill, Fantasies of the Master Race, 103, 104.
539. Sidner Larson, Captured in the Middle: Tradition and Experience in Contemporary Native American Writing (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2000), 48.
540. Larson, Captured in the Middle, 41.
541. Craig S. Womack, Red on Red: Native American Literary Separatism (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1999), 3.
542. Womack, Red on Red, 3.
543. Womack, Red on Red, 5.
544. bell hooks, "Postmodern Blackness," in Postmodern American Fiction: A Norton Anthology, ed. Paula Geyh, Fred G. Leebron, and Andrew Levy (New York: Norton, 1998), 628.
545. Cook-Lynn, Why I Can't Read Wallace Stegner, 82.
546. Elizabeth Cook-Lynn, interview by Gregory L. Morris, in Talking Up a Storm, 35.
547. Cook-Lynn, Why I Can't Read Wallace Stegner, 92- 93.
548. Cook-Lynn, Why I Can't Read Wallace Stegner, 77.
549. Cook-Lynn, Why I Can't Read Wallace Stegner, 96.
550. Joy Harjo, interview by Laura Coltelli, in Winged Words, 61.
551. Louise Erdrich, interview by Laura Coltelli, in Winged Words, 47.
552. Krupat, Ethnocriticism, 7, 9.
553. Krupat, Ethnocriticism, 9.
554. Krupat, Turn to the Native, 28.
555. Owens, Other Destinies, 19.
556. Owens, Other Destinies, 19.
557. Owens, Other Destinies, 11.
558. Owens, Mixedblood Messages, 46.
559. Gerald Vizenor, preface to Narrative Chance: Postmodern Discourse on Native American Indian Literatures, ed. Gerald Vizenor (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1993), x.
560. Vizenor, Manifest Manners, 68.
561. Vizenor, Narrative Chance, xii.
562. Vizenor, Manifest Manners, 15.
563. Simon Ortiz, interview by Laura Coltelli, in Winged Words, 115-16.
564. Gerald Vizenor and A. Robert Lee, Postindian Conversations (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1999), 85.
565. Vizenor, Fugitive Poses, 55.
566. Vizenor, Fugitive Poses, 56.
567. Vizenor and Lee, Postindian Conversations, 57.
568. Owens, Other Destinies, 234.
569. Krupat, Turn to the Native, 65-66 n. 16.
570. Bernardin, "Authenticity Game." 118.
571. Robert Allen Warrior, Tribal Secrets: Recovering American Indian Intellectual Traditions (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1995), xix.
572. Vladimir Nabokov, Strong Opinions (New York: Vintage, 1990), 98.
573. D. Barton Johnson's essay, "Vladimir Nabokov and Captain Mayne Reid," Cycnos 10, no. 1 (1993): 99-106.
574. Vladimir Nabokov, Speak, Memory (New York: Vintage, 1989), 206.
575. Jorge Luis Borges, Collected Fictions, trans. Andrew Hurley (New York: Penguin, 1998), 325.
576. Johnson, "Vladimir Nabokov and Captain Mayne Reid," 105.
577. Gerd Gemünden, "Travelling Subjects, Moving Images: Peter Handke's America," Seminar: A Journal of Germanic Studies 31, no. 1 (February 1995): 34.
578. June Schlueter, The Plays and Novels of Peter Handke (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1981), 93.
579. Gemünden, "Travelling Subjects," 33.
580. Gemünden, "Travelling Subjects," 37.
581. Peter Handke, Short Letter, Long Farewell, trans. Ralph Manheim (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1974), 94.
582. William R. Handley, Marriage, Violence, and the Nation in the American Literary West (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 170.
583. Peter Handke, The Weight of the World, trans. Ralph Manheim (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1984), 143.
584. Baudrillard, Simulacra, 164.
585. Gemünden, "Travelling Subjects," 35.
586. Gemünden, "Travelling Subjects," 37.
587. Schlueter, Plays and Novels of Peter Handke, 105
588. Kurt Fickert, "The Myth of America in Peter Handke's Der kurze Brief zum langen Abschied," German Studies Review 21, no. 1 (February 1998): 37
589. Gemünden, "Travelling Subjects," 47
590. Stanley Kauffmann, review of Der kurze Brief zum langen Abschied, New Republic, 28 September 1974, 30
591. Richard Arthur Firda, Peter Handke (New York: Twayne, 1993), 153.
592. Jameson, Postmodernism, 369.
593. Jameson, Postmodernism, 372.
594. Anita Gates, "Frozen, Tired, Hungry: Ah, the Good Old Days," New York Times, 29 April 2002.
595. Jean Baudrillard, America, trans. Chris Turner (New York: Verso, 1988), 85.
596. Stephen Watt, "Baudrillard's America (And Ours?): Image, Virus, Catastrophe," in Modernity and Mass Culture, ed. James Naremore and Patrick Brantlinger (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1991), 138.
597. C. Carr, "Are You Now or Have You Ever Been?" (Village Voice, 1 November 1988, 38
598. Watt, "Baudrillard's America," 135).
599. Jacques Debrot, conversation with the author, May 2001.
600. Max Westbrook, "The Authentic Western," Western American Literature 13, no. 3 (1978): 214.
601. Dorrit Cohn, The Distinction of Fiction (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999), vii.
602. Vladimir Nabokov, Pale Fire (New York: Vintage, 1962), 130.
603. Jean-François Lyotard, The Postmodern Explained: Correspondence 1982-1985, trans. Don Barry et al., ed. Julian Pefanis and Morgan Thomas (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1992), 101.
604. Lyotard, Postmodern Explained, 102.
605. Lyotard, Postmodern Explained, 105.
606. Don D. Walker, "Can the Western Tell What Happens?" in Interpretive Approaches to Western American Literature, ed. Daniel Alkofer et al. (Pocatello: Idaho State University Press, 1972), 34.
607. Don W. Walker, "Criticism of the Cowboy Novel: Retrospect and Reflections," Western American Literature 11, no. 4 (1977): 275.
608. Catherine Belsey, "English Studies in the Postmodern Condition: Towards a Place for the Signifier," in Post-Theory: New Directions in Criticism, ed. Martin McQuillan et al. (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1999), 130 -31.
609. Michael Kowalewski, Deadly Musings: Violence and Verbal Form in American Fiction (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993), 4.
610. Stephen Tatum, commentary on The Authentic Death of Hendry Jones, by Charles Neider (Reno: University of Nevada Press, 1993), 210.
611. "Guidelines for Studying the Way," trans. Ed Brown and Kazuaki Tanahashi, in Moon in a Dewdrop: Writings of Zen Master Do-gen, ed. Kazuaki Tanahashi (New York: North Point Press, 1985), 43.
612. Michel Foucault, The Order of Things: An Archaeology of the Human Sciences (New York: Vintage, 1973), xviii.
613. The Cultures of the American New West (Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn, 2000)
614. Foucault, Order of Things, xviii.
615. Foucault, Order of Things, xvii-xviii.
616. Vladimir Nabokov, "On a Book Entitled Lolita," in Lolita (New York: Vintage, 1995), 314-15.
617. Dave Hickey, "Edward Ruscha: Mean Streets Mean Streets," in Metro Plots (Beverly Hills ca: Gagosian Gallery, 1998), n.p.
618. Hickey, "Edward Ruscha," n.p.
619. Dave Hickey, The Invisible Dragon: Four Essays on Beauty (Los Angeles: Art issues Press, 1993), 17.
620. Dave Hickey, Prior Convictions: Stories from the Sixties (Dallas: Southern Methodist University Press, 1989), 171.
621. Hickey, Invisible Dragon, 53.
622. Hickey, Invisible Dragon, 12.
623. Hickey, Invisible Dragon, n.p. (see acknowledgments).
624. Baudrillard, Simulacra, 163.
625. Michael Kimmelman, "In an Unreal City, Real Masterworks Beat the Odds," New York Times, 6 December 1998.
626. Gerald Vizenor, Manifest Manners: Narratives on Postindian Survivance (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1994), xi.